Difference between revisions of "Vole" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Vole''' is the common name for small, [[mouse|mice]]-like [[rodent]]s comprising several [[genus|genera]] in the Arvicolinae subfamily, a [[taxon]] that also includes [[lemming]]s and, in some classifications, [[muskrat]]s. Voles are characterized by a stout body, small and rounded ears, short legs, relatively large eyes, and a tail that is shorter than the head and body. Voles are also referred to as ''meadow mice'' or ''field mice'' in North America, and they are similar in appearance to mice; however, the more narrow, scientifically restricted definition of a [[mouse]] (true mouse) generally refers to those placed in the genus ''Mus'' in a different subfamily.   
 
'''Vole''' is the common name for small, [[mouse|mice]]-like [[rodent]]s comprising several [[genus|genera]] in the Arvicolinae subfamily, a [[taxon]] that also includes [[lemming]]s and, in some classifications, [[muskrat]]s. Voles are characterized by a stout body, small and rounded ears, short legs, relatively large eyes, and a tail that is shorter than the head and body. Voles are also referred to as ''meadow mice'' or ''field mice'' in North America, and they are similar in appearance to mice; however, the more narrow, scientifically restricted definition of a [[mouse]] (true mouse) generally refers to those placed in the genus ''Mus'' in a different subfamily.   
  
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There are over 150 known species of voles.
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Voles provide an important roles in the [[ecosystem]]. With their high reproductive rate, they provide a food source for many species, including [[reptile]]s ([[snake]]s), birds ([[owl]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[falcon]]s), and other mammals ([[coyote]]s, [[fox]]es, [[weasel]]s, [[marten]]s, [[raccoon]]s, [[lynx]]). Highly [[herbivore|herbivorous]], they can consume large amounts of plant matter, providing a role in [[seed]] dispersal. Those that consume seedlings play a role in forest regeneration, while those that burrow in the ground help in aerating the [[soil]]. While some can have negative consequences for humans through carrying diseases or damaging crops, those that eat insect [[larva]] help in the control of pests, some are hunted locally for [[fur]], and overall they add to the wonder of [[life]].
  
 
==Overview==
 
==Overview==
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Within Rodentia, the voles belong to the superfamily '''Muroidea''' a vary large taxon that also includes [[hamster]]s, [[gerbil]]s, true [[mouse|mice]] and [[rat]]s, and many other relatives. They are the most populous group of rodents in the Northern Hemisphere and occupy a vast variety of [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] on every continent except [[Antarctica]]. They are often found in [[fossil]] occlusions of bones cached by past predators such as owls and other birds of prey.
 
Within Rodentia, the voles belong to the superfamily '''Muroidea''' a vary large taxon that also includes [[hamster]]s, [[gerbil]]s, true [[mouse|mice]] and [[rat]]s, and many other relatives. They are the most populous group of rodents in the Northern Hemisphere and occupy a vast variety of [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] on every continent except [[Antarctica]]. They are often found in [[fossil]] occlusions of bones cached by past predators such as owls and other birds of prey.
  
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Voles, along with [[lemming]]s (and sometimes [[muskrat]]s), are grouped together in the subfamily Arvicolinae. However, the placement of the arvicolines within Muroidea is not settled. Some authorities place Arvicolinae in the family Cricetidae<ref name="Poor">A. Poor, [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Arvicolinae.html "Subfamily Arvicolinae"] ''Animal Diversity Web'' (online, 2005). Retrieved July 17, 2011.</ref><ref name="Myers">P. Myers, [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rodentia.html Order Rodentia (rodents)]. ''Animal Diversity Web'' (online 2000). Retrieved July 18, 2011.</ref><ref name="Myers et al."><P. Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey, [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Muroidea.html Superfamily Muroidea (mice, rats, gerbils, and relatives)",] ''The Animal Diversity Web'' (online 2006). Retrieved July 18, 2011.</ref> As such, the voles closest relatives, besides the lemmings and muskrats, are members of the other subfamilies in the [[Cricetidae]], the [[hamster]]s and [[New World rats and mice]]<ref>S. J. Steppan, R. A. Adkins, and J. Anderson, "Phylogeny and divergence date estimates of rapid radiations in muroid rodents based on multiple nuclear genes," ''Systematic Biology'' 53(2004):533-553.</ref> However, other authorities place the subfamily Arvicolinae in the family Muridae.<ref name="Jordan">M. J. R. Jordan, "Rats, mice, and relatives I: Voles and lemmings (Arvicolinae)," pages 225-238 in B. Grzimek et al., ''Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia'', 2nd edition, vol. 16, mammals V. (Detroit, MI: Thomson/Gale, 2004). ISBN 0787657921.</ref><ref name="ITIS">Integrated Taxonomic Information System, [http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=552325 "Arvicolinae"  Gray, 1821], ITIS Taxonomic Serial No.: 552325 (2011). Retrieved July 18, 2011.</ref><ref>G. G. Musser, and M. D. Carleton, "Superfamily Muroidea," pages 894-1531 in D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder, eds., ''Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).</ref>. Arvicolinae also is also sometimes referred to as '''Microtinae''' or is recognized as a [[family (biology)|family]], '''Arvicolidae''' <ref>M. C. McKenna, S. K. Bell, et. al., ''Classification of Mammals above the Species Level'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997). ISBN 023111012X.  
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Voles, along with [[lemming]]s (and sometimes [[muskrat]]s), are grouped together in the subfamily '''Arvicolinae'''. However, the placement of the arvicolines within Muroidea is not settled. Some authorities place Arvicolinae in the family Cricetidae<ref name="Poor">A. Poor, [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Arvicolinae.html "Subfamily Arvicolinae"] ''Animal Diversity Web'' (online, 2005). Retrieved July 17, 2011.</ref><ref name="Myers">P. Myers, [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rodentia.html Order Rodentia (rodents)]. ''Animal Diversity Web'' (online 2000). Retrieved July 18, 2011.</ref><ref name="Myers et al.">P. Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey, [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Muroidea.html Superfamily Muroidea (mice, rats, gerbils, and relatives)",] ''The Animal Diversity Web'' (online 2006). Retrieved July 18, 2011.</ref> As such, the voles closest relatives, besides the lemmings and muskrats, are members of the other subfamilies in the [[Cricetidae]], the [[hamster]]s and [[New World rats and mice]]<ref>S. J. Steppan, R. A. Adkins, and J. Anderson, "Phylogeny and divergence date estimates of rapid radiations in muroid rodents based on multiple nuclear genes," ''Systematic Biology'' 53(2004):533-553.</ref> However, other authorities place the subfamily Arvicolinae in the family Muridae.<ref name="Jordan">M. J. R. Jordan, "Rats, mice, and relatives I: Voles and lemmings (Arvicolinae)," pages 225-238 in B. Grzimek et al., ''Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia'', 2nd edition, vol. 16, mammals V. (Detroit, MI: Thomson/Gale, 2004). ISBN 0787657921.</ref><ref name="ITIS">Integrated Taxonomic Information System, [http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=552325 "Arvicolinae"  Gray, 1821], ITIS Taxonomic Serial No.: 552325 (2011). Retrieved July 18, 2011.</ref><ref>G. G. Musser, and M. D. Carleton, "Superfamily Muroidea," pages 894-1531 in D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder, eds., ''Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).</ref>. Arvicolinae also is also sometimes referred to as '''Microtinae''' or is recognized as a [[family (biology)|family]], '''Arvicolidae''' <ref>M. C. McKenna, S. K. Bell, et. al., ''Classification of Mammals above the Species Level'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997). ISBN 023111012X. </ref>
  
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Voles are commonly mistaken for other small animals. [[Mole (animal)|Mole]]s, [[gopher (animal)|gophers]], [[mouse|mice]], [[rat|rats]], and even [[shrew]]s have similar characteristics and [[ethology|behavioral]] tendencies. Since voles will commonly use [[burrow]]s with many exit holes, they can be mistaken for gophers or some kind of [[ground squirrel]]. Voles can create and will oftentimes utilize old abandoned mole tunnels thus confusing the land owner into thinking that moles are active. When voles find their way into the home, they are readily misidentified as mice or young rats. In fact, voles are unique and best described as being a little bit like all the other animals they are so commonly thought to be.
  
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==Description==
  
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Voles are typically small, compact rodents with short legs and short tails that are smaller than the head and body length, and generally less than fifty percent of the head and body length.<ref name="Jordan"/> They have small, rounded ears, blunt snouts, and relatively large eyes.<ref name="Poor"/> Adult males (and sometimes females) have large sebaceous glands on the hips, flanks, rump, or tail region.<ref name="Poor"/> They resemble a mouse, but with a stouter body, a shorter hairy tail (true mice in the ''Mus'' genus tend to have slender, hairless tails), a slightly rounder head, smaller ears and eyes, and differently formed [[molar (tooth)|molars]] (high-crowned and with angular cusps instead of low-crowned and with rounded cusps). They tend to differ from the lemmings in that most lemmings are even more thickset, with robust bodies and shorter tails.<ref name="Jordan"/>. The muskrat (''Ondatr zibethicus''), which is sometimes placed in the Arvicolinae with the voles and lemmings, are much larger than other members of the subfamily and have a tail that is longer and flattened laterally, as an adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle.<ref name="Jordan"/> The voles adapted to an arboreal lifestyle have much longer tails than other species of voles, with the tails ranging up to 70 to 80 percent of their head and body length.<ref name="Jordan"/> Voles with a more fossorial lifestyle (the mole voles ''Prometheomys'' and ''Ellobius'') have very short tails and incisor teeth that face forward.<ref name="Jordan"/>
  
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Voles are commonly mistaken for other small animals. [[Mole (animal)|Mole]]s, [[gopher (animal)|gophers]], [[mouse|mice]], [[rat|rats]] and even [[shrew]]s have similar characteristics and [[ethology|behavioral]] tendencies. Since voles will commonly use [[burrow]]s with many exit holes, they can be mistaken for gophers or some kind of [[ground squirrel]]. Voles can create and will oftentimes utilize old abandoned mole tunnels thus confusing the land owner into thinking that moles are active. When voles find their way into the home, they are readily misidentified as mice or young rats. In fact, voles are unique and best described as being a little bit like all the other animals they are so commonly thought to be.
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Most moles have brown fur with lighter ventral surfaces, although there are variations.
  
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The dental formula for arvicolines is 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3 = 16.  They have stomachs that are either one or two-chambered, complex [[large intestine]]s, but notably short [[small intestine]]s.<ref name="Poor"/>
  
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a small rodent resembling a [[mouse]] but with a stouter body, a shorter hairy tail, a slightly rounder head, smaller ears and eyes, and differently formed [[molar (tooth)|molars]] (high-crowned and with angular cusps instead of low-crowned and with rounded cusps). There are approximately 155 [[species]] of voles. They are sometimes known as ''meadow mice'' or ''field mice'' in North America. Vole species form the [[subfamily]] [[Arvicolinae]] with the [[lemming]]s and the [[muskrat]]s.
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==Distribution and habitat==
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[[Image:water.vole.arp.jpg|thumb|240px|The European water vole or northern water vole (''Arvicola amphibius''; formerly ''A. terrestris'') is a semi-aquatic [[rodent]] found in northwestern and central Europe and Asia. Excellent swimmers and divers, they often are found adjacent to rivers, lakes, and wetlands, but also there are fossorial forms that can be found in dry pastures and woodlands.<ref name="Jordan"/>]]
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Voles are very widespread, found throughout temperate North America, Asia, and Europe. They also occupy a wide range of habitats, including open grassland (where they are numerous), scrub, forests, mountain slopes, wetlands, rivers, lakes, lagoons. There are and even up to 6,000 meters (19,690 feet) above sea level in the Himalayas. There are species that are adapted to arboreal, fossorial, terrestrial, or aquatic lifestyles.<ref name="Jordan"/>
  
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and together with voles and muskrats, they make up the subfamily Arvicolinae (also known as Microtinae), which forms part of the largest mammal radiation by far, the superfamily Muroidea, which also includes rats, mice, hamsters, and gerbils.
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==Behavior, reproduction, and genetics==
  
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Both nocturnal and diurnal lifestyles are found in voles. There also are a variety of social systems, including mutually exclusive female territories and overlapping, larger male territories and species in which the male territories are exclusive and defended and the females have overlapping ranges.
  
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Voles are known for their high reproductive rate, with some producing as many as 17 young in a litter; however, some species, particularly the tree voles, may have litters of only one to three young. The young are born naked and blind, but develop rapidly; some species have young that are themselves reproductive before they are one month old. Overall, vole populations can generally grow very large within a very short period of time. Since litters average 5–10 young, a single pregnant vole in a yard can result in a hundred or more active voles in less than a year. Some bread year round, including giving birth under snow cover.<ref name="Jordan"/><ref name="Poor"/>
  
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The muroids are classified in 6 [[family (biology)|families]], 19 [[subfamily|subfamilies]], around 280 [[genus|genera]] and at least 1300 [[species]].
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The average life of the smaller vole species is 3&ndash;6 months. These voles rarely live longer than 12 months. Larger species, such as the [[European water vole]], live longer and usually die during their second, or rarely their third, winter.
  
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==Taxonomy==
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Some species of vole appear to be highly monogamous. The [[prairie vole]] is a notable animal model for its [[monogamy|monogamous]] sexual fidelity, since the male is usually faithful to the female, and shares in the raising of pups. (The [[Woodland Vole|woodland vole]] is also usually monogamous.) Another species from the same genus, the [[meadow vole]], has promiscuously mating males, and scientists have changed adult male meadow voles' behavior to resemble that of prairie voles in experiments in which a single gene was introduced into the brain via a virus.<ref>M. M. Lim, Z. Wang, D. E. Olazábal, X. Ren, E. F. Terwilliger, and L. J. Young, [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v429/n6993/full/nature02539.html "Enhanced partner preference in a promiscuous species by manipulating the expression of a single gene,"] ''Nature'' 429(2004): 754-757. Retrieved July 18, 2011.</ref>
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*Family [[Platacanthomyidae]] ([[spiny dormouse]] and [[Chinese pygmy dormouse|pygmy dormice]])
 
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*Family [[Spalacidae]] fossorial muroids
 
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**Subfamily [[Myospalacinae]] ([[zokor]]s)
 
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**Subfamily [[Rhizomyinae]] ([[bamboo rat]]s and [[root rat]]s)
 
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**Subfamily [[Spalacinae]] ([[blind mole rat]]s)
 
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*Clade [[Eumuroida]] - typical muroids
 
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**Family [[Calomyscidae]]
 
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***Subfamily [[Calomyscinae]] ([[mouse-like hamster]]s)
 
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**Family [[Nesomyidae]]
 
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***Subfamily [[Cricetomyinae]] (pouched rats and mice)
 
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***Subfamily [[Dendromurinae]] ([[African climbing mice]], [[gerbil mice]], [[fat mice]] and [[forest mice]])
 
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***Subfamily [[Mystromyinae]] ([[white-tailed rat]])
 
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***Subfamily [[Nesomyinae]] (Malagasy rats and mice)
 
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***Subfamily [[Petromyscinae]] ([[rock mouse|rock mice]] and the [[climbing swamp mouse]])
 
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**Family [[Cricetidae]]
 
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***Subfamily [[Arvicolinae]] ([[vole]]s, [[lemming]]s and [[muskrat]])
 
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***Subfamily [[Cricetinae]] (true [[hamster]]s)
 
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***Subfamily [[Neotominae]] (North American rats and mice)
 
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***Subfamily [[Sigmodontinae]] ([[New World rats and mice]])
 
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***Subfamily [[Tylomyinae]]
 
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**Family [[Muridae]]
 
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***Subfamily [[Deomyinae]] (spiny mice, brush furred mice, link rat)
 
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***Subfamily [[Gerbillinae]] ([[gerbil]]s, jirds and sand rats)
 
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***Subfamily [[Leimacomyinae]] ([[Togo Mouse]])
 
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***Subfamily [[Lophiomyinae]] ([[crested rat]])
 
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***Subfamily [[Murinae]] (Old World [[rat]]s and mice including [[vlei rat]]s)
 
  
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Voles exhibit complex genetic structures with much variation, and appear to be evolving rapidly when compared with other vertebrates. For this reason, they can be useful to archaeologists for dating strata, in a method referred to as the "vole clock."
  
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The cricetids first evolved in the Old World during the [[Miocene]]. They soon adapted to a wide range of habitats, and spread throughout the world. The voles and lemmings arose later, during the [[Pliocene]], and rapidly diversified during the [[Pleistocene]].<ref>Savage & Long (1986): 122–124</ref>
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Voles have a number of unusual chromosomal traits. Species have been found with anywhere from 17–64 chromosomes, and in some species males and females have different chromosome numbers. Female voles have been found with chromosomes from both sexes, and in one species the sex chromosomes contain 20% of the genome. All of these variations result in very little physical aberration: most vole species are virtually indistinguishable.<ref>J. A. DeWoody, D. Triant, D. M. Main, [http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2006/060914DeWoodyVole.html Rodent's bizarre traits deepen mystery of genetics, evolution]. ''Purdue University News''. Retrieved July 18, 2011.</ref>
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The term Cricetidae has gone through several permutations, and members of the family as currently defined are often placed in the family [[Muridae]] along with all other [[Muroidea|muroid]] subfamilies. Many other [[Muroidea|muroids]] have been called members of the Cricetidae in the past such as [[mouse-like hamster]]s (subfamily [[Calomyscinae]], family [[Calomyscidae]]), [[gerbil]]s (subfamily [[Gerbillinae]], family [[Muridae]]), the [[crested rat]] (subfamily [[Lophiomyinae]], family [[Muridae]]), [[zokor]]s (subfamily [[Myospalacinae]], family [[Spalacidae]]), the white-tailed rat (subfamily [[Mystromyinae]], family [[Nesomyidae]]), and spiny dormice (subfamily [[Platacanthomyinae]], family [[Platacanthomyidae]]). Multigene [[DNA sequence]] studies have shown that the subfamilies listed below are related (i.e. form a [[monophyletic]] group), and that the other muroids should not be included in the Cricetidae.<ref>Michaux ''et al.'' (2001), Jansa & Weksler (2004), Norris ''et al.'' (2004), Steppan ''et al.'' (2004)</ref>
 
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The cricetids are thus classified to contain one prehistoric and 5 living [[subfamilies]], around 112 living [[genera]] and approximately 580 living [[species]]:
 
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*[[Arvicolinae]] — [[vole]]s, [[lemming]]s, [[muskrat]]
 
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*[[Cricetinae]] — [[hamster]]s
 
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*[[Democricetodontinae]] † ([[fossil]])<!-- Palaeontology 46(6): 1133–1149 ["'Lartetomys' cf. zapfei" has since been described as Karydomys wigharti] —>
 
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*[[Neotominae]] — North American rats and mice, including deer mice, [[pack rat]]s, and [[grasshopper mouse|grasshopper mice]]
 
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*[[Sigmodontinae]] — New World rats and mice, predominantly South American genera such as [[brucie]]s.
 
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==Description==
 
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Voles are small rodents that grow to 3-9 inches, depending on the species. They can have 5–10 litters per year. [[Gestation]] lasts for 3 weeks and the young voles reach [[sexual maturity]] in a month. As a result of this [[exponential growth]], vole populations can grow very large within a very short period of time. Since litters average 5–10 young, a single pregnant vole in a yard can result in a hundred or more active voles in less than a year.
 
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==Ecology==
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===Diet===
  
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They will readily thrive on small plants. Like shrews they will eat dead animals and like mice or rats, they can live on most any nut or fruit. Additionally, voles will target plants more than most other small animals. It is here where their presence is mostly evident. Voles will readily [[girdling|girdle]] small trees and ground cover much like a [[porcupine]]. This girdling can easily kill young plants and is not healthy for trees or other shrubs.
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Most voles are highly herbivorous. Some consume large quantities of foliage, and meadow voles, which consume foliage of grasses can consume their own body weight each day. The arboreal tree voles may consume large quantities of pine needles and the fossorial mole voles may eat various bulbs and tubers. Some voles include seeds and insects in their diet. Like shrews they will eat dead animals and like mice or rats, they can live on most any nut or fruit.  
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Voles will often eat succulent root systems and will burrow under plants or ground cover they are particularly fond of and eat away until the plant is dead. [[Bulb]]s in the ground are another favorite target for voles; their excellent burrowing and tunnelling gives them access to sensitive areas without clear or early warning. A vole infestation is often only identifiable after they have destroyed a number of plants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rodentcontrol.com |title=Rodent and Pest Control Products and Solutions |publisher=RodentControl.com |date= |accessdate=2010-03-19}}</ref>
 
  
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Voles will often eat succulent root systems and will burrow under plants or ground cover they are particularly fond of and eat away until the plant is dead. Voles will readily [[girdling|girdle]] small trees and ground cover much like a [[porcupine]]. This girdling can easily kill young plants and is not healthy for trees or other shrubs. [[Bulb]]s in the ground are another favorite target for voles; their excellent burrowing and tunneling gives them access to sensitive areas without clear or early warning.
  
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===Predators===
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Many [[predator]]s such as [[martens]], [[raccoons]], [[owl]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[falcon]]s, [[coyote]]s, [[fox]]es, [[snake]]s, the [[red tailed hawk]], [[weasel]]s, [[Felidae|cat]]s and [[dogs]] eat voles. A common predator of voles is the [[short-eared owl]] as well as the [[northern spotted owl]], the [[saw-whet owl]], the [[barn owl]], the [[great gray owl]] and the [[northern pygmy owl]]. Their fur color can help avoid predation via camouflage and when cornered, they can be quite vicious and bite. Some species, such as the northern water vole (''Arvicola amphibius'') and some mole voles are hunted by humans for their [[fur]].<ref name="Jordan"/>
  
 
==Classification==
 
==Classification==
 
* '''Order [[Rodent]]ia'''
 
* '''Order [[Rodent]]ia'''
 
** '''Superfamily [[Muroidea]]'''
 
** '''Superfamily [[Muroidea]]'''
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*** '''Family [[Cricetidae]]'''
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*** '''Family [[Cricetidae]]''' or [[Muridae]]
 
**** '''Subfamily [[Arvicolinae]]''' ''(in part)''
 
**** '''Subfamily [[Arvicolinae]]''' ''(in part)''
 
*****Tribe [[Arvicolini]]
 
*****Tribe [[Arvicolini]]
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******Genus ''[[Arborimus]]'' - tree voles
 
******Genus ''[[Arborimus]]'' - tree voles
 
******Genus ''[[Phenacomys]]'' - heather voles
 
******Genus ''[[Phenacomys]]'' - heather voles
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*[[Tylomyinae]] — New World climbing rats and relatives
 
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==Predators==
 
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Many [[predator]]s such as [[martens]], [[raccoons]], [[owl]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[falcon]]s, [[coyote]]s, [[fox]]es, [[snakes]], the [[red tailed hawk]], [[weasel]]s, [[Felidae|cat]]s and [[dogs]] eat voles. A common predator of voles is the [[short-eared owl]] as well as the [[northern spotted owl]], the [[Saw-whet Owl]], the [[barn Owl]], the [[Great Gray Owl]] and the [[Northern Pygmy Owl]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}
 
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==Lifespan==
 
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The average life of the smaller vole species is 3&ndash;6 months. These voles rarely live longer than 12 months. Larger species, such as the [[european water vole]], live longer and usually die during their second, or rarely their third, winter.
 
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==Genetics and sexual behavior==
 
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The [[prairie vole]] is a notable animal model for its [[monogamy|monogamous]] sexual fidelity, since the male is usually faithful to the female, and shares in the raising of pups. (The [[Woodland Vole|woodland vole]] is also usually monogamous.) Another species from the same genus, the [[meadow vole]], has promiscuously mating males, and scientists have changed adult male meadow voles' behavior to resemble that of prairie voles in experiments in which a single gene was introduced into the brain via a virus.<ref>Lim et al., Nature 429, 754–757 (17 June 2004), referenced at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=gene-linked-to-lasting-lo as "Gene Linked to Lasting Love in Voles"</ref> <!-- http://research.yerkes.emory.edu/Young/Pictures/PDFs/PRESS/Lotharios%20tamed%20by%20brain%20protein%20Could%20gene%20therapy%20cure%20promiscuous%20behaviour.htm —>
 
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The behavior is influenced by the number of repetitions of a particular string of microsatellite ("junk") DNA, and the same DNA sequence is found in humans. Male prairie voles with the longest DNA strings  spend more time with their mates and pups than male prairie voles with shorter strings.<ref>Hammock and Young, Science. 2005 Jun 10;308(5728):1630–4, summarized at New York Times, June 10, 2005, "DNA of Voles May Hint at Why Some Fathers Shirk Duties."</ref> However, other workers have disputed the gene's relationship to monogamy, and cast doubt on whether the human version plays an analogous role.<ref>S. Fink et al., PNAS, July 18, 2006, vol. 103, no. 29, 10956–10960</ref> Physiologically, pair-bonding behavior has been shown to be tied up with [[vasopressin]], [[dopamine]], and [[oxytocin]], with the genetic influence apparently arising via the number receptors for these substances in the brain; the pair-bonding behavior has also been shown in experiments to be strongly modifiable by administering some of these substances directly.
 
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Voles exhibit complex genetic structures with much variation, and appear to be evolving rapidly when compared with other vertebrates. For this reason, they can be useful to archaeologists for dating strata, in a method referred to as the "vole clock."
 
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Voles have a number of unusual chromosomal traits. Species have been found with anywhere from 17–64 chromosomes, and in some species males and females have different chromosome numbers. Female voles have been found with chromosomes from both sexes, and in one species the sex chromosomes contain 20% of the genome.  All of these variations result in very little physical aberration: most vole species are virtually indistinguishable.<ref>DeWoody, J. Andrew; Triant, Deb; Main, Douglas M. (2006-09-14) [http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2006/060914DeWoodyVole.html Rodent's bizarre traits deepen mystery of genetics, evolution]. Purdue University. Retrieved February 25, 2007.</ref>
 
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==References==
 
==References==
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{{reflist}}
 
{{reflist}}
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• Myers, P. 2000. [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rodentia.html Order Rodentia (rodents)]. ''Animal Diversity Web''. Retrieved January 30, 2007.
 
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* Silver, L. M. 1995. ''Mouse Genetics: Concepts and Applications''. Oxford University Press.
 
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Linzey, A.V. 2008. Ondatra zibethicus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 18 July 2011.
 
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==External links==
 
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*[http://www.voles.com Voles.com, pictures and information about voles and vole related topics]
 
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*[http://landscaping.about.com/cs/pests/a/vole_control_3.htm Pest control article]
 
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*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ddlKQwDIe8&feature=channel_page National Geographic video].
 
  
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[[Category:Voles and lemmings]]
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[[Category:Life sciences]]
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[[Category:Mammals]]
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[[Category:Animals]]
  
 
{{credit|Vole|439596925|Muroidea|437063657|Cricetidae|435905613|Arvicolinae|435905969}}
 
{{credit|Vole|439596925|Muroidea|437063657|Cricetidae|435905613|Arvicolinae|435905969}}

Latest revision as of 19:12, 4 July 2013

Vole
The bank vole (Myodes glareolus) lives in woodland areas in Europe and Asia.
The bank vole (Myodes glareolus) lives in woodland areas in Europe and Asia.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Cricetidae or Muridae
Subfamily: Arvicolinae
in part
Genera

See text.

Vole is the common name for small, mice-like rodents comprising several genera in the Arvicolinae subfamily, a taxon that also includes lemmings and, in some classifications, muskrats. Voles are characterized by a stout body, small and rounded ears, short legs, relatively large eyes, and a tail that is shorter than the head and body. Voles are also referred to as meadow mice or field mice in North America, and they are similar in appearance to mice; however, the more narrow, scientifically restricted definition of a mouse (true mouse) generally refers to those placed in the genus Mus in a different subfamily.

There are over 150 known species of voles.

Voles provide an important roles in the ecosystem. With their high reproductive rate, they provide a food source for many species, including reptiles (snakes), birds (owls, hawks, falcons), and other mammals (coyotes, foxes, weasels, martens, raccoons, lynx). Highly herbivorous, they can consume large amounts of plant matter, providing a role in seed dispersal. Those that consume seedlings play a role in forest regeneration, while those that burrow in the ground help in aerating the soil. While some can have negative consequences for humans through carrying diseases or damaging crops, those that eat insect larva help in the control of pests, some are hunted locally for fur, and overall they add to the wonder of life.

Overview

As rodents (order Rodentia), voles are characterized by dentition specialized for gnawing, with a single pair of upper incisors and single pair of lower incisors that grow continuously throughout their life and must be worn down by gnawing. The incisors have enamel on the outside and exposed dentine on the inside, so they self-sharpen during gnawing. Rodents lack canines and first premolars, which creates a space between their incisors and their grinding teeth (molars).

Within Rodentia, the voles belong to the superfamily Muroidea a vary large taxon that also includes hamsters, gerbils, true mice and rats, and many other relatives. They are the most populous group of rodents in the Northern Hemisphere and occupy a vast variety of habitats on every continent except Antarctica. They are often found in fossil occlusions of bones cached by past predators such as owls and other birds of prey.

Voles, along with lemmings (and sometimes muskrats), are grouped together in the subfamily Arvicolinae. However, the placement of the arvicolines within Muroidea is not settled. Some authorities place Arvicolinae in the family Cricetidae[1][2][3] As such, the voles closest relatives, besides the lemmings and muskrats, are members of the other subfamilies in the Cricetidae, the hamsters and New World rats and mice[4] However, other authorities place the subfamily Arvicolinae in the family Muridae.[5][6][7]. Arvicolinae also is also sometimes referred to as Microtinae or is recognized as a family, Arvicolidae [8]

Voles are commonly mistaken for other small animals. Moles, gophers, mice, rats, and even shrews have similar characteristics and behavioral tendencies. Since voles will commonly use burrows with many exit holes, they can be mistaken for gophers or some kind of ground squirrel. Voles can create and will oftentimes utilize old abandoned mole tunnels thus confusing the land owner into thinking that moles are active. When voles find their way into the home, they are readily misidentified as mice or young rats. In fact, voles are unique and best described as being a little bit like all the other animals they are so commonly thought to be.

Description

Voles are typically small, compact rodents with short legs and short tails that are smaller than the head and body length, and generally less than fifty percent of the head and body length.[5] They have small, rounded ears, blunt snouts, and relatively large eyes.[1] Adult males (and sometimes females) have large sebaceous glands on the hips, flanks, rump, or tail region.[1] They resemble a mouse, but with a stouter body, a shorter hairy tail (true mice in the Mus genus tend to have slender, hairless tails), a slightly rounder head, smaller ears and eyes, and differently formed molars (high-crowned and with angular cusps instead of low-crowned and with rounded cusps). They tend to differ from the lemmings in that most lemmings are even more thickset, with robust bodies and shorter tails.[5]. The muskrat (Ondatr zibethicus), which is sometimes placed in the Arvicolinae with the voles and lemmings, are much larger than other members of the subfamily and have a tail that is longer and flattened laterally, as an adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle.[5] The voles adapted to an arboreal lifestyle have much longer tails than other species of voles, with the tails ranging up to 70 to 80 percent of their head and body length.[5] Voles with a more fossorial lifestyle (the mole voles Prometheomys and Ellobius) have very short tails and incisor teeth that face forward.[5]

Most moles have brown fur with lighter ventral surfaces, although there are variations.

The dental formula for arvicolines is 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3 = 16. They have stomachs that are either one or two-chambered, complex large intestines, but notably short small intestines.[1]

Distribution and habitat

The European water vole or northern water vole (Arvicola amphibius; formerly A. terrestris) is a semi-aquatic rodent found in northwestern and central Europe and Asia. Excellent swimmers and divers, they often are found adjacent to rivers, lakes, and wetlands, but also there are fossorial forms that can be found in dry pastures and woodlands.[5]

Voles are very widespread, found throughout temperate North America, Asia, and Europe. They also occupy a wide range of habitats, including open grassland (where they are numerous), scrub, forests, mountain slopes, wetlands, rivers, lakes, lagoons. There are and even up to 6,000 meters (19,690 feet) above sea level in the Himalayas. There are species that are adapted to arboreal, fossorial, terrestrial, or aquatic lifestyles.[5]

Behavior, reproduction, and genetics

Both nocturnal and diurnal lifestyles are found in voles. There also are a variety of social systems, including mutually exclusive female territories and overlapping, larger male territories and species in which the male territories are exclusive and defended and the females have overlapping ranges.

Voles are known for their high reproductive rate, with some producing as many as 17 young in a litter; however, some species, particularly the tree voles, may have litters of only one to three young. The young are born naked and blind, but develop rapidly; some species have young that are themselves reproductive before they are one month old. Overall, vole populations can generally grow very large within a very short period of time. Since litters average 5–10 young, a single pregnant vole in a yard can result in a hundred or more active voles in less than a year. Some bread year round, including giving birth under snow cover.[5][1]

The average life of the smaller vole species is 3–6 months. These voles rarely live longer than 12 months. Larger species, such as the European water vole, live longer and usually die during their second, or rarely their third, winter.

Some species of vole appear to be highly monogamous. The prairie vole is a notable animal model for its monogamous sexual fidelity, since the male is usually faithful to the female, and shares in the raising of pups. (The woodland vole is also usually monogamous.) Another species from the same genus, the meadow vole, has promiscuously mating males, and scientists have changed adult male meadow voles' behavior to resemble that of prairie voles in experiments in which a single gene was introduced into the brain via a virus.[9]

Voles exhibit complex genetic structures with much variation, and appear to be evolving rapidly when compared with other vertebrates. For this reason, they can be useful to archaeologists for dating strata, in a method referred to as the "vole clock."

Voles have a number of unusual chromosomal traits. Species have been found with anywhere from 17–64 chromosomes, and in some species males and females have different chromosome numbers. Female voles have been found with chromosomes from both sexes, and in one species the sex chromosomes contain 20% of the genome. All of these variations result in very little physical aberration: most vole species are virtually indistinguishable.[10]

Ecology

Diet

Most voles are highly herbivorous. Some consume large quantities of foliage, and meadow voles, which consume foliage of grasses can consume their own body weight each day. The arboreal tree voles may consume large quantities of pine needles and the fossorial mole voles may eat various bulbs and tubers. Some voles include seeds and insects in their diet. Like shrews they will eat dead animals and like mice or rats, they can live on most any nut or fruit.

Voles will often eat succulent root systems and will burrow under plants or ground cover they are particularly fond of and eat away until the plant is dead. Voles will readily girdle small trees and ground cover much like a porcupine. This girdling can easily kill young plants and is not healthy for trees or other shrubs. Bulbs in the ground are another favorite target for voles; their excellent burrowing and tunneling gives them access to sensitive areas without clear or early warning.

Predators

Many predators such as martens, raccoons, owls, hawks, falcons, coyotes, foxes, snakes, the red tailed hawk, weasels, cats and dogs eat voles. A common predator of voles is the short-eared owl as well as the northern spotted owl, the saw-whet owl, the barn owl, the great gray owl and the northern pygmy owl. Their fur color can help avoid predation via camouflage and when cornered, they can be quite vicious and bite. Some species, such as the northern water vole (Arvicola amphibius) and some mole voles are hunted by humans for their fur.[5]

Classification

  • Order Rodentia
    • Superfamily Muroidea
      • Family Cricetidae or Muridae
        • Subfamily Arvicolinae (in part)
          • Tribe Arvicolini
            • Genus Arvicola - water voles
            • Genus Blanfordimys - Afghan vole and Bucharian vole
            • Genus Chionomys - snow voles
            • Genus Lasiopodomys
            • Genus Lemmiscus - sagebrush vole
            • Genus Microtus - voles
            • Genus Neodon - mountain voles
            • Genus Phaiomys
            • Genus Proedromys - Duke of Bedford's vole
            • Genus Volemys
          • Tribe Ellobiusini - mole voles
            • Genus Ellobius - mole voles
          • Tribe Lagurini
            • Genus Lagurus - steppe vole (also called steppe lemming)
          • Tribe Myodini
            • Genus Alticola - voles from Central Asia
            • Genus Caryomys
            • Genus Eothenomys - voles from East Asia
            • Genus Hyperacrius - voles from Pakistan
            • Genus Myodes - red-backed voles
          • Tribe Pliomyini
            • Genus Dinaromys - voles from the Dinaric Alps
          • incertae sedis
            • Genus Arborimus - tree voles
            • Genus Phenacomys - heather voles

References
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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 A. Poor, "Subfamily Arvicolinae" Animal Diversity Web (online, 2005). Retrieved July 17, 2011.
  2. ↑ P. Myers, Order Rodentia (rodents). Animal Diversity Web (online 2000). Retrieved July 18, 2011.
  3. ↑ P. Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey, Superfamily Muroidea (mice, rats, gerbils, and relatives)", The Animal Diversity Web (online 2006). Retrieved July 18, 2011.
  4. ↑ S. J. Steppan, R. A. Adkins, and J. Anderson, "Phylogeny and divergence date estimates of rapid radiations in muroid rodents based on multiple nuclear genes," Systematic Biology 53(2004):533-553.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 M. J. R. Jordan, "Rats, mice, and relatives I: Voles and lemmings (Arvicolinae)," pages 225-238 in B. Grzimek et al., Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, 2nd edition, vol. 16, mammals V. (Detroit, MI: Thomson/Gale, 2004). ISBN 0787657921.
  6. ↑ Integrated Taxonomic Information System, "Arvicolinae" Gray, 1821, ITIS Taxonomic Serial No.: 552325 (2011). Retrieved July 18, 2011.
  7. ↑ G. G. Musser, and M. D. Carleton, "Superfamily Muroidea," pages 894-1531 in D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder, eds., Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).
  8. ↑ M. C. McKenna, S. K. Bell, et. al., Classification of Mammals above the Species Level (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997). ISBN 023111012X.
  9. ↑ M. M. Lim, Z. Wang, D. E. Olazábal, X. Ren, E. F. Terwilliger, and L. J. Young, "Enhanced partner preference in a promiscuous species by manipulating the expression of a single gene," Nature 429(2004): 754-757. Retrieved July 18, 2011.
  10. ↑ J. A. DeWoody, D. Triant, D. M. Main, Rodent's bizarre traits deepen mystery of genetics, evolution. Purdue University News. Retrieved July 18, 2011.

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