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Transcendental idealism is the name given by 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant to the epistemological approach of his philosophy. Kant presents it as the point of view which holds that our experience of things is about how they appear to us, not about those things as they are in and of themselves.

Transcendental idealism represents Kant’s attempt at a synthesis between existing forms of idealism (affirming the reality of a spiritual or ideal realm above that of material reality) and empiricism (affirming the precedence of sense perception over idealistic of spiritual speculation). Kant’s transcendental method bases its approach on the acknowledgement of a priori (transcendental) mental functions that determine the way we process any information. This method both stresses the reliability of science and our inability to know what transcends observable phenomena. In a sense, it is thus a form of skepticism. The main challenge to Kant’s approach has been that it does not clearly show how it is possible to both affirm the existence of an independent reality and state that nothing can be said about it.

Overview

Perhaps the best way to approach transcendental idealism is by looking at Kant's account of how we intuit (anschauen) objects. What is relevant here is that space and time, rather than being real things-in-themselves or empirically mediated appearances (Erscheinungen), are the very “forms of intuition” (Anschauung), i.e., the way we perceive objects. Time and space are hence neither to be considered properties that we may attribute to objects in perceiving them, nor substantial entities of themselves. They are in that sense subjective, yet necessary preconditions of any given object insofar as this object is an appearance and not a thing-in-itself. Humans necessarily perceive objects spatially and temporally. This is part of what it means for a human to cognize an object, to perceive it as something both spatial and temporal. These are all claims Kant argues for in the section of the Critique of Pure Reason entitled the Transcendental Aesthetic. This section is devoted to the inquiry of the a priori conditions of (human) sensibility, i.e. the faculty by which objects are apprehended. The following section, the Transcendental Logic concerns itself with the manner in which objects are thought through the so-called a priori categories of understanding (such as the notion of causality).

Idealism: common and transcendental

What is transcendental?

With regard to the adjective "transcendental", Kant defined it in the following way when he used it to describe knowledge:

I call all knowledge transcendental if it is occupied, not with objects, but with the way that we can possibly know objects, even before we experience them.
Critique of Pure Reason, A12, B26

What is idealism?

Kant himself offers a definition of his transcendental idealism and asks, rhetorically, how it is different from what is traditionally known as idealism.

"As the senses ... never and in no single instance enable us to know things in themselves, but only their appearances, and as these are mere representations ... all bodies, together with the space in which they are, must be held to be nothing but mere representations in us, and exist nowhere else than merely in our thought. Now is this not manifest idealism?"
(Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics § 13, Note II)

Kant answered this question in the negative. His grounds were that he did not deny that there are things-in-themselves but only that we can know anything of them as they are. In other words, reality, as we know it, is determined by our forms of intuition (space and time) and the categories of our reason, but there is something "out there": Kant never accepted the conclusion of what he called idealism and is generally known as subjective idealism (proposed by George Berkeley), i.e. that reality, being known only through our mind, also exists only through our mind, which naturally tends towards a form of solipsism. If reality of external things independently from our perception of them is denied, only the “I” of the philosopher remains real.

A few years later, the German idealists would pursue in a similar direction, but on entirely different premises.

Transcendental idealism and empirical realism

The transcendental idealist, says Kant, can afford to be a realist on the empirical level. When saying that external things are “real,” he does nothing more than saying that they are real within the necessary conditions of our faculties of thought and intuition.

[E]verything intuited or perceived in space and time, and therefore all objects of a possible experience, are nothing but phenomenal appearances, that is, mere representations, which in the way in which they are represented to us, as extended beings, or as series of changes, have no independent, self-subsistent existence apart from our thoughts. This doctrine I entitle transcendental idealism.
Critique of Pure Reason, A491, B520

Empirical science, Kant continues, can be trusted (to the extent that it is properly conducted), because it merely recognizes that the laws of our mind apply to the sensory perceptions by the forms of intuition (time and space) of our mind. Science make no claim about what things ultimately are, it does not deal with their metaphysical significance, and most especially it makes no claims about notions that do not correspond to any sensory perception (God, eternal life).

Transcendental idealism, Kant’s own philosophical stance, thus makes a preemptive strike against all illusory assumptions: anything we know about things is only what we know through the vision of our mind’s laws. This caveat once taken into consideration, the philosopher and scientist is free to apply these laws for practical purposes. He remains agnostic about their ultimate or absolute meaning.

Transcendental idealism vs. transcendental realism

On the other hand, Kant distinguishes his position from dogmatic or skeptical philosophy by invoking the distinction between transcendental idealism and transcendental realism. Kant succinctly defined transcendental idealism in this way:

A transcendental realist mistakenly considers space and time and objects alike, to be real in themselves, quite independently from our perception of them. This is the case for dogmatism (Leibniz) and empiricism (Locke) alike. Both must, according to Kant, consider appearances – i.e., the spatio-temporal objects of everyday experience – as imperfect shadows of a transcendent reality. Indeed, if we consider that objects exist in space and time in themselves, we are always left to wonder whether our ideas really match (correspond to) the objects. The dogmatist will be forced to make arbitrary decisions and the empiricist will end up in skepticism: like Hume, he will come to doubt every rational inference of our mind.

The conclusion is obvious for Kant: his transcendental idealism is superior in every way. Precisely because it does not make claims it cannot sustain about the ultimate reality of things (including time and space), it leaves us free to make definite statements about things to the extent they appear to us through the forms of our intuition and the categories of our mind.

Clarification

In his Critique of Pure Reason (A482, B520) and in his Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics Kant indicates that it might be more appropriate to use the terms “formal(istic) idealism” or “critical idealism” to avoid confusion with the usual idealism that doubts the existence of outer things.

Transcendental idealism was also adopted as a label by Fichte and Schelling; it was maintained as a key notion by the various Kantian and neo-Kantian schools and reclaimed in the 20th century in a different manner by Husserl. For all their differences, these philosophies all claim the primacy of the human mind’s activity over external sensory perception in the process of cognition.

Schopenhauer

Though, in the end, he submitted some of Kant’s views to a severe critique, 19th century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer fully endorsed the approach of transcendental idealism. Since Schopenhauer is rightly known for the clarity of his presentations, it is worth quoting his comments on the definition of the word "transcendental":

Transcendental is the philosophy that makes us aware of the fact that the first and essential laws of this world that are presented to us are rooted in our brain and are therefore known a priori. It is called transcendental because it goes beyond the whole given phantasmagoria to the origin thereof. Therefore, as I have said, only the Critique of Pure Reason and generally the critical (that is to say, Kantian) philosophy are transcendental.
Parerga and Paralipomena, Volume I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 13

Schopenhauer contrasted Kant's transcendental critical philosophy with Leibniz's dogmatic philosophy.

With Kant the critical philosophy appeared as the opponent of this entire method [of dogmatic philosophy]. It makes its problem just those eternal truths (principle of contradiction, principle of sufficient reason) that serve as the foundation of every such dogmatic structure, investigates their origin, and then finds this to be in man's head. Here they spring from the forms properly belonging to it, which it carries in itself for the purpose of perceiving and apprehending the objective world. Thus here in the brain is the quarry furnishing the material for that proud, dogmatic structure. Now because the critical philosophy, in order to reach this result, had to go beyond the eternal truths, on which all the previous dogmatism was based, so as to make these truths themselves the subject of investigation, it became transcendental philosophy. From this it follows also that the objective world as we know it does not belong to the true being of things-in-themselves, but is its mere phenomenon, conditioned by those very forms that lie a priori in the human intellect (i.e., the brain); hence the world cannot contain anything but phenomena.
The World as Will and Representation, Vol. I, Appendix: "Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy"

The discussion

The groundbreaking character of Kant’s transcendental idealism has hardly been denied by anyone. Nevertheless, it is far from having been universally accepted as a satisfactory solution to the problems of epistemology.

The crux of Kant’s entire theoretical philosophy is that it affirms that we cannot know anything about “things-in-themselves” and at the same time affirms that things in themselves must certainly exist. Kant was particularly opposed to George Berkeley’s subjective idealism, because that form of idealism denied the existence of things apart from the subject (divine or human) perceiving them. Kant was very much intent on stressing the difference between these views and his own philosophy to avoid being considered a dreamer (which Berkeley was in his mind). However, Kant’s often unfair assessment of Berkeley might be due to his awareness that his own philosophy had a weakness that might easily lead one to believe that he was in agreement with subjective idealism.

How it is possible to affirm the existence of something of which one also affirms being unable to say anything is a problem that has been discussed abundantly by successive generations of thinkers. For Kant, the awareness of things around us comes directly together with our self-awareness, thus the existence of the external world was as certain as the existence of the “I”. it is simply impossible to know what things are in themselves.

In The Bounds of Sense, P. F. Strawson argues that the things-in-themselves or noumenon are the building blocks upon which Kant’s entire system rests, and that their very notion is not acceptably justified by Kant. Henry Allison's reading, on the other hand, is that Kant's view is better characterized as a two-aspect theory, where noumena and phenomena refer to different ways of considering an object.

Bibliography

Allison, Henry E. Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense. Yale University Press; Reprint edition (1975). ISBN: 978-0300036299.
Ingarden, Roman S. On the Motives which led Husserl to Transcendental Idealism. Springer; 1 edition (December 31, 1899). ISBN: 978-9024717514.
Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Pure Reason [1781; 1787]. Cambridge University Press (February 1999). ISBN: 978-0521657297.
Kant, Immanuel. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics That Will Be Able to Come Forward As Science (With Kant's Letter to Marcus Herz, February 27, 1772: The Paul Carus Translation) [1783]. Hacket Pub.; 2nd edition (February 2002). ISBN: 978-0872205932.
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Von. System of Transcendental Idealism [1800]. University of Virginia Press; New Ed edition (September 1993). ISBN: 978-0813914589.
Strawson, P.F. The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge (December 31, 1990). ISBN: 978-0415040303.
Zöller, Günter. Fichte's Transcendental Philosophy: The Original Duplicity of Intelligence and Will. Cambridge University Press; New Ed edition (April 8, 2002). ISBN: 978-0521892735.

External Links

[1] Summary of Transcendental Idealism
[2] Discussion on Transcendental Idealism
Kant's works in clickable pdf format
Works by Immanuel Kant. Project Gutenberg

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-'''Transcendental idealism''' is a doctrine founded by [[18th century|18th-century]] [[Germany|German]] [[philosophy|philosopher]] [[Immanuel Kant]].
+'''Transcendental idealism''' is the name given by [[18th century|18th-century]] [[Germany|German]] [[philosophy|philosopher]] [[Immanuel Kant]] to the epistemological approach of his philosophy. Kant presents it as the point of view which holds that our experience of things is about how they [[phenomenon|appear to us]], not about those things as they are [[noumenon|in and of themselves]].
-Kant presents it as the point of view which holds that our experience of things is about how they [[phenomenon|appear to us]], not about those things as they are [[noumenon|in and of themselves]].
-==Background==
-Despite this influence, it was a subject of some debate amongst [[20th century]] philosophers exactly how to interpret this doctrine, which Kant first describes in his ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. Kant distinguished his view from contemporary views of [[realism]] and [[idealism]], but philosophers are not agreed upon what difference Kant draws.  Strawson, Guyer, and Allison are the 3 most well known philosophical commentors to read on this issue.
-Transcendental idealism is occasionally identified with ''formalistic idealism'' on the basis of passages from Kant's ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'', although recent research has tended to dispute this identification. Transcendental idealism was also adopted as a label by [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]] and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]] and reclaimed in the 20th century in a different manner by [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]].
+Transcendental idealism represents Kant’s attempt at a synthesis between existing forms of idealism (affirming the reality of a spiritual or ideal realm above that of material reality) and empiricism (affirming the precedence of sense perception over idealistic of spiritual speculation). Kant’s transcendental method bases its approach on the acknowledgement of ''a priori'' (transcendental) mental functions that determine the way we process any information. This method both stresses the reliability of science and our inability to know what transcends observable phenomena. In a sense, it is thus a form of skepticism. The main challenge to Kant’s approach has been that it does not clearly show how it is possible to both affirm the existence of an independent reality and state that nothing can be said about it.
-Perhaps the best way to approach transcendental idealism is by looking at Kant's account of how we intuit (Ge: anschauen) objects.  What's relevant here is that space and time, rather than being real ''things-in-themselves'' or empirically mediated appearances (Ge: Erscheinungen), are the very forms of intuition (Ge: Anschauung) by which we must perceive objects. They are hence neither to be considered properties that we may attribute to objects in perceiving them, nor substantial entities of themselves. They are in that sense subjective, yet necessary preconditions of any given object so insofar as this object is an appearance and not a ''thing-in-itself''. Humans necessarily perceive objects spatially and temporally.  This is part of what it means for a human to cognize an object, to perceive it as something both spatial and temporal. These are all claims Kant argues for in the section of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' entitled the ''Transcendental Aesthetic''. This section is devoted to the inquiry of the a priori conditions of (human) sensibility, i.e. the faculty by which objects are apprehended. The following section, the ''Transcendental Logic'' concerns itself with the manner in which objects are thought.
+==Overview==
+Perhaps the best way to approach transcendental idealism is by looking at Kant's account of how we intuit (''anschauen'') objects. What is relevant here is that space and time, rather than being real ''things-in-themselves'' or empirically mediated appearances (''Erscheinungen''), are the very “forms of intuition” (''Anschauung''), i.e., the way we perceive objects. Time and space are hence neither to be considered properties that we may attribute to objects in perceiving them, nor substantial entities of themselves. They are in that sense subjective, yet necessary preconditions of any given object insofar as this object is an appearance and not a ''thing-in-itself''. Humans necessarily perceive objects spatially and temporally. This is part of what it means for a human to cognize an object, to perceive it as something both spatial and temporal. These are all claims Kant argues for in the section of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' entitled the ''Transcendental Aesthetic''. This section is devoted to the inquiry of the a priori conditions of (human) sensibility, i.e. the faculty by which objects are apprehended. The following section, the ''Transcendental Logic'' concerns itself with the manner in which objects are thought through the so-called ''a priori'' categories of understanding (such as the notion of causality).
-==Transcendental idealism vs transcendental realism==
+==Idealism: common and transcendental==
-Kant then distinguishes his position of critical philosophy from dogmatic or skeptical philosophy by invoking the distinction between transcendental idealism and transcendental realism. Kant succinctly defined transcendental idealism in this way:
+===What is ''transcendental''?===
-{{Quotation|[E]verything intuited or perceived in space and time, and therefore all objects of a possible experience , are nothing but phenomenal appearances, that is, mere representations, which in the way in which they are represented to us, as extended beings, or as series of changes, have no independent, self-subsistent existence apart from our thoughts.|''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', A491}}
+With regard to the adjective "transcendental", Kant defined it in the following way when he used it to describe knowledge:
-A transcendental realist must, according to Kant, consider appearances - ie. the spatiotemporal objects of everyday experience - as imperfect shadows of a transcendent reality (Locke and Leibniz count as examples of this position). They make this mistake, Kant claims, because they consider space and time and objects alike, to be transcendentally real. The transcendental realist can only distinguish between objects (in general) and ideas. We cannot grasp ideas from objects, so we are always left to wonder whether our ideas really match (correspond to) the objects. This is why, Kant claims, the transcendental realist must be an ''empirical idealist'', as the appearances of our senses are really just ideas in our mind on this position. Kant himself, being a transcendental idealist, can conversely consider the objects of our senses as empirically real, that is to say real within the necessary conditions of our faculties of thought and intuition. The transcendental idealist is thus an ''empirical realist''.
+{{Quotation|I call all knowledge ''transcendental'' if it is occupied, not with objects, but with the way that we can possibly know objects, even before we experience them.|''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', A12, B26}}
-With regard to the adjective "transcendental" itself, Kant defined it in the following way when he used it to describe knowledge:
+===What is idealism?===
-{{Quotation|"I call all knowledge ''transcendental'' if it is occupied, not with objects, but with the way that we can possibly know objects, even before we experience them."|''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', A12}}
+Kant himself offers a definition of his transcendental idealism and asks, rhetorically, how it is different from what is traditionally known as idealism.
-==Dogmatic idealism==
+{{Quotation|"As the senses ... never and in no single instance enable us to know things in themselves, but only their appearances, and as these are mere representations ... all bodies, together with the space in which they are, must be held to be nothing but mere representations in us, and exist nowhere else than merely in our thought. Now is this not manifest idealism?"| (Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics § 13, Note II)}}
-Note that [[Xenophanes]] of Colophon in 530 B.C.E. came up with something that could be considered an ancestor to Kant's epistemology: "And as for certain truth, no man has seen it, nor will there ever be a man who knows about the gods and about all the things I mention. For if he succeeds to the full in saying what is completely true, he himself is nevertheless unaware of it; and Opinion (seeming) is fixed by fate upon all things." (From Kathleen Freeman's ''Ancilla to the Presocratic Philosophers'', Xenophanes fragment 34.)
-Some interpretations of some of the medieval Buddhists of India, such as [[Dharmakirti]], may reveal them to be transcendental idealists, since they seemed to hold the position of [[mereological nihilism]] but where minds are distinct from the [[atoms]]. Some Buddhists often attempt to maintain that the minds are equal to the atoms of mereological nihilist reality, but Buddhists seem to have no explanation of how this is the case, and much of the literature on the aforementioned Buddhists involves straightforward discussion of atoms and minds as if they are separate. This makes their position very similar to transcendental idealism, resembling Kant's philosophy where there are only things-in-themselves (which are very much like philosophical [[atoms]]), and phenomenal properties.
+Kant answered this question in the negative. His grounds were that he did not deny that there are things-in-themselves but only that we can know anything of them as they are. In other words, reality, as we know it, is determined by our forms of intuition (space and time) and the categories of our reason, but there ''is'' something "out there": Kant never accepted the conclusion of what he called idealism and is generally known as [[subjective idealism]] (proposed by [[George Berkeley]]), i.e. that reality, being known only through our mind, also exists only through our mind, which naturally tends towards a form of [[solipsism]]. If reality of external things independently from our perception of them is denied, only the “I” of the philosopher remains real.
+A few years later, the German idealists would pursue in a similar direction, but on entirely different premises.
+==Transcendental idealism and empirical realism==
+The transcendental idealist, says Kant, can afford to be a realist on the empirical level. When saying that external things are “real,” he does nothing more than saying that they are real within the necessary conditions of our faculties of thought and intuition.
+{{Quotation|[E]verything intuited or perceived in space and time, and therefore all objects of a possible experience, are nothing but phenomenal appearances, that is, mere representations, which in the way in which they are represented to us, as extended beings, or as series of changes, have no independent, self-subsistent existence apart from our thoughts. This doctrine I entitle ''transcendental idealism''.|''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', A491, B520}}
+Empirical science, Kant continues, can be trusted (to the extent that it is properly conducted), because it merely recognizes that the laws of our mind apply to the sensory perceptions by the forms of intuition (time and space) of our mind. Science make no claim about what things ultimately are, it does not deal with their metaphysical significance, and most especially it makes no claims about notions that do not correspond to any sensory perception (God, eternal life).
+Transcendental idealism, Kant’s own philosophical stance, thus makes a preemptive strike against all illusory assumptions: anything we know about things is only what we know through the vision of our mind’s laws. This caveat once taken into consideration, the philosopher and scientist is free to apply these laws for practical purposes. He remains [[agnosticism|agnostic]] about their ultimate or absolute meaning.
+==Transcendental idealism vs. transcendental realism==
+On the other hand, Kant distinguishes his position from dogmatic or skeptical philosophy by invoking the distinction between transcendental idealism and transcendental realism. Kant succinctly defined transcendental idealism in this way:
+A transcendental realist mistakenly considers space and time and objects alike, to be real in themselves, quite independently from our perception of them. This is the case for [[dogmatism]] ([[Leibniz]]) and [[empiricism]] ([[Locke]]) alike. Both must, according to Kant, consider appearances – i.e., the spatio-temporal objects of everyday experience – as imperfect shadows of a transcendent reality. Indeed, if we consider that objects exist in space and time in themselves, we are always left to wonder whether our ideas really match (correspond to) the objects. The dogmatist will be forced to make arbitrary decisions and the empiricist will end up in skepticism: like [[Hume]], he will come to doubt every rational inference of our mind.
+The conclusion is obvious for Kant: his transcendental idealism is superior in every way. Precisely because it does not make claims it cannot sustain about the ultimate reality of things (including time and space), it leaves us free to make definite statements about things to the extent they appear to us through the forms of our intuition and the categories of our mind.
+==Clarification==
+In his ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (A482, B520) and in his ''Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics'' Kant indicates that it might be more appropriate to use the terms “formal(istic) idealism” or “critical idealism” to avoid confusion with the usual idealism that doubts the existence of outer things.
+Transcendental idealism was also adopted as a label by [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]] and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]]; it was maintained as a key notion by the various [[Kantian]] and [[neo-Kantian]] schools and reclaimed in the 20th century in a different manner by [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]]. For all their differences, these philosophies all claim the primacy of the human mind’s activity over external sensory perception in the process of cognition.
 == Schopenhauer ==
-Some of [[Schopenhauer]]'s comments on the definition of the word "transcendental" are as follows: {{Quotation|''Transcendental'' is the philosophy that makes us aware of the fact that the first and essential laws of this world that are presented to us are rooted in our brain and are therefore known ''[[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]]''. It is called ''transcendental'' because it ''goes beyond'' the whole given phantasmagoria to the origin thereof. Therefore, as I have said, only the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' and generally the critical (that is to say, [[Kant]]ian) philosophy are transcendental. |''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 13}}
+Though, in the end, he submitted some of Kant’s views to a severe critique, 19th century German philosopher [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] fully endorsed the approach of transcendental idealism. Since Schopenhauer is rightly known for the clarity of his presentations, it is worth quoting his comments on the definition of the word "transcendental":
+{{Quotation|''Transcendental'' is the philosophy that makes us aware of the fact that the first and essential laws of this world that are presented to us are rooted in our brain and are therefore known ''[[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]]''. It is called ''transcendental'' because it ''goes beyond'' the whole given phantasmagoria to the origin thereof. Therefore, as I have said, only the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' and generally the critical (that is to say, [[Kant]]ian) philosophy are transcendental. |''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 13}}
 Schopenhauer contrasted Kant's transcendental critical philosophy with Leibniz's dogmatic philosophy. {{Quotation|With Kant the ''critical philosophy'' appeared as the opponent of this entire method [of dogmatic philosophy]. It makes its problem just those eternal truths (principle of contradiction, principle of sufficient reason) that serve as the foundation of every such dogmatic structure, investigates their origin, and then finds this to be in man's head. Here they spring from the forms properly belonging to it, which it carries in itself for the purpose of perceiving and apprehending the objective world. Thus here in the brain is the quarry furnishing the material for that proud, dogmatic structure. Now because the critical philosophy, in order to reach this result, had to go ''beyond'' the eternal truths, on which all the previous dogmatism was based, so as to make these truths themselves the subject of investigation, it became ''transcendental'' philosophy. From this it follows also that the objective world as we know it does not belong to the true being of things-in-themselves, but is its mere ''phenomenon'', conditioned by those very forms that lie ''a priori'' in the human intellect (i.e., the brain); hence the world cannot contain anything but phenomena.| ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. I, Appendix: "[[Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy]]"}}
-==P. F. Strawson==
+==The discussion==
-In ''[[The Bounds of Sense]]'', [[P. F. Strawson]] suggests a reading of Kant's first ''Critique'' which rejects most of its arguments, including transcendental idealism. Strawson views the analytic argument of the ''transcendental deduction'' as the most valuable idea in the text, determining transcendental idealism to be a great but unavoidable error in Kant's system. In this traditional reading (also favored in the work of [[Paul Guyer]] and [[Rae Langton]]), the Kantian term [[phenomena]] (literally something that can be seen from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''phainomenon'', "observable") refers to the world of appearances, or the sensible. The necessary preconditions of experience, such as [[space and time]], are what make ''[[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]]'' judgements possible, but all of this only applies to human sensibility. Kant's system requires the existence of [[noumenon|noumena]] to prevent a rejection of external reality altogether, and it is this concept (senseless objects of which we can have no real understanding) to which Strawson objects in his book.
+The groundbreaking character of Kant’s transcendental idealism has hardly been denied by anyone. Nevertheless, it is far from having been universally accepted as a satisfactory solution to the problems of [[epistemology]].
-==Henry Allison==
+The crux of Kant’s entire theoretical philosophy is that it affirms that we cannot know anything about “things-in-themselves” and at the same time affirms that things in themselves must certainly exist. Kant was particularly opposed to [[George Berkeley]]’s [[subjective idealism]], because that form of idealism denied the existence of things apart from the subject (divine or human) perceiving them. Kant was very much intent on stressing the difference between these views and his own philosophy to avoid being considered a dreamer (which Berkeley was in his mind). However, Kant’s often unfair assessment of Berkeley might be due to his awareness that his own philosophy had a weakness that might easily lead one to believe that he was in agreement with subjective idealism.
-In ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism'', [[Henry Allison]] proposes a reading in opposition to Strawson's interpretation. Allison argues that Strawson and others misrepresent Kant by emphasising what has become known as the two-worlds reading. This - according to Allison false - reading of Kant's phenomena/noumena distinction suggests that phenomena and noumena are ontologically distinct from each other and that we somehow fall short of knowing the noumena due to our subjective limitations. On such a reading, Kant would himself commit the very fallacies he attributes to the trascendental realists. On Allison's reading, Kant's view is better characterized as a two-aspect theory, where noumena and phenomena refer to different ways of considering an object. It is the discursive character of knowledge rather than [[epistemology|epistemological]] humility that Kant asserted.
+How it is possible to affirm the existence of something of which one also affirms being unable to say anything is a problem that has been discussed abundantly by successive generations of thinkers. For Kant, the awareness of things around us comes directly together with our self-awareness, thus the existence of the external world was as certain as the existence of the “I”. it is simply impossible to know what things are in themselves.
+In ''The Bounds of Sense'', P. F. Strawson argues that the things-in-themselves or [[noumena|noumenon]] are the building blocks upon which Kant’s entire system rests, and that their very notion is not acceptably justified by Kant. Henry Allison's reading, on the other hand, is that Kant's view is better characterized as a two-aspect theory, where noumena and phenomena refer to different ways of considering an object.
+==Bibliography==
+*Allison, Henry E. ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense''.  Yale University Press; Reprint edition (1975). ISBN: 978-0300036299.
+* Ingarden, Roman S. ''On the Motives which led Husserl to Transcendental Idealism.'' Springer; 1 edition (December 31, 1899). ISBN: 978-9024717514.
+*Kant, Immanuel. ''Critique of Pure Reason'' [1781; 1787]. Cambridge University Press (February 1999). ISBN: 978-0521657297.
+*Kant, Immanuel. ''Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics That Will Be Able to Come Forward As Science'' (With Kant's Letter to Marcus Herz, February 27, 1772: The Paul Carus Translation) [1783]. Hacket Pub.; 2nd edition (February 2002). ISBN: 978-0872205932.
+*Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Von. ''System of Transcendental Idealism'' [1800].  University of Virginia Press; New Ed edition (September 1993). ISBN: 978-0813914589.
+*Strawson, P.F. ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''.  Routledge (December 31, 1990). ISBN: 978-0415040303.
+* Zöller, Günter. ''Fichte's Transcendental Philosophy: The Original Duplicity of Intelligence and Will''.  Cambridge University Press; New Ed edition (April 8, 2002). ISBN: 978-0521892735.
+==External Links==
+*[http://www.london-oratory.org/philosophy/philosophies/epistemology/trancendental/body_trancendental.html] Summary of Transcendental Idealism
+*[http://transcendental-idealism.blogspot.com/] Discussion on Transcendental Idealism
+* [http://www.e-text.org/text/ Kant's works in clickable pdf format]
+* {{gutenberg author|id=Kant, |name=Immanuel Kant}}
 ==See also==
-* [[Immanuel Kant]]
+*[[Immanuel Kant]]
 *[[Idealism]]
 *[[Transcendence (philosophy)|Transcendence]]
@@ Line 43: / Line 81: @@
 *[[Altruism]]
 *[[Freethought]]
-*[[Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy]]
+*[[Schopenhauer]]
+*[[Fichte]]
+*[[Husserl]]
 *[[Dharmakirti]]
@@ Line 53: / Line 93: @@
 [[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
 [[Category:Philosophical concepts]]
 [[cs:Transcendentální idealismus]]