Difference between revisions of "Anubis" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Anubis standing.jpg|thumb|right|140px|Anubis]]
 
[[Image:Anubis standing.jpg|thumb|right|140px|Anubis]]
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'''Anubis''' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the ancient [[jackal]]-headed [[god]] of the dead in [[Egyptian mythology]] whose [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]]ic version is more accurately spelled ''Anpu'' (also ''Anupu'', ''Anbu'', ''Wip'', ''Ienpw'', ''Inepu'', ''Yinepu'', ''Inpu'', or ''Inpw''). He is also known as ''Sekhem Em Pet''. Prayers to Anubis have been found carved on the most ancient tombs in Egypt; indeed, the [[Unas]] text (line 70) associates him with the [[Eye of Horus]]. He serves as both a guide of the recently departed and a guardian of the dead, though his primary role is as the patron of embalmers and mummification.
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'''Anubis''' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the ancient [[jackal]]-headed [[god]] of the dead in [[Egyptian mythology]] whose [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]]ic version is more accurately spelled ''Anpu'' (also ''Anupu,'' ''Anbu,'' ''Wip,'' ''Ienpw,'' ''Inepu,'' ''Yinepu,'' ''Inpu,'' or ''Inpw''). He is also known as ''Sekhem Em Pet.'' Prayers to Anubis have been found carved on the most ancient tombs in Egypt; indeed, the [[Unas]] text (line 70) associates him with the [[Eye of Horus]].<ref>Budge (1969), Vol. II, 261.</ref> He serves as both a guide to the recently departed and as the patron of embalmers and mummification, though his primary role is as the guardian and judge of the dead.
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{{toc}}
 
==Anubis in an Egyptian Context==
 
==Anubis in an Egyptian Context==
 
{{Hiero|Anubis|<hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
 
{{Hiero|Anubis|<hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
 
{{main|Egyptian Religion}}
 
{{main|Egyptian Religion}}
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As an Egyptian deity, Anubis belonged to a complex religious, mythological and cosmological belief system developed in the [[Nile]] river basin from earliest prehistory to 525 B.C.E.<ref>This particular "cut-off" date has been chosen because it corresponds to the Persian conquest of the kingdom, which marks the end of its existence as a discrete and (relatively) circumscribed cultural sphere. Indeed, as this period also saw an influx of immigrants from Greece, it was also at this point that the Hellenization of Egyptian religion began. While some scholars suggest that even when "these beliefs became remodeled by contact with Greece, in essentials they remained what they had always been" (Erman, 203), it still seems reasonable to address these traditions, as far as is possible, within their own cultural milieu.</ref> Indeed, it was during this relatively late period in Egyptian cultural development, a time when they first felt their beliefs threatened by foreigners, that many of their myths, legends and religious beliefs were first recorded.<ref>The numerous inscriptions, stelae and papyri that resulted from this sudden stress on historical posterity provide much of the evidence used by modern archeologists and Egyptologists to approach the ancient Egyptian tradition (Pinch, 31-32).</ref> The cults within this framework, whose beliefs comprise the myths we have before us, were generally fairly localized phenomena, with different deities having the place of honor in different communities.<ref>These local groupings often contained a particular number of deities and were often constructed around the incontestably primary character of a creator god (Meeks and Meeks-Favard, 34-37).</ref>  Despite this apparently unlimited diversity, however, the gods (unlike those in many other pantheons) were relatively ill-defined. As Frankfort notes, “the Egyptian gods are imperfect as individuals. If we compare two of them … we find, not two personages, but two sets of functions and emblems. … The hymns and prayers addressed to these gods differ only in the epithets and attributes used. There is no hint that the hymns were addressed to individuals differing in character.”<ref>Frankfort, 25-26.</ref> One reason for this was the undeniable fact that the Egyptian gods were seen as utterly [[immanent|immanental]]&mdash;they represented (and were continuous with) particular, discrete elements of the natural world.<ref>Zivie-Coche, 40-41; Frankfort, 23, 28-29.</ref> Thus, those who did develop characters and mythologies were generally quite portable, as they could retain their discrete forms without interfering with the various cults already in practice elsewhere. Also, this flexibility was what permitted the development of multipartite cults (i.e. the cult of [[Amun-Re]], which unified the domains of [[Amun]] and [[Re]]), as the spheres of influence of these various deities were often complimentary.<ref>Frankfort, 20-21.</ref>
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As an Egyptian deity, Ra belonged to a complex religious, mythological and cosmological belief system developed in the [[Nile]] river basin from earliest prehistory to 525 BCE.<ref>This particular "cut-off" date has been chosen because it corresponds to the Persian conquest of the kingdom, which marks the end of its existence as a discrete and (relatively) circumscribed cultural sphere. Indeed, as this period also saw an influx of immigrants from Greece, it was also at this point that the Hellenization of Egyptian religion began. While some scholars suggest that even when "these beliefs became remodeled by contact with Greece, in essentials they remained what they had always been" (Erman, 203), it still seems reasonable to address these traditions, as far as is possible, within their own cultural milieu.</ref> Indeed, it was during this relatively late period in Egyptian cultural development, a time when they first felt their beliefs threatened by foreigners, that many of their myths, legends and religious beliefs were first recorded.<ref>The numerous inscriptions, stelae and papyri that resulted from this sudden stress on historical posterity provide much of the evidence used by modern archeologists and Egyptologists to approach the ancient Egyptian tradition (Pinch, 31-32).</ref> The cults within this framework, whose beliefs comprise the myths we have before us, were generally fairly localized phenomena, with different deities having the place of honor in different communities.<ref>These local groupings often contained a particular number of deities and were often constructed around the incontestably primary character of a creator god (Meeks and Meeks-Favard, 34-37).</ref>  Despite this apparently unlimited diversity, however, the gods (unlike those in many other pantheons) were relatively ill-defined. As Frankfort notes, "the Egyptian gods are imperfect as individuals. If we compare two of them … we find, not two personages, but two sets of functions and emblems. … The hymns and prayers addressed to these gods differ only in the epithets and attributes used. There is no hint that the hymns were addressed to individuals differing in character."<ref>Frankfort, 25-26.</ref> One reason for this was the undeniable fact that the Egyptian gods were seen as utterly [[immanent|immanental]]&mdash;they represented (and were continuous with) particular, discrete elements of the natural world.<ref>Zivie-Coche, 40-41; Frankfort, 23, 28-29.</ref> Thus, those who did develop characters and mythologies were generally quite portable, as they could retain their discrete forms without interfering with the various cults already in practice elsewhere. Also, this flexibility was what permitted the development of multipartite cults (i.e. the cult of [[Amun-Re]], which unified the domains of [[Amun]] and [[Re]]), as the spheres of influence of these various deities were often complimentary.<ref>Frankfort, 20-21.</ref>
  
 
The worldview engendered by ancient Egyptian religion was uniquely appropriate to (and defined by) the geographical and calendrical realities of its believer’s lives. Unlike the beliefs of the [[Hebrews]], [[Mesopotamians]] and others within their cultural sphere, the Egyptians viewed both history and cosmology as being well ordered, cyclical and dependable. As a result, all changes were interpreted as either inconsequential deviations from the cosmic plan or cyclical transformations required by it.<ref>Assmann, 73-80; Zivie-Coche, 65-67; Breasted argues that one source of this cyclical timeline was the dependable yearly fluctuations of the Nile (8, 22-24).</ref> The major result of this perspective, in terms of the religious imagination, was to reduce the relevance of the present, as the entirety of history (when conceived of cyclically) was ultimately defined during the creation of the cosmos. The only other aporia in such an understanding is death, which seems to present a radical break with continuity. To maintain the integrity of this worldview, an intricate system of practices and beliefs (including the extensive mythic geographies of the afterlife, texts providing moral guidance (for this life and the next) and rituals designed to facilitate the transportation into the afterlife) was developed, whose primary purpose was to emphasize the unending continuation of existence.<ref>Frankfort, 117-124; Zivie-Coche, 154-166.</ref> Given these two cultural foci, it is understandable that the tales recorded within this mythological corpus tend to be either creation accounts or depictions of the world of the dead and of the gods place within it.
 
The worldview engendered by ancient Egyptian religion was uniquely appropriate to (and defined by) the geographical and calendrical realities of its believer’s lives. Unlike the beliefs of the [[Hebrews]], [[Mesopotamians]] and others within their cultural sphere, the Egyptians viewed both history and cosmology as being well ordered, cyclical and dependable. As a result, all changes were interpreted as either inconsequential deviations from the cosmic plan or cyclical transformations required by it.<ref>Assmann, 73-80; Zivie-Coche, 65-67; Breasted argues that one source of this cyclical timeline was the dependable yearly fluctuations of the Nile (8, 22-24).</ref> The major result of this perspective, in terms of the religious imagination, was to reduce the relevance of the present, as the entirety of history (when conceived of cyclically) was ultimately defined during the creation of the cosmos. The only other aporia in such an understanding is death, which seems to present a radical break with continuity. To maintain the integrity of this worldview, an intricate system of practices and beliefs (including the extensive mythic geographies of the afterlife, texts providing moral guidance (for this life and the next) and rituals designed to facilitate the transportation into the afterlife) was developed, whose primary purpose was to emphasize the unending continuation of existence.<ref>Frankfort, 117-124; Zivie-Coche, 154-166.</ref> Given these two cultural foci, it is understandable that the tales recorded within this mythological corpus tend to be either creation accounts or depictions of the world of the dead and of the gods place within it.
  
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Because of his role in the process of embalming and mummification, Anubis played an extensive role in Egyptian religious thought and practice. Further, he is one of the more popular deities in artistic representations.
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Because of his role in the process of embalming and mummification, Anubis played an extensive role in Egyptian religious thought and practice. Further, he was consistently one of the more popular deities to be represented in artistic media.
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==Visual Representations==
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In temple inscriptions and other artistic depictions, Anubis was portrayed as a jackal-headed humanoid<ref>Unlike many other Egyptian deities, there are virtually no images of Anubis as a fully anthropomorphized deity (Wilkinson, 189).</ref> or as a [[jackal]]-like creature bearing the symbols of the god (typically a [[flagellum]]) in the crook of its arm. As Wilkinson notes, "the animal bears certain traits of the dog family such as the long muzzle, its round-pupilled eyes, five-toed forefeet and four-toed hind feet, while on the other hand, its tail is wide and club shaped and characteristically carried down more like that of the jackal, fox, or wolf. It is therefore possible that the original Anubis animal was a hybrid form, perhaps a jackal crossed with some type of dog."<ref>Wilkinson, 188-189.</ref> The animal symbolism (or explicit identification) of Anubis as canine is based upon the observed behavior of such creatures in the Egyptian desert, as "the jackals and dogs who lived on the edge of the desert were carrion eaters who might dig up shallowly buried corpses."<ref>Pinch, 104.</ref> Thus, the jackal god was specifically appealed to as a defender of the deceased against the depredations of his bestial brethren. Further, the black color of Anubis, which does not correspond to the deity’s canine antecedent, was evidently chosen for its symbolic associations. To the Egyptians, black was the color of death, night, and regeneration (especially through the fertile earth), and was also the skin tone of mummified flesh.<ref>Wilkinson, 189.</ref>
  
 
==Mythic Accounts==
 
==Mythic Accounts==
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===God of the dead===
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===Characterization and Relationships===
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Originally, in the [[Ogdoad]] system, he was god of the [[duat|underworld]]. He was said to have a wife, ''Anput'' (who was really just his female aspect, her name being his with an additional feminine [[Affix|suffix]]: the ''t''), who was depicted exactly the same, though feminine. He is also listed to have taken to wife the feminine form of Neheb Kau, Nehebka, and [[Kebechet|Kebauet]]. Kebauet, the Goddess of cold water, is also listed as his daughter in some places. His father was originally Ra in many papyrus records which were found in pyramids.(Anubis is fourth son of Ra.) But in after ages, his father was said to be [[Osiris]], as he was the god of the dead, and his mother was said to be [[Nephthys]]. Anubis was identified as the father of Kebechet, the goddess of the purification of body organs due to be placed in [[canopic jar]]s during [[Mummy|mummification]].
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Originally, in the [[Ogdoad]] system, Anubis was god of the [[duat|underworld]]. He was said to have a wife, ''Anput'' (who was really just his female aspect, her name being his with an additional feminine [[Affix|suffix]]: ''t'').<ref>Pinch, 104.</ref> In many papyrus records found in pyramids, Anubis is said to be the fourth son of Ra, though in later ages he came to be affiliated with [[Osiris]]: a more logical attribution given that the latter deity was already seen as the god of the dead. In this tradition, his mother was said to be [[Nephthys]] (though he was "subsequently adopted by [[Isis]] as her own son").<ref>Wilkinson, 187; Pinch, 104.</ref> Anubis was identified as the father of Kebechet, the goddess of the purification of body organs due to be placed in [[canopic jar]]s during [[Mummy|mummification]].<ref>For a mythic reference to the god’s daughter, see the account from the ''Pyramid Texts'' in Breasted, 113.</ref>
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===God of the Dead===
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====Guardian====
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The most archaic form of the Anubis cult viewed the god as was as the guardian of the deceased, saving them from destruction wrought by purification or carrion eaters. Indeed, "for most of the Old Kingdom, Anubis was the most important funerary deity. His figure was carved in tomb entrances to warn off grave robbers at a time when no other deities could be shown in non-royal tombs."<ref>Pinch, 104.</ref> Propitiating this arcane deity meant that one’s ancestors, regardless of class or social stature, would be allowed to rest in peace. As Assmann notes:
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:The god Anubis, for example, had a very specific function, one that is more unequivocally expressed than is the case with most of the other deities of the Egyptian pantheon. He is (like [[Osiris]]) a god of the dead and of the necropolis, though unlike Osiris, he was not the ruler of the dead, but rather the patron of embalmers, mummifiers, and mortuary priests. … Nevertheless, Anubis also had a specific form that separated him from the human realm and related him to a cosmic sphere. … Considered as a force of nature, he was the god of the transitional zone between the world above and the netherworld; this zone was called the "holy land" in Egyptian, and Anubis was its designated lord.<ref>Assmann, 82-82.</ref>
  
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===Patron of Embalmers===
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====Judge====
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Anubis was the guardian of the dead, who greeted the souls in the Underworld and protected them on their journey.  It was he who deemed the deceased worthy of becoming a star.  Ancient Egyptian texts say that Anubis silently walked through the shadows of life and death and lurked in dark places. He was watchful by day as well as by night.  He also weighed the heart of the dead against the feather symbol of [[Ma'at]], the goddess of truth.  One of the reasons that the ancient Egyptians took such care to preserve their dead with sweet-smelling herbs was that it was believed Anubis would check each person with his keen canine nose.  Only if they smelled pure would he allow them to enter the Kingdom of the Dead.
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In a more mythically developed role, Anubis was also understood to be the arbiter of human souls, weighing their purity against the standard of justice&mdash;the golden feather of [[Ma'at]], the goddess of truth. Those souls that passed the test were given renewed life in the [[duat|Underworld]], while those who failed were cast into the gaping maw of the ''Eater of Souls''. In this role, "it is he whose duty it is to examine the tongue of the Great Balance, and to take care that the beam is exactly horizontal. [[Thoth]] acts on behalf of the Great Company of gods, and Anubis not only produces the heart of the deceased for judgment, but also takes care that the body which has been committed to his charge shall not be handed over to the 'Eater of the Dead' by accident."<ref>Budge (1969), Vol. II., 262.</ref>
  
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Following the merging of the [[Ennead]] and Ogdoad belief systems, as a result of the identification of [[Atum]] with Ra, and their compatibility, Anubis became considered a lesser god in the underworld, giving way to the more popular [[Osiris]]. Indeed, when the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]] emerged, it was said that when Osiris had died, Osiris' organs were given to Anubis as a gift.
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This understanding is also attested to in the ''Pyramid Texts'', which state (of the soul of a deceased king):
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Since he had been more associated with beliefs about the weighing of the heart than had Osiris, Anubis retained this aspect, and became considered more the gatekeeper and ruler of the underworld, the "Guardian of the veil" (of "death"). As such, he was said to protect souls as they journeyed there, and thus be the patron of lost souls (and consequently [[orphan]]s). Rather than god of death, he had become god of dying, and consequently funeral arrangements. It was as the god of dying that his identity merged with that of [[Wepwawet]], a similar jackal-headed god, associated with funerary practice, who had been worshiped in [[Upper Egypt]], whereas Anubis' cult had centered in [[Lower Egypt]].
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:Thou goest forth at the voice (of Anubis), for he has spiritualized thee,
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:Like Thot, (or) like Anubis, prince of the court of justice (or, divine court),
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:that thou mayest judge, that thou mayest lean upon the Two Enneads,
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:who are between the two sceptres, in this thy dignity of spirit, commanded by the gods to be in thee (1713b-1714b).<ref>''The Pyramid Texts'' (Utterance 610), translated by Mercer (1952), 261.</ref>
  
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As one of the most important funerary rites in Egypt involved the process of [[embalming]], so it was that Anubis became the god of embalming, in the process gaining titles such as "He who belongs to the mummy wrappings," and "He who is before the divine [embalming] booth." High priests often wore the Anubis mask to perform the ceremonial deeds of embalming. It also became said, frequently in the [[Book of the Dead]], that it had been Anubis who embalmed the dead body of Osiris (which would make him the older sibling of [[Horus]]), with the assistance of the other main funerary deities involved - Nephthys and Isis. Having become god of embalming, Anubis became strongly associated with the (currently) mysterious and ancient [[imiut fetish]], present during funerary rites, and [[Bast (goddess)|Bast]], who by this time was goddess of ointment, initially became thought of as his mother.
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Even after the cult of Anubis became sublimated by the more popular veneration of [[Osiris]] (described below), the jackal god retained the aspect of the divine arbiter.  
  
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No public procession in Egypt would be conducted without an Anubis to march at the head, the "go-between" of gods and men. The ancient Egyptians swore "by the Dog" when making oaths they would not break.
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===Anubis in the [[Isis]]/[[Osiris]] Cycle===
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Following the merging of the [[Ennead]] and [[Ogdoad]] belief systems, Anubis became relegated to lesser status in the organization of the mythic underworld, as he was displaced by the more popular [[Osiris]]. These two cults were brought into alignment by incorporating the jackal god into the complex of myths describing the death and resurrection of Osiris. Specifically, Anubis was credited with preserving the body of the murdered god, which set the stage for its reanimation:
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:Anubis … lord of the Nether World, to whom the westerners (the dead) give praise … him who was in the middle of the mid-heaven, fourth of the sons of Re, who was made to descend from the sky to embalm Osiris, because he was so very worthy in the heart of Re.<ref>The ''Pyramid Texts'' (§1257), quoted in Breasted, 27.</ref>
  
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However, as lesser of the two gods of the underworld, he gradually became considered the son of Osiris, but Osiris' wife, Isis, was not considered his mother, since she too inappropriately was associated with life. Instead, his mother became considered to be [[Nephthys]], who had become strongly associated with funerary practice, indeed had in some ways become the personification of [[mourning]], and was said to supply bandages to the deceased. Subsequently, this apparent infidelity of Osiris was explained in myth, in which it was said that a [[Sexual frustration|sexually frustrated]] Nephthys had disguised herself as Isis in order to appeal to her husband, Set, but he did not notice her as he was [[infertility|infertile]] (some modern versions depict Set as a homosexual, but these have little bearing on the original myth).  However, Isis' husband Osiris mistook Nephthys for his wife, which resulted in Anubis' birth. Other versions of the myth depict Set as the father, and it remains unclear as to whether Set was truly infertile or not.
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In spite of this demotion, Anubis remained an important funerary deity, as many of his original aspects were maintained in the aftermath of the mythic consolidation, including his role as arbiter of the dead, his patronage of embalmers and mortuary priests, and his symbolic representation of the liminal relationship between life and death.
  
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==Later Religious Evaluations==
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===Patron of Embalmers===
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In later times, during the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] period, as their functions were similar, Anubis was identified as the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god [[Hermes]], becoming [[Hermanubis]]. The centre of this [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] was in ''uten-ha''/''Sa-ka''/ [[Cynopolis]], a place whose Greek name simply means "city of dogs." In Book XI of "[[The Golden Ass]]" by [[Apuleius]], we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the [[alchemy|alchemical]] and [[Hermeticism|hermetical]] literature of the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]].
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As one of the most important funerary rites in Egypt involved the process of [[embalming]], so it was that Anubis became the god of embalming, in the process gaining titles such as "He who belongs to the mummy wrappings," and "He who is before the divine [embalming] booth."<ref>Wilkinson, 188.</ref> Having become god of embalming, Anubis became strongly associated with the mysterious and ancient [[imiut fetish]], which was certifiably present during funerary rites, and [[Bast (goddess)|Bast]], who by this time was the goddess of magical ointments.
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In one account (as recorded in the ''Book of the Dead''), Anubis is depicted embalming the corpse of a king, which was seen as a necessary preparatory step prior to the monarch’s eventual resurrection:
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:Anubis, who dwelleth in the region of the embalmed, the chief of the holy house, layeth his hands upon the lord of life [i.e., the mummy], ... and provideth him with all that belongeth unto him, and saith: 'Flail to thee, thou beautiful one, the lord! Thou hast been gazed upon by the Sun's eye, thou hast been bound up by Ptah-Seker, thou hast been made whole by Anubis; breath hath been given unto thee by Shu, and thou hast been raised up by the fair one, the prince of eternity.<ref>''Book of the Dead'' - Plate XXXIII/XXXIV, translated by Budge (1896), 360.</ref>
  
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Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (they mockingly called Anubis the "Barker"), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in heaven, and Cerberus in hell.
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This characterization of Anubis was tremendously relevant to cultic practice in Egypt, as many religious practices centered around the mummification of the beloved dead. When officiating at these ceremonies, high priests often wore an Anubis mask.<ref>Frankfort, 135.</ref> Further, the god was explicitly called upon during the "Opening of the Mouth" ritual,<ref>A ceremony whose purpose was "to give back the mummy the senses it had enjoyed in life" (Pinch, 104).</ref> where the officiant would incant:
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:Thy mouth was closed, but I have set in order for thee thy mouth and thy teeth. I open for thee thy mouth, I open for thee thy two eyes. I have opened for thee thy mouth with the instrument of Anubis. I have opened thy mouth with the instrument of Anubis, with the iron tool with which the mouths of the gods were opened. Horus, open the mouth, Horus, open the mouth. Horus hath opened the mouth of the dead, as he whilom opened the mouth of Osiris, with the iron which came forth from Set, with the iron tool with which he opened the mouths of the gods. He hath opened thy mouth with it. The dead shall walk and shall speak, and his body shall [be] with the great company of the gods in the Great House of the Aged one in Annu, and he shall receive there the ureret crown from Horus, the lord of mankind.<ref>''Book of the Dead'' - Plate V/VI, translated by Budge (1896), 267.</ref>
  
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Early Christians were also repulsed by Anubis; the writer Tertillian claimed that the Egyptians practiced a "despicable religion" in which the worshiper is "led like a slave by the greedy throat and filthy habits of a dog." Although it is true that his two emblematic creatures, the jackal and the dog, were in the ancient world notorious scavengers, one of the main functions of Anubis was to release the human body at death from the uncleanness that possessed it. He washed the body, embalmed it, perfumed it with myrrh, wrapped it with clean linen and received it at the door of the tomb – to the Egyptians he was "Lord of the Cleansing Room."  As the Greeks and Christians did not embalm the bodies of their dead (and death itself was considered to be a terrifying thing), they associated the holy Anubis with disease and decay.
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==Later Religious Evaluations==
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In later times, during the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] period, Anubis was identified as the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god [[Hermes]], as their functions were similar, becoming [[Hermanubis]]. The center of this [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] was in ''uten-ha''/''Sa-ka''/ [[Cynopolis]], a place whose Greek name simply means "City of Dogs." Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (they mockingly called Anubis the "Barker"), Anubis was sometimes associated with [[Sirius]] in [[heaven]], and [[Cerberus]] in [[hell]]. This incorporation is attested to in Book XI of "[[The Golden Ass]]" by [[Apuleius]], where we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the second century.<ref>Budge (1969), Vol. II, 265-266.</ref> Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the [[alchemy|alchemical]] and [[Hermeticism|hermetical]] literature of the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]].<ref>Zofia Ameisenowa, "Animal-Headed Gods, Evangelists, Saints and Righteous Men," ''Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes'', Vol. 12 (1949), pp. 21-45. 43-45.</ref>
  
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==Representations==
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Anubis also repulsed early Christians. For instance, the writer [[Tertullian]] used the character of the jackal god to mount a polemic against what he sees as the primitive nature of their religious beliefs:
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Anubis was portrayed as a jackal-headed man, or as a jackal wearing ribbons and holding a flagellum in the crook of its arm.  Some think that he was not pictured as a jackal but as a dog, fox, wolf, or hybrid instead.  Very rarely is he ever shown fully human.  Anubis was always shown as a black jackal or dog, even though real jackals are typically tan or a light brown.  To the Egyptians black was the color of regeneration, death, and the night. It was also the color that the body turned during mummification. The reason for Anubis' animal being canine is based on what the ancient Egyptians themselves observed of the creature - dogs and jackals often haunted the edges of the desert, especially near the cemeteries where the dead were buried. In fact, it is thought that the Egyptians began the practice of making elaborate graves and tombs to protect the dead from desecration by jackals.
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: Since, however, they had begun to worship both wild animals and human beings, they combined both figures under one form Anubis, in which there may rather be seen clear proofs of its own character and condition enshrined148 by a nation at war with itself, refractory149 to its kings, despised among foreigners, with even the appetite of a slave and the filthy nature of a dog.<ref>Tertullian, ''Ad Nationes'' Book II:8, available online at [http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-16.htm#TopOfPage tertullian.org]. Retrieved June 28, 2007.</ref>
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 42: Line 60:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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* Assmann, Jan. ''In search for God in ancient Egypt''. Translated by David Lorton. Ithica: Cornell University Press, 2001. ISBN 0801487293.
 
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* Breasted, James Henry. ''Development of religion and thought in ancient Egypt''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. ISBN 0812210454.
 
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* Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). ''The Egyptian Book of the Dead''. 1895. Accessed at [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/ebod/index.htm  sacred-texts.com].
 
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* Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). ''The Egyptian Heaven and Hell''. 1905. Accessed at [www.sacred-texts.com/egy/ehh.htm sacred-texts.com].
 
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* Budge, E. A. Wallis. ''The gods of the Egyptians; or, Studies in Egyptian mythology''. A Study in Two Volumes. New York: Dover Publications, 1969.
 
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* Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). ''Legends of the Gods: The Egyptian texts''. 1912. Accessed at [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/leg/index.htm sacred-texts.com].
 
−
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). ''The Rosetta Stone''. 1893, 1905. Accessed at [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/trs/index.htm sacred-texts.com].
 
−
* Dennis, James Teackle (translator). ''The Burden of Isis''. 1910. Accessed at [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/boi/index.htm sacred-texts.com].
 
−
* Dunand, Françoise and Zivie-Coche, Christiane. ''Gods and men in Egypt: 3000 B.C.E. to 395 C.E.''. Translated from the French by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004. ISBN 080144165X.
 
−
* Erman, Adolf. ''A handbook of Egyptian religion''. Translated by A. S. Griffith. London: Archibald Constable, 1907.
 
−
* Frankfort, Henri. ''Ancient Egyptian Religion''. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961. ISBN 0061300772.
 
−
* Griffith, F. Ll. and Thompson, Herbert (translators). ''The Leyden Papyrus''. 1904. Accessed at [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/dmp/index.htm sacred-texts.com].
 
−
* Meeks, Dimitri and Meeks-Favard, Christine. ''Daily life of the Egyptian gods''. Translated from the French by G.M. Goshgarian. Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press, 1996. ISBN 0801431158.
 
−
* Mercer, Samuel A. B. (translator). ''The Pyramid Texts''. 1952. Accessed online at [www.sacred-texts.com/egy/pyt/index.htm sacred-texts.com].
 
−
* Pinch, Geraldine. ''Handbook of Egyptian mythology''. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2002. ISBN 1576072428.
 
−
* Shafer, Byron E. (editor). ''Temples of ancient Egypt''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997. ISBN 0801433991.
 
−
* Wilkinson, Richard H. ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt''. London: Thames and Hudson, 2003. ISBN 0500051208.
 
  
−
==External links==
+
* Assmann, Jan. ''In Search for God in Ancient Egypt.'' Ithica: Cornell University. 2001. ISBN 0801487293
−
* [http://www.egyptianmyths.net/ Ancient Egypt: the Mythology - Anubis] Retrieved June 25, 2007.
+
* Breasted, James Henry. ''Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt.'' Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. 1986.
−
* [http://www.aldokkan.com/religion/anibus.htm Anubis the Lord of Death - Aldokkan ] Retrieved June 25, 2007.
+
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). ''The Egyptian Book of the Dead.'' 1895. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/ebod/index.htm The Book of the Dead.] Retrieved June 28, 2007.
−
* [http://www.per-yinepu.org/ ''Per-Yinepu'':] [[Per (hieroglyph)|Per]] Yinepu, the temple of Anubis. Retrieved June 25, 2007.
+
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). ''The Egyptian Heaven and Hell.'' 1905. [www.sacred-texts.com/egy/ehh.htm The Egyptian Heaven and Hell.] Retrieved June 28, 2007.
 +
* Budge, E. A. Wallis. ''The Gods of the Egyptians,'' or ''Studies in Egyptian Mythology.'' A Study in Two Volumes. New York: Dover Publications. 1969.
 +
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). ''Legends of the Gods: The Egyptian Texts.'' 1912. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/leg/index.htm Legends of the Gods.] Retrieved June 28, 2007.
 +
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). ''The Rosetta Stone.'' 1893, 1905. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/trs/index.htm The Rosetta Stone.] Retrieved June 28, 2007.
 +
* Dennis, James Teackle (translator). ''The Burden of Isis.'' 1910. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/boi/index.htm The Burden of Isis.] Retrieved June 28, 2007.
 +
* Dunand, Françoise, and Zivie-Coche, Christiane. ''Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 B.C.E. to 395 C.E.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. 2004. ISBN 080144165X
 +
* Erman, Adolf. ''A Handbook of Egyptian Religion.'' London: Archibald Constable. 1907.
 +
* Frankfort, Henri. ''Ancient Egyptian Religion.'' New York: Harper Torchbooks. 1961. ISBN 0061300772
 +
* Griffith, F. Ll., and Thompson, Herbert (translators). ''The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden.'' 1904. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/dmp/index.htm The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden.] Retrieved June 28, 2007.
 +
* Meeks, Dimitri, and Meeks-Favard, Christine. ''Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. 1996. ISBN 0801431158
 +
* Mercer, Samuel A. B. (translator). ''The Pyramid Texts.'' 1952. [www.sacred-texts.com/egy/pyt/index.htm The Pyramid Texts.] Retrieved June 28, 2007.
 +
* Pinch, Geraldine. ''Handbook of Egyptian Mythology.'' Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 2002. ISBN 1576072428
 +
* Shafer, Byron E. (editor). ''Temples of Ancient Egypt.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. 1997. ISBN 0801433991
 +
* Wilkinson, Richard H. ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt.'' London: Thames and Hudson. 2003. ISBN 0500051208
 +
 
 +
==External Links==
 +
All links retrieved August 11, 2023.
 +
 
 +
* McDevitt, April. [http://www.egyptianmyths.net/anubis.htm Ancient Egypt: the Mythology – Anubis.]
 +
 
  
 
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]

Latest revision as of 05:49, 11 August 2023

Anubis

Anubis is the Greek name for the ancient jackal-headed god of the dead in Egyptian mythology whose hieroglyphic version is more accurately spelled Anpu (also Anupu, Anbu, Wip, Ienpw, Inepu, Yinepu, Inpu, or Inpw). He is also known as Sekhem Em Pet. Prayers to Anubis have been found carved on the most ancient tombs in Egypt; indeed, the Unas text (line 70) associates him with the Eye of Horus.[1] He serves as both a guide to the recently departed and as the patron of embalmers and mummification, though his primary role is as the guardian and judge of the dead.

Anubis in an Egyptian Context

Anubis
in hieroglyphs
in
p		 wE16

As an Egyptian deity, Ra belonged to a complex religious, mythological and cosmological belief system developed in the Nile river basin from earliest prehistory to 525 B.C.E.[2] Indeed, it was during this relatively late period in Egyptian cultural development, a time when they first felt their beliefs threatened by foreigners, that many of their myths, legends and religious beliefs were first recorded.[3] The cults within this framework, whose beliefs comprise the myths we have before us, were generally fairly localized phenomena, with different deities having the place of honor in different communities.[4] Despite this apparently unlimited diversity, however, the gods (unlike those in many other pantheons) were relatively ill-defined. As Frankfort notes, "the Egyptian gods are imperfect as individuals. If we compare two of them … we find, not two personages, but two sets of functions and emblems. … The hymns and prayers addressed to these gods differ only in the epithets and attributes used. There is no hint that the hymns were addressed to individuals differing in character."[5] One reason for this was the undeniable fact that the Egyptian gods were seen as utterly immanental—they represented (and were continuous with) particular, discrete elements of the natural world.[6] Thus, those who did develop characters and mythologies were generally quite portable, as they could retain their discrete forms without interfering with the various cults already in practice elsewhere. Also, this flexibility was what permitted the development of multipartite cults (i.e. the cult of Amun-Re, which unified the domains of Amun and Re), as the spheres of influence of these various deities were often complimentary.[7]

The worldview engendered by ancient Egyptian religion was uniquely appropriate to (and defined by) the geographical and calendrical realities of its believer’s lives. Unlike the beliefs of the Hebrews, Mesopotamians and others within their cultural sphere, the Egyptians viewed both history and cosmology as being well ordered, cyclical and dependable. As a result, all changes were interpreted as either inconsequential deviations from the cosmic plan or cyclical transformations required by it.[8] The major result of this perspective, in terms of the religious imagination, was to reduce the relevance of the present, as the entirety of history (when conceived of cyclically) was ultimately defined during the creation of the cosmos. The only other aporia in such an understanding is death, which seems to present a radical break with continuity. To maintain the integrity of this worldview, an intricate system of practices and beliefs (including the extensive mythic geographies of the afterlife, texts providing moral guidance (for this life and the next) and rituals designed to facilitate the transportation into the afterlife) was developed, whose primary purpose was to emphasize the unending continuation of existence.[9] Given these two cultural foci, it is understandable that the tales recorded within this mythological corpus tend to be either creation accounts or depictions of the world of the dead and of the gods place within it.

Because of his role in the process of embalming and mummification, Anubis played an extensive role in Egyptian religious thought and practice. Further, he was consistently one of the more popular deities to be represented in artistic media.

Visual Representations

In temple inscriptions and other artistic depictions, Anubis was portrayed as a jackal-headed humanoid[10] or as a jackal-like creature bearing the symbols of the god (typically a flagellum) in the crook of its arm. As Wilkinson notes, "the animal bears certain traits of the dog family such as the long muzzle, its round-pupilled eyes, five-toed forefeet and four-toed hind feet, while on the other hand, its tail is wide and club shaped and characteristically carried down more like that of the jackal, fox, or wolf. It is therefore possible that the original Anubis animal was a hybrid form, perhaps a jackal crossed with some type of dog."[11] The animal symbolism (or explicit identification) of Anubis as canine is based upon the observed behavior of such creatures in the Egyptian desert, as "the jackals and dogs who lived on the edge of the desert were carrion eaters who might dig up shallowly buried corpses."[12] Thus, the jackal god was specifically appealed to as a defender of the deceased against the depredations of his bestial brethren. Further, the black color of Anubis, which does not correspond to the deity’s canine antecedent, was evidently chosen for its symbolic associations. To the Egyptians, black was the color of death, night, and regeneration (especially through the fertile earth), and was also the skin tone of mummified flesh.[13]

Mythic Accounts

Characterization and Relationships

Originally, in the Ogdoad system, Anubis was god of the underworld. He was said to have a wife, Anput (who was really just his female aspect, her name being his with an additional feminine suffix: t).[14] In many papyrus records found in pyramids, Anubis is said to be the fourth son of Ra, though in later ages he came to be affiliated with Osiris: a more logical attribution given that the latter deity was already seen as the god of the dead. In this tradition, his mother was said to be Nephthys (though he was "subsequently adopted by Isis as her own son").[15] Anubis was identified as the father of Kebechet, the goddess of the purification of body organs due to be placed in canopic jars during mummification.[16]

God of the Dead

Guardian

The most archaic form of the Anubis cult viewed the god as was as the guardian of the deceased, saving them from destruction wrought by purification or carrion eaters. Indeed, "for most of the Old Kingdom, Anubis was the most important funerary deity. His figure was carved in tomb entrances to warn off grave robbers at a time when no other deities could be shown in non-royal tombs."[17] Propitiating this arcane deity meant that one’s ancestors, regardless of class or social stature, would be allowed to rest in peace. As Assmann notes:

The god Anubis, for example, had a very specific function, one that is more unequivocally expressed than is the case with most of the other deities of the Egyptian pantheon. He is (like Osiris) a god of the dead and of the necropolis, though unlike Osiris, he was not the ruler of the dead, but rather the patron of embalmers, mummifiers, and mortuary priests. … Nevertheless, Anubis also had a specific form that separated him from the human realm and related him to a cosmic sphere. … Considered as a force of nature, he was the god of the transitional zone between the world above and the netherworld; this zone was called the "holy land" in Egyptian, and Anubis was its designated lord.[18]

Judge

In a more mythically developed role, Anubis was also understood to be the arbiter of human souls, weighing their purity against the standard of justice—the golden feather of Ma'at, the goddess of truth. Those souls that passed the test were given renewed life in the Underworld, while those who failed were cast into the gaping maw of the Eater of Souls. In this role, "it is he whose duty it is to examine the tongue of the Great Balance, and to take care that the beam is exactly horizontal. Thoth acts on behalf of the Great Company of gods, and Anubis not only produces the heart of the deceased for judgment, but also takes care that the body which has been committed to his charge shall not be handed over to the 'Eater of the Dead' by accident."[19]

This understanding is also attested to in the Pyramid Texts, which state (of the soul of a deceased king):

Thou goest forth at the voice (of Anubis), for he has spiritualized thee,
Like Thot, (or) like Anubis, prince of the court of justice (or, divine court),
that thou mayest judge, that thou mayest lean upon the Two Enneads,
who are between the two sceptres, in this thy dignity of spirit, commanded by the gods to be in thee (1713b-1714b).[20]

Even after the cult of Anubis became sublimated by the more popular veneration of Osiris (described below), the jackal god retained the aspect of the divine arbiter.

Anubis in the Isis/Osiris Cycle

Following the merging of the Ennead and Ogdoad belief systems, Anubis became relegated to lesser status in the organization of the mythic underworld, as he was displaced by the more popular Osiris. These two cults were brought into alignment by incorporating the jackal god into the complex of myths describing the death and resurrection of Osiris. Specifically, Anubis was credited with preserving the body of the murdered god, which set the stage for its reanimation:

Anubis … lord of the Nether World, to whom the westerners (the dead) give praise … him who was in the middle of the mid-heaven, fourth of the sons of Re, who was made to descend from the sky to embalm Osiris, because he was so very worthy in the heart of Re.[21]

In spite of this demotion, Anubis remained an important funerary deity, as many of his original aspects were maintained in the aftermath of the mythic consolidation, including his role as arbiter of the dead, his patronage of embalmers and mortuary priests, and his symbolic representation of the liminal relationship between life and death.

Patron of Embalmers

As one of the most important funerary rites in Egypt involved the process of embalming, so it was that Anubis became the god of embalming, in the process gaining titles such as "He who belongs to the mummy wrappings," and "He who is before the divine [embalming] booth."[22] Having become god of embalming, Anubis became strongly associated with the mysterious and ancient imiut fetish, which was certifiably present during funerary rites, and Bast, who by this time was the goddess of magical ointments.

In one account (as recorded in the Book of the Dead), Anubis is depicted embalming the corpse of a king, which was seen as a necessary preparatory step prior to the monarch’s eventual resurrection:

Anubis, who dwelleth in the region of the embalmed, the chief of the holy house, layeth his hands upon the lord of life [i.e., the mummy], ... and provideth him with all that belongeth unto him, and saith: 'Flail to thee, thou beautiful one, the lord! Thou hast been gazed upon by the Sun's eye, thou hast been bound up by Ptah-Seker, thou hast been made whole by Anubis; breath hath been given unto thee by Shu, and thou hast been raised up by the fair one, the prince of eternity.[23]

This characterization of Anubis was tremendously relevant to cultic practice in Egypt, as many religious practices centered around the mummification of the beloved dead. When officiating at these ceremonies, high priests often wore an Anubis mask.[24] Further, the god was explicitly called upon during the "Opening of the Mouth" ritual,[25] where the officiant would incant:

Thy mouth was closed, but I have set in order for thee thy mouth and thy teeth. I open for thee thy mouth, I open for thee thy two eyes. I have opened for thee thy mouth with the instrument of Anubis. I have opened thy mouth with the instrument of Anubis, with the iron tool with which the mouths of the gods were opened. Horus, open the mouth, Horus, open the mouth. Horus hath opened the mouth of the dead, as he whilom opened the mouth of Osiris, with the iron which came forth from Set, with the iron tool with which he opened the mouths of the gods. He hath opened thy mouth with it. The dead shall walk and shall speak, and his body shall [be] with the great company of the gods in the Great House of the Aged one in Annu, and he shall receive there the ureret crown from Horus, the lord of mankind.[26]

Later Religious Evaluations

In later times, during the Ptolemaic period, Anubis was identified as the Greek god Hermes, as their functions were similar, becoming Hermanubis. The center of this cult was in uten-ha/Sa-ka/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name simply means "City of Dogs." Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (they mockingly called Anubis the "Barker"), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in heaven, and Cerberus in hell. This incorporation is attested to in Book XI of "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius, where we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the second century.[27] Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.[28]

Anubis also repulsed early Christians. For instance, the writer Tertullian used the character of the jackal god to mount a polemic against what he sees as the primitive nature of their religious beliefs:

Since, however, they had begun to worship both wild animals and human beings, they combined both figures under one form Anubis, in which there may rather be seen clear proofs of its own character and condition enshrined148 by a nation at war with itself, refractory149 to its kings, despised among foreigners, with even the appetite of a slave and the filthy nature of a dog.[29]

Notes

  1. ↑ Budge (1969), Vol. II, 261.
  2. ↑ This particular "cut-off" date has been chosen because it corresponds to the Persian conquest of the kingdom, which marks the end of its existence as a discrete and (relatively) circumscribed cultural sphere. Indeed, as this period also saw an influx of immigrants from Greece, it was also at this point that the Hellenization of Egyptian religion began. While some scholars suggest that even when "these beliefs became remodeled by contact with Greece, in essentials they remained what they had always been" (Erman, 203), it still seems reasonable to address these traditions, as far as is possible, within their own cultural milieu.
  3. ↑ The numerous inscriptions, stelae and papyri that resulted from this sudden stress on historical posterity provide much of the evidence used by modern archeologists and Egyptologists to approach the ancient Egyptian tradition (Pinch, 31-32).
  4. ↑ These local groupings often contained a particular number of deities and were often constructed around the incontestably primary character of a creator god (Meeks and Meeks-Favard, 34-37).
  5. ↑ Frankfort, 25-26.
  6. ↑ Zivie-Coche, 40-41; Frankfort, 23, 28-29.
  7. ↑ Frankfort, 20-21.
  8. ↑ Assmann, 73-80; Zivie-Coche, 65-67; Breasted argues that one source of this cyclical timeline was the dependable yearly fluctuations of the Nile (8, 22-24).
  9. ↑ Frankfort, 117-124; Zivie-Coche, 154-166.
  10. ↑ Unlike many other Egyptian deities, there are virtually no images of Anubis as a fully anthropomorphized deity (Wilkinson, 189).
  11. ↑ Wilkinson, 188-189.
  12. ↑ Pinch, 104.
  13. ↑ Wilkinson, 189.
  14. ↑ Pinch, 104.
  15. ↑ Wilkinson, 187; Pinch, 104.
  16. ↑ For a mythic reference to the god’s daughter, see the account from the Pyramid Texts in Breasted, 113.
  17. ↑ Pinch, 104.
  18. ↑ Assmann, 82-82.
  19. ↑ Budge (1969), Vol. II., 262.
  20. ↑ The Pyramid Texts (Utterance 610), translated by Mercer (1952), 261.
  21. ↑ The Pyramid Texts (§1257), quoted in Breasted, 27.
  22. ↑ Wilkinson, 188.
  23. ↑ Book of the Dead - Plate XXXIII/XXXIV, translated by Budge (1896), 360.
  24. ↑ Frankfort, 135.
  25. ↑ A ceremony whose purpose was "to give back the mummy the senses it had enjoyed in life" (Pinch, 104).
  26. ↑ Book of the Dead - Plate V/VI, translated by Budge (1896), 267.
  27. ↑ Budge (1969), Vol. II, 265-266.
  28. ↑ Zofia Ameisenowa, "Animal-Headed Gods, Evangelists, Saints and Righteous Men," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 12 (1949), pp. 21-45. 43-45.
  29. ↑ Tertullian, Ad Nationes Book II:8, available online at tertullian.org. Retrieved June 28, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Assmann, Jan. In Search for God in Ancient Egypt. Ithica: Cornell University. 2001. ISBN 0801487293
  • Breasted, James Henry. Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. 1986.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). The Egyptian Book of the Dead. 1895. The Book of the Dead. Retrieved June 28, 2007.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). The Egyptian Heaven and Hell. 1905. [www.sacred-texts.com/egy/ehh.htm The Egyptian Heaven and Hell.] Retrieved June 28, 2007.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians, or Studies in Egyptian Mythology. A Study in Two Volumes. New York: Dover Publications. 1969.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). Legends of the Gods: The Egyptian Texts. 1912. Legends of the Gods. Retrieved June 28, 2007.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). The Rosetta Stone. 1893, 1905. The Rosetta Stone. Retrieved June 28, 2007.
  • Dennis, James Teackle (translator). The Burden of Isis. 1910. The Burden of Isis. Retrieved June 28, 2007.
  • Dunand, Françoise, and Zivie-Coche, Christiane. Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 B.C.E. to 395 C.E. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. 2004. ISBN 080144165X
  • Erman, Adolf. A Handbook of Egyptian Religion. London: Archibald Constable. 1907.
  • Frankfort, Henri. Ancient Egyptian Religion. New York: Harper Torchbooks. 1961. ISBN 0061300772
  • Griffith, F. Ll., and Thompson, Herbert (translators). The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden. 1904. The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden. Retrieved June 28, 2007.
  • Meeks, Dimitri, and Meeks-Favard, Christine. Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. 1996. ISBN 0801431158
  • Mercer, Samuel A. B. (translator). The Pyramid Texts. 1952. [www.sacred-texts.com/egy/pyt/index.htm The Pyramid Texts.] Retrieved June 28, 2007.
  • Pinch, Geraldine. Handbook of Egyptian Mythology. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 2002. ISBN 1576072428
  • Shafer, Byron E. (editor). Temples of Ancient Egypt. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. 1997. ISBN 0801433991
  • Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. 2003. ISBN 0500051208

External Links

All links retrieved August 11, 2023.

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