Difference between revisions of "Shiva" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Hdeity infobox| <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology—>
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  Image                    = Sivakempfort.jpg
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| Caption                  = A statue in [[Bangalore]] depicting Shiva meditating
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| Name                    = Shiva
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| Sanskrit_Transliteration = {{IAST|Śiva}}
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| Devanagari              = {{lang|sa|शिव}}
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| God of                  =
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| Mantra                  = [[Aum Namah Sivaya]]
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| Weapon                  = Trident ([[Trishula|Trishul]])
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| Consort                  = [[Parvati]] or [[Dakshayani|Sati]] or [[Shakti]] or [[Durga]]
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| Abode                    = [[Mount Kailash|Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}}]]<ref>For the name ''Kailāsagirivāsī'' (''Sanskrit'' कैलासगिरिवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=281}}.</ref>
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| Mount                    = [[Nandi (bull)]]
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}}
  
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'''Shiva''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[ʃɪ.ʋə]}}; [[Sanskrit]]: शिव, ''{{IAST|Śiva}}'', lit. "Auspicious one") is one of the principal [[Hindu deities|deities]] of [[Hinduism]]. Within [[Shaivism]] he is viewed as the Supreme deity, whereas in other branches of Hinduism such as the [[Smarta]] tradition he is worshipped as one of the six manifestations of the Divine. Followers of Hinduism who focus their worship upon Shiva are called ''Shaivites'' or ''Shaivas'' (Sanskrit {{IAST|Śaiva}}).<ref>Tattwananda, p. 45.</ref> His role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets ''{{IAST|Mahādeva}}''  ("great god"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' = great + ''deva'' = god),<ref>Kramrisch, p. 476.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name {{lang|sa|महादेव}} in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'' see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=297}}</ref> ''{{IAST|Maheśvara}}'' ("great lord"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' = great + ''{{IAST|īśvara}}'' = lord),<ref>Kramrisch, p. 477.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name {{lang|sa|महेश्वर}} in the Shiva Sahasranama see:{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=299}}.</ref> and ''[[Parameshwara (God)|{{IAST|Parameśvara}}]]'' ("Supreme Lord").<ref>For {{IAST|Parameśvara}} as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref> Shaivism, along with {{IAST|Vaiṣṇava}} traditions that focus on Vishnu, and {{IAST|Śākta}} traditions that focus on the [[Devi|goddess]] ({{IAST|Devī}}) are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 17.</ref>
  
[[Image:statueofshiva.JPG|right|thumb|A statue of Shiva near [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]], [[Delhi]]]]
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Shiva is one of the six primary forms of the Divine in [[Smartism]], a denomination of [[Hinduism]] that puts particular emphasis on six deities, the other five being [[Vishnu]], [[Shakti]], [[Ganesha]], [[Kartikkeya]] and [[Surya]].<ref>Flood (1996), p. 17.</ref> Another way of thinking about the divinities in Hinduism identifies [[Brahma]], Vishnu, and Shiva as each representing one of the three primary aspects of the divine in Hinduism, known collectively as the [[Trimurti]]. In the Trimurti system, Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer or transformer.<ref>Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref>
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Shiva is usually worshipped as the ''[[Lingam|Shiva linga]]''. In images, he is generally represented as immersed in deep meditation or dancing the ''[[Tandava]]'' upon the demon of ignorance in his manifestation of [[Nataraja]], the lord of the dance. 
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==Etymology==
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The Sanskrit word '''{{IAST|śiva or Shivam}}''' ([[Devanagari]] {{lang|sa|िशव}}) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.<ref>Apte, p. 919.</ref><ref>Macdonell, p. 314.</ref> As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a euphemistic name for [[Rudra]].<ref>Macdonell, p. 314.</ref>  In simple English transliteration it is written either as ''Shiva'' or ''Siva''. Pronunciation is written in the International Phonetic Alphabet as {{IPA2|ɕivə}}. The adjective '''{{IAST|śiva}}''' meaning "auspicious" is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.<ref>For use of the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.</ref> In the [[Rig Veda]], [[Indra]] uses this word to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3)
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In Tamil ''Siva'' literally means "the supreme one". [[Adi Sankara]] in his interpretation of the name ''Shiva'', the 27th and 600th name of [[Vishnu sahasranama]] interprets Shiva to mean either "The Pure One," i.e., the One who is not affected by three [[Gunas]] of [[Prakrti]], [[Sattva]], [[Rajas]] and [[Tamas]]. or "the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name." <ref> Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition, pg.47 and pg. 122.</ref> [[Swami Chinmayananda]], in his translation of Vishnu sahasranama further elaborates on that verse: Shiva means the One who is eternally pure, or the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas <ref>Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu sahasranama, pg. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust .</ref>
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The Sanskrit word '''{{IAST|śaiva}}''' means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism, and for a member of one of those sects.<ref>Apte, p. 927</ref>  It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as [[Shaivism]].<ref>For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of {{IAST|Śiva}} (''{{IAST|śivaśāna}}'') and which focus on the deity {{IAST|Śiva}}... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.</ref>
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The name Shiva, in one interpretation, is also said to have derived from the Dravidian word “Siva” meaning “to be red”. It is the equivalent of Rudra, “the red” RigVeda.<ref>Encyclopedia of Indian Tribes By Shyam Singh Shashi, p. 190</ref>
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==Historical development==
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{{for|the early history|Rudra}}
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The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 17</ref><ref>Keay, p.xxvii.</ref> Modern historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built-up over time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure.<ref>Keay, p. xxvii.</ref>  How the ''persona'' of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well-documented.<ref>For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well-documented, see: Keay, p. 147.</ref> Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows:
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">Like {{IAST|Vişņu}}, {{IAST|Śiva}} is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: {{IAST|Śaivism}}. Like {{IAST|Vaişņavism}}, the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.<ref>Michaels, p. 215.</ref>
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</blockquote>
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An example of assimilation took place in [[Maharashtra]], where a regional deity named [[Khandoba]] is a patron deity of [[farming]] and [[herding]] [[caste]]s.<ref>Courtright, p. 205.</ref>  The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in [[Jejuri]].<ref>For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.</ref> Khandoba has been assimilated both as a name for Karttikya<ref>For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, ''Preface'', and p. 40.</ref> and also as a form of Shiva himself<ref>'Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."</ref> in which case he is worshipped in the form of a [[lingam]].<ref>Courtright, p. 205.</ref><ref>For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.</ref> Khandoba's varied associations also include an indentification with Surya.<ref>Courtright, p. 205.</ref> The derivation of the name Khandoba has been variously interpreted, and M. S. Mate says that the most commonly-held belief is that it was a distorted form of Skanda, but also notes alternate theories.<ref>Mate, p. 176.</ref>
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===The Pashupati seal===
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[[Image:Pashupati.gif|thumb|right|An Indus Valley seal with the seated figure termed ''pashupati''.]]
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A seal discovered during excavation of the [[Mohenjodaro|Mohenjo-daro]] archaeological site in the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.</ref> This "[[Pashupati]]" (Lord of Animals,or Lord of Beings Sanskrit ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'')<ref>For translation of ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref> seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.<ref>For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref>  Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.
  
'''Shiva''' ([[Devanagari]] शिव) is one of the foremost [[Hinduism|Hindu]] gods, enumerated among the [[Trimurti|Hindu Trinity]] as the god of destruction. His theonym derives from the [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[Sanskrit]] adjective for "auspicious" or "propitious", marking his development out of and in many ways in contrast to [[Rudra]], his fearsome precursor from the Rg Veda. Shiva's most popular epithets include ''Mahesvara'' (or "great god"), ''Shankara'', ''Shambu'', ''Pashupati'', ''Chandramoli'' and even ''Rudra'', among many others.
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This claim has not fared well with some modern academics. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.</ref><ref>Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.</ref>  Historian John Keay is more specifically dismissive, saying:
  
The embodiment of capriciousness, Shiva is the god in whom opposites come to be dissolved; as such, he is characterized by polarities such as asceticism and eroticism, benevolence and wrath, beauty and horror. Accordingly, he has become a repository of diverse imagery and symbolism, though he is ubiquitously recognized by the [[linga]], a phallic column which has historically been one of the most widely venerated objects in the cult of Shiva. [[Shaivism]], the second largest monotheistic school in contemporary Hinduism, is dedicated to the worship of Shiva as the supreme divinity.
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{{Quotation|...there is little evidence for the currency of this myth. Rudra, a Vedic deity later identified with Shiva, is indeed referred to as ''pasupati'' because of his association with cattle; but asceticism and meditation were not Rudra's specialties, nor is he usually credited with an empathy for animals other than [[Cattle| kine]]. More plausibly, it has been suggested that the Harappan figure's heavily horned headgear bespeaks a bull sect, to which numerous other representations of bulls lend substance.<ref>Keay, p. 14.</ref>}}
 
==Origins==
 
[[Image:Pashupati.gif|thumb|right|An Indus Valley seal with the seated figure termed ''pashupati'']]
 
===Pre-Vedic===
 
Relics obtained by archaeologists from the ruins of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] suggest that the worship of a god resembling Rudra-Shiva was practiced between 2800 - 1500 B.C.E. These artifacts include numerous phallic objects carved on rock surfaces which closely resemble lingas (see below), as well as the "Pashupati seal" found at [[Mohenjo-daro]]. An engraving upon this seal depicts a horned male figure with an erect phallus who is surrounded by an assortment of wild creatures. Considering the phallic imagery, which has traditionally been considered the emblematic of Shiva, as well as the inclusion of animals, this image appears to depict a prototype of the Vedic deity [[Pashupati]], the "lord of the creatures". Pashupati would eventually come to be considered an aspect of Shiva.<ref>Gavin Flood, ''An Introduction to Hinduism.'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 28-29.</ref> The central figure is also seated in a yogic posture, perhaps foreshadowing the associations Shiva would later come to assume with meditatation and asceticism.
 
  
 
===Rudra===
 
===Rudra===
With the dissolution of the Harrapan culture, religion in the Indus Valley region and the Indian subcontinet as a whole underwent significant changes. The Rg Veda (c. 1200 B.C.E.) fostered the transformation of the initial proto-Shiva figure into Rudra, a terrifying and mercurial diety of the wild who held jurisdiction over sickness and storms. Although only four of the Rg Vedic hymns are dedicated exclusively to this character, he plays an important mythological role in the Vedas in his associations with the fire god [[Agni]] and the sacrificial beverage [[Soma]]. Not unlike Shiva, Rudra is connected with wildlife in his function as "lord of the cattle" (pasunam patih) and "wearer of the animal hide". Moreover, Rudra's nature is highly contrary: not only is the divine custodian of disease, but he also possesses the ability to conjure medicine to cure any given ailment. As such, great efforts are made to appease the deity in the few hymns that are dedicated to him in hopes that his beneficence will supplant his malevolence. As a proper name, Shiva means "The Auspicious One", a moniker which is first applied to Rudra in the ''Yajurveda.'' This may have originally been used as a euphemistic epithet for Rudra to distinguish his horrific appearance from his more magnanimous form. With this connection in mind, Shiva and Rudra are typically viewed as the same divine personality in contemporary Hinduism, and are often referred to mutually as Rudra-Shiva by scholars in recognition of the inextricable mythological and ritual link between the two deities.
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{{main|Rudra}}
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[[Image:ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|upright|thumb|Three-headed Shiva, [[Gandhara]], 2nd century CE]]
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Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god [[Rudra]]<ref>Michaels, p. 216.</ref> and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the god of the roaring [[storm]], is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.
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The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]], which is dated to between 1700&ndash;1100 B.C.E. based on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and [[philology|philological]] evidence.<ref>For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.</ref> A god named [[Rudra]] is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods.<ref>Doniger, pp. 221-223.</ref> Furthermore, the [[Shri Rudram Chamakam|Rudram]], one of the most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas, and addressed to Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances.
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The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
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To what extent {{IAST|Śiva}}'s origins are in fact to be sought in Rudra is extremely unclear. The tendency to consider  {{IAST|Śiva}} an ancient god is based on this identification, even though the facts that justify such a far-reaching assumption are meager.<ref>Michaels, p. 217.</ref>
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</blockquote>
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Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|Śarva}}'')<ref>For {{IAST|Śarva}} as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.</ref> and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra.<ref>For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p. 32.</ref> This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=306}}</ref>  The word is derived from the Sanskrit root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'' which means "to injure" or "to kill"<ref>For root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'' see: Apte, p. 910.</ref> and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name {{IAST|Śarva}} as "One who can kill the forces of darkness".<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=306}}</ref>  The names {{IAST|Dhanvin}} ("Bowman")<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 33.</ref> and {{IAST|Bāṇahasta}} ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands")<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 33.</ref><ref>For translation of {{IAST|Bāṇahasta}} as "Armed with arrows in his hands") see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=294}}.</ref> also refer to archery.
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===Identification with Vedic deities===
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Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including [[Agni]], [[Indra]], [[Prajapati|{{IAST|Prajāpati}}]], [[Vayu|{{IAST|Vāyu}}]], and others.<ref>For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.</ref>
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====Agni====
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Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.<ref>For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref><ref>For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.</ref> The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}}." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.</ref> The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the ''[[Nirukta]]'', an important early text on etymology, which says "Agni is called Rudra also".<ref>For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.</ref>  The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
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The fire myth of {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}} plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 18.</ref>
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</blockquote>
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In the [[Shri Rudram Chamakam|''Śatarudrīa'']], some epithets of Rudra such as {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} ("Flaming bright") suggest a fusing of the two deities.<ref>For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.</ref> Agni is said to be a bull<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others<!-- Bot generated title —>]</ref> and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, [[Nandi bull|Nandi]]. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.<ref>For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 8.49; 10.155.</ref> In medieval sculpture both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.<ref>For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref>
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====Indra====
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The Indologist, [[Koenraad Elst]] proposes that Shiva of Puranic Hinduism is a continuation of the Vedic [[Indra]].{{Fact|date=October 2007}} He gives several reasons for his hypothesis. Both Shiva and Indra are known for having a thirst for [[Soma]]. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the [[Aum]] sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,<ref>For text of RV 2.20.3a as {{lang|sa|स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा िशवो नरामस्तु पाता ।}} and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref> 6.45.17,<ref>For text of RV 6.45.17 as {{lang|sa|यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती िशवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ }} and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.</ref><ref>For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: {{Harvnb|Griffith|1973|p=310}}.</ref> and 8.93.3.<ref>For text of RV 8.93.3 as {{lang|sa|स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥}} and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref>)
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Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.<ref>For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 7.19.</ref>
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Indra is likened to a white elephant named 'Airavat' instead of the bull. The two deity are separate from each other.
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In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the [[Maruts]], but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.<ref>For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.</ref>
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==Attributes of Shiva==
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[[Image:Shiva and Parvati.jpg|thumb|Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, with crescent moon on his head, the Ganga flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull necklace, covered in ashes and Trisula and [[Damaru]] are seen in the background.]]
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[[Image:Gangadhara.jpg|thumb|Shiva Bearing the Descent of the Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look, folio from a Hindi manuscript by the saint Narayan, circa 1740]]
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*'''Third Eye:'''  Shiva is often depicted with a [[third eye]] with which he burned Desire ({{IAST|Kāma}}) to ashes.<ref>For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> There has been controversy regarding the original meaning of Shiva's name ''Tryambakam'' (''Sanskrit'': त्र्यम्बकम्), which occurs in many scriptural sources.<ref>For a review of theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: Chakravarti, pp.37-39.</ref> In classical Sanskrit the word ''ambaka'' denotes "an eye", and in the ''Mahabharata'' Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "Having Three Eyes".<ref>For usage of the word ''ambaka'' in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.</ref> However, in Vedic Sanskrit the word ''{{IAST|ambā}}'' or ''{{IAST|ambikā}}'' means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "Having Three Mothers" that was used by [[Max Müller]] and [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell|Arthur Macdonell]].<ref>For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mothers" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.</ref><ref>For vedic Sanskrit meaning and "having three mothers" as the translation of Max Müller and Macdonell, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-38.</ref> Since no story is known in which Shiva had three mothers, E. Washburn Hopkins suggested that the name refers not to three mothers, but to three Mother-goddesses who are collectively called the {{IAST|Ambikās}}.<ref>For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the {{IAST|Ambikās}} see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.</ref>  Other related translations have been "having three wives or sisters", or based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess {{IAST|Ambikā}}.<ref>For the {{IAST|Ambikā}} variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.</ref>
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*'''Blue Throat:''' The epithet ''{{IAST|Nīlakaṇtha}}'' (''Sanskrit'' {{lang|sa|नीलकण्ठ}}; ''nīla'' = blue, ''{{IAST|kaṇtha}}'' = throat)<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=290}}</ref><ref>See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.</ref> refers to a story in which Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean.<ref>For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.</ref><ref>Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref> (see: [[Halahala|Halāhala]])
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* '''Crescent Moon:''' Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the moon.<ref>For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.</ref>  The epithet ''{{IAST|Chandraśekhara}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|चन्द्रशेखर}} "Having the moon as his crest" - ''[[chandra]]'' = Moon, ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' = crest, crown)<ref>For ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Chandraśekhara}} as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.</ref><ref>For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472. </ref> refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.</ref>  The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with [[Soma]], and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly emplored, and in later literature Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the Moon.<ref>For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.</ref> 
  
===Supremacy===
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*'''Matted Hair:'''  Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets ''{{IAST|Jaṭin}}'', "The One with matted hair"<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 22.</ref> and ''Kapardin'', "Endowed with matted hair"<ref>For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=279}}.</ref> or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".<ref>Kramrisch, p. 475.</ref>  A ''kaparda'' is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or more generally hair that is shaggy or curly.<ref>For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.</ref>
In the later Vedas, Rudra came to inherit new monikers such as Bhava, Sarva, Mahadeva, and the aforementioned Shiva, all of which seem to have been names of regional or indigenous gods of non-Aryan of non-Vedic origin. In the divine persona of Rudra the traits of these deities seems to have been syncretized into one divine personality. By the time of the Upanishads (7th century CE or later), Rudra had by all indications assumed the characteristic traits of a single, Supreme Lord, including omnipotence, omnipresence, and complete transcendence. In the ''Svetsvara Upanishad'', for instance, Rudra-Shiva is proclaimed to be identical with [[Purusha]], the primordial man, and even [[Brahman]], the [[ontology|ontological]] ground of all being. By this point he was also perceived to be protector and creator of all things, and bore more and more striking resemblance to Shiva as he is known today.
 
 
   
 
   
Shiva would go on to develop his own distinct character, eventually supplanting Rudra entirely. While Rudra proper quickly fell out of currency in the ritual sphere, his influence upon Shiva was lasting: not only did Rudra provide much of the macabre imagery still associated with Shiva, but he also established Shiva's status as a divine "outsider", representing the religious life as it existed away from societal norms. Although many opposites met in Rudra, it was not until the character of Shiva was fully developed that these opposites were so splendidly reconciled.
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*'''Sacred Ganga:''' The [[Ganges|Ganga]] river flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The epithet ''[[Gangadhara|{{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}}]]'' ("Bearer of the [[Ganga in Hinduism|river {{IAST|Gaṅgā}}]]") refers to this feature.<ref>For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.</ref><ref>For description of the {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.</ref> The Ganga (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.<ref>For Shiva supporting {{IAST|Gaṅgā}} upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref> The legend of Bhagiratha states that when the sage of that name invoked the gods to send the divine Ganges to earth to relieve a drought and purify the remains of his ancestors, he was warned that the earth had not the capacity to withstand the descent of the Ganges from heaven, in pursuit of which he propitiated Siva to receive the Ganges upon her descent from heaven and release her with diminished force. Siva agreed to trap the youthful and mischievous Ganges in his matted locks and release her to the earth. It was thus, according to Hindu legend, that the Ganges came to be trapped in Siva's locks, and to be portrayed as flowing therefrom, in all representations of Siva.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}
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*'''Ashes:''' Shiva smears his body with ashes ([[bhasma]]).<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref>  Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.</ref> These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 161.</ref> One epithet for Shiva is "Inhabitant of the cremation ground" (''Sanskrit'': {{IAST|śmaśānavāsin}}, also spelled Shmashanavasin) referring to this connection.<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 23.</ref>
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*'''[[Tiger]] skin:''' He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin,<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis. {{cite web |url=http://www.tamilstar.com/mythology/brahmarishis |title=Mythology ~ The birth of Brahmarishis |accessdate=2008-05-07 |format=HTML }}
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*'''Serpents:''' Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151</ref>
  
==Iconography==
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*'''Trident:''' (Sanskrit: [[Trishula]]) Shiva's particular weapon is the [[trident]].<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref>
===Depiction===
 
  
[[Image:Shiva.jpg|thumb|The Hindu god Shiva. Note the blue skin and symbols held in his hands]]
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*'''Drum:''' A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a ''[[damaru]]'' (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|ḍamaru}}'').<ref>Michaels, p. 218.</ref><ref>For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref> This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation<ref>Jansen, p. 44.</ref> known as [[Nataraja]]. A specific hand gesture ([[mudra]]) called ''{{IAST|ḍamaru-hasta}}'' (Sanskrit for "{{IAST|ḍamaru}}-hand") is used to hold the drum.<ref>Jansen, p. 25.</ref> This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the {{IAST|Kāpālika}} sect.<ref>For use by {{IAST|Kāpālikas}}, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref> 
  
Shiva is identified in depictions by some of the most intricate and idiosyncratic imagery in the Hindu tradition. Inscribed on his divine person as a constellation of multifarious symbols is the sheer diversity of the mythologies subsumed within his character. Shiva is commonly depicted as a relatively anthropomorphic light-skinned man with either two or four arms. He may also take the form of a young boy or a weathered old man. His skin is covered in funerary ashes, marking his proclivity to dwell in cremation grounds, and suggesting the potency of his ascetic heat. Some depictions attribute Shiva with six faces. His clothing is limited to an animal skin drawn round his waist, usually that of an elephant, deer, or tiger, most commonly the latter. This is based upon a story wherein Shiva evokes the anger of some forest ascetics who promptly let loose a vicious tiger to destroy him. Shiva seizes the beast without effort and strips its skin with the nail of his little finger, symbolizing his control over imperious aspects of character such as lust and pride.
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*'''[[Nandi (bull)|{{IAST|Nandī}}]]''', also known as ''Nandin'', is the name of the [[Bull (mythology)|bull]] that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: ''[[Vahana|{{IAST|vāhana}}]]'').<ref>For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.</ref><ref>For spelling of alternate proper names {{IAST|Nandī}} and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.</ref>  Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name ''{{IAST|Paśupati}}''  or [[Pashupati]] (''Sanskrit'' पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "Lord of cattle"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=291}}</ref> and by Kramrisch as "Lord of Animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>
  
Shiva's hair is long and matted in the style typical of ascetics, marking his status as the paramount yogi, unmatched in his renunciation of the world. From his hairline hangs the crescent moon, which has earned him the epithet Chandramoli or "moon-headed". It is also in his hair where Ganga, the goddess of the Ganges, is said to reside, and the great waters are often shown pouring out in a stream from Shiva's locks. On his forehead just above the bridge of the nose there sits a third-eye, which represents the heat-producing seat of Shiva's ascetic power.
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* '''[[Gana|{{IAST|Gaṇa}}]]''' : In [[Hinduism]], the {{IAST|Gaṇa}}s ([[Devanagari]]: {{lang|sa|गण}}) are attendants of Shiva and live in [[Kailasa]]. They are often referred to as the Boothaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their Lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the Lord on behalf of the devotee. [[Ganesha]] was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence [[Ganesha]]'s title ''{{IAST|gaṇa-īśa}}'' or ''{{IAST|gaṇa-pati}}'', "lord of the {{IAST|gaṇas}}".<ref>[[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend]] (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola</ref>
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*'''[[Mount Kailash|Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}}]]''' in the [[Himalayas]] is his traditional abode.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref>  In Hindu mythology, Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} is conceived as resembling a ''[[Linga]]'', representing the center of the universe.<ref>For identification of Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} as the central ''linga'', see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.</ref>
  
Shiva's throat is blue as a reminder of his service to humankind. In a famous myth describing how the gods churned the cosmic milk-ocean for the purpose of gaining the nectar of immortality, it is said that preceding the precious fluid there arose from the ocean fourteen precious articles, among which was the lethal Halahala poison. In order to save humanity and the gods from its veritable potency, Shiva drank the poison, which left his throat with a bluish hue thereafter. Around Shiva's collar along with japa beads is wrapped a live serpent, usually a cobra, which represents immortality.
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*'''[[Varanasi]]''' (Benares) is considered as the city specially-loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.<ref>Keay, p. 33.</ref>
  
As far as accessories go, Shiva most famously carries the trident, the three prongs representing the creative, preservative, and destructive functions of the divine triad. The very fact that the trident is held in the hand of Shiva affirms that all three aspects are ultimately under his control. Shiva sometimes carries the skull of [[Brahma]], whom he beheaded, and therefore makes note of the fact that all things in the universe perish while Shiva himself remains undying. One of his hands is typically held out in the Abhya Mudra, a sign of fearlessness and an offering of shelter for the helpless. He is often accompanied in images by Nandin, a white bull which is considered his divine vehicle or ''vahana''. Mount Kailash, upon the peak of which Shiva is said to reside in constant meditation, often forms the backdrops for pictures of the god.
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==Forms and depictions==
  
===Linga===
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According to Gavin Flood, "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox", whose attributes include opposing themes.<ref>For quotation "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.</ref>  The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
  
[[Image:108shivalingas.jpg|right|200px|thumb|108 shiva [[linga]]s carved on the rock at the banks of river [[Tungabhadra]], [[Hampi]]]]
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===Destroyer versus benefactor===
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[[Image:Dakshayani.jpg|right|thumb|Shiva carrying the corpse of his consort दाक्षायनि (सती) [[Dakshayani]] ([[Dakshayani|Sati]]).]]
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In the [[Yajurveda]] two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|rudra}}'')  and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|śiva}}'') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here."<ref>For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.</ref> In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.<ref>For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1988|p=20-21}}.</ref> The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.
  
The single most popular symbol of Shiva is the linga (or lingam), a phallic shape which embodies both his regenerative capability as not only the destroyer but also the reproducer of the universe. Additionally, the never-wilting phallus represents Shiva's persistent restraint from sex and the complete absence of sexual temptation, which has allowed him to accumulate a powerful reservoir of ascetic heat. As such, the consistently erect phallus of Shiva speaks to his infinite creative potentiality. In temples, lingam are commonly found in proximity to the yoni, the symbol of the female principle from which the male principle is considered inextricably linked. In fact, Yonis often form the base of the linga statues.
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The name ''[[Rudra]]'' (''Sanskrit'' रुद्र) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'' which means "to cry, howl."<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref>  Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means wild, of ''rudra'' nature, and translates the name ''Rudra'' as "the Wild One" or "the Fierce God".<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref> R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "Terrible".<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=301}}.</ref> ''Hara'' (''Sanskrit'' हर) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "One who captivates", "One who consolidates", and "One who destroys."<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=314}}.</ref> Kramrisch translates it as "The Ravisher".<ref>Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref>  Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as ''{{IAST|Kāla}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|काल}}), "Time", and as ''{{IAST|Mahākāla}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|महाकाल}}), "Great Time", which ultimately destroys all things.<ref>For translation of {{IAST|Mahākāla}} as "Time beyond time" see: Kramrisch, p. 476.</ref><ref>For the name {{IAST|Kāla}} translated as "time; death", see: Kramrisch, p. 474.</ref><ref>The name {{IAST|Kāla}} appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(The Supreme Lord of) Time". See: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=280}}.</ref> [[Bhairava]] (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|भैरव}}), "Terrible" or "Frightful"<ref>For {{lang|sa|भैरव}} as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and translation of the adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful" see: Apte, p. 727, left column.</ref> is a fierce form associated with annihilation.<ref>For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p. 471.</ref>
  
The linga has traditionally been the focal point of Shaivite devotion throughout India in both temples and family shrines, and has become the definitive mark of Shaivism. Lingas used in worship are commonly of two varieties: those sculpted out of wood or stone by humans and those that occur naturally, such as the ice Lingam located at the Cave Temple of Lord Amarnath in Kashmir. The twelve Jyotirlinga shrines, where Shiva is worshipped in the form of a Jyotirlingam (or "Lingam of light") are among the most esteemed worship sites in the Shaivite tradition.
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In contrast, the name {{IAST|Śaṇkara}} (''Sanskrit'' शङ्कर), "Beneficent"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=306}}</ref> or "Conferring Happiness"<ref>Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref> reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher [[Adi Shankara|{{IAST|Śaṇkara}}]] (c. 788-820 C.E.), who is also known as Shankaracharya.<ref>For adoption of the name {{IAST|Śaṇkara}} by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref><ref>For dating Shankaracharya as 788-820 C.E. see: Flood (1996), p. 92.</ref> The name ''{{IAST|Śambhu}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|शम्भु}}), "Causing Happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.<ref>For translation of {{IAST|Śambhu}} as "Causing Happiness" see: Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref><ref>For speculation on the possible etymology of this name, see: Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.</ref>
  
==Forms==
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===Ascetic versus householder===
===Ardhanarisvara===
 
  
[[Image:Arthanari.png|right|thumb|Chola bronze from the [[11th century]]. Shiva in the form of [[Ardhanarisvara]]]]
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[[Image:Shiva parivar.jpg|thumb|right|An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva, [[Parvati]], [[Ganesha]] and [[Murugan|Skanda]] (Kartikeya)]]
  
As is suggested by the inseparability of the lingam and yoni, the male and female principles are closely interwoven in the theology of Shiva. Shiva, the supreme masculine power in the universe, works in concert with Shakti, the equivalent female energy. While Shiva represents an unchanging, infinite, and transcendent reality that provides the [[monism|monistic]] essence of the universe, Shakti is considered the active force behind all action and existence in the phenomenal cosmos. Without this dynamic and decidedly feminine power which actualizes the potentiality of the masculine, Shiva's creative power would be rendered impotent. In religious art, this mutual dependence of Shakti and Shiva in creation is poignantly expressed by way of the half-male, half-female figure known as [[Ardhanarisvara]] or "The lord who is half woman". For such depictions, the female Shakti half is represented by Shiva's wife [[Parvati]], and the male half is represented by her husband Shiva. This suggests the necessary pairing of male and female in order to create life, and their equal contribution to such a process.
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He is depicted as both an ascetic [[yogi]]n and as a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society.<ref>For the contrast beteween ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.</ref> When depicted as a yogin he may be shown sitting and meditating.<ref>For Shiva's representation as a yogin, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref>  His epithet ''Mahāyogin'' (The Great [[Yoga|Yogi]]: {{IAST|Mahā}} = great, Yogin = one who practices [[Yoga]]) refers to his association with yoga.<ref>For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.</ref> While [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the [[Indian epic poetry|Epic period]] that concepts of [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]], [[yoga]], and [[asceticism]], became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.<ref>For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref>
  
However, some feminists have disagreed with the assertion that Ardhanisvara represents equality of the sexes. Such critics point out that the literal meaning of Ardhanarisvara refers to the "lord who is half woman" as opposed to a more mutual "half-man, half-woman." This phrasing suggests the inherent male nature of the deity and privileges him with the status of isvara—"god," "lord," or "master;" Parvati meanwhile, is simply "woman" (nari). It has also been noted that the right side of the body upon which Shiva is placed is traditionally considered superior to the left in the Indian tradition.<ref>Goldberg, 55.</ref> Thus, the placement of Shiva on the right side of Ardhanarisvara affords him implicit privilege over his wife on the left.
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As a family man and householder he has a wife, [[Parvati]] (also known as {{IAST|Umā}}), and two sons, [[Ganesha]] and [[Skanda]]. His epithet ''{{IAST|Umāpati}}'' ("The husband of {{IAST|Umā}}") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}}, also appear in the sahasranama.<ref>For {{IAST|Umāpati}}, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}} as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=278}}.</ref> {{IAST|Umā}} in epic literature is known by many names, including [[Parvati|{{IAST|Pārvatī}}]].<ref>For {{IAST|Umā}} as the oldest name, and variants including {{IAST|Pārvatī}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Pārvatī}} identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>  She is identified with [[Devi]], the Divine Mother, and with [[Shakti]] (divine energy).
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Shiva and Parvati are the parents of [[Murugan|Karthikeya]] and [[Ganesha]]. Karthikeya is worshipped in southern India (especially in [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]]) by the names Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in northern India, is better known by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.<ref>For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, ''Preface''.</ref>
  
 
===Nataraja===
 
===Nataraja===
[[Image:NatarajaMET.JPG|left|thumbnail|[[Bronze]] [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] Statue depicting Shiva dancing as ''[[Nataraja]]''. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City.]]
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[[Image:NatarajaMET.JPG|right|thumbnail|[[Bronze]] [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] Statue depicting Shiva dancing as ''[[Nataraja]]''. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City.]]
  
Shiva Nataraja refers to Shiva in his form as the cosmic dancer, based upon two dances which are attributed to Shiva in the [[Purana]]s: the Tandava, the dance of destruction, and the Siva-lila, the dance of love. The Tandava involves a frenzied constellation of movements which set in motion the annihilation of the universe. During this dance, Shiva careers down Mount Kailash while a company of half-human, half-animal creatures cheers urge him on. In some instances, this dance involves Shakti as, who performs the dance atop Shiva's corpse. The Shiva Nataraja's beautiful dance is also connected to Shakti, particularly his marriage to Parvati, having first been performed in order to attract the amorous attention of his future wife. All throughout the dance, Shiva is clad in an alluring red garment with a carpet on his back, holding in his left hand a horn and in his right a drum, much to the delight of Parvati.
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{{main|Nataraja}}
  
The South Indian Koyil Purana reverberates this notion of Shiva as a dancer. This text narrates a story which has Shiva going to a forest in which many Mimamsakas are living, where he initiates an argument with them. After sending a number of threatening beings at him in vain (including the aforementioned tiger), the unphased Shiva begins to dance, and so the annoyed sages conjure up a dwarf by the name of Muyalaka to neutralize him. When Muyalaka makes his attempt to kill Shiva, the dancing god uses his foot to break the dwarf's neck, and continues on with his dance. This image of Shiva Nataraja dancing atop the dwarf has been immortalized in South India art, ostensibly commemorating Shiva's unmatched ability to conquer evil, which is personified by the dwarf. This image is often encircled by flames, which represents the consumption of the illusory physical universe by the untainted reality of Shiva.
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The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: நடராஜா, Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'', "Lord of Dance") is popular.<ref>For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.</ref><ref>For interpretation of the ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'' form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.</ref>  The names ''Nartaka'' ("Dancer") and ''Nityanarta'' ("Eternal Dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.<ref>For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=289}}.</ref> His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] period.<ref>For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in [[Tamil Nadu]] (in southern India) in particular.<ref>For popularity of the ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'' and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.</ref>
  
===Bhairava===
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==={{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}===
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{{main|Dakshinamurthy}}
  
Bhairava refers to Shiva in his most terrible form. Legend has it that when Shiva asked Lord Brahma whom exactly was the supreme entity in the universe, Brahma named Vishnu. Livid with the creator god, Shiva took on his Bhairava form and sliced off one of Brahma's five heads. This act left Bhairava-Shiva guilty of the atrocious crime of Brahmin murder, and from that point on, he was forced to perform immense penance to redeem himself for this most heinous of transgressions. For many years to come, Bhairava carried with him the skull of the Brahman wherever he wandered. Because of his hideous and terrifying persona, Bhairava is said to have been honoured by a number of highly unorthodox practices such as offerings of liquor and meat all in an effort to appease his blood-thirstiness. He was considered to be most adequately propitiated, though, by human or animal sacrifice, an act not unheard of in ancient India.<ref>Lorenzen, 85.</ref> The Kapalikas (see below), a medieval Shavite sect, dedicated their personal devotion to Shiva in this form. Bhairava is also particularly popular in [[Nepal]].
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{{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|दक्षिणामूर्ति}})<ref>For iconographic description of the {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.</ref> literally describes a form (''{{IAST|mūrti}}'') of Shiva facing south (''{{IAST|dakṣiṇa}}''). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of [[yoga]], music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras.<ref>For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.</ref>  This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>For characterization of {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> Elements of this ''motif'' can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.<ref>For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.</ref>
  
===Avatars===
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===Mruthyunjaya===
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Literally translated as 'victor over death', this is an aspect of Shiva worshipped as the conqueror of Death as manifested in the Hindu lord of death, [[Yama]]. The particular legend in question deals with the sage [[Markandeya]], who was fated to die at the age of sixteen. On account of the sage's worship and devotion to Shiva, the Lord vanquished Yama to liberate his devotee from death. Shiva is often worshipped as Mruthyunjaya by the aged or ill, to ward off death and mitigate its harshness when it does occur. He is worshipped as such at the temples of Thirupainyeeli, near Trichinopoly, and at a shrine in Thirukadaiyur, near Chidambaram.
  
While bearing only minute resemblance to the [[avatar]]a doctrine which is so theologically crucial in the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] tradition, Shiva has been attributed with a number of incarnations of his own. These include the Panchabrahma avatars (Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Tatpurusa, Aghora, and Isana), the Sivastamurti avatars (Sarva, Bhava, Rudra, Ugra, Bhima, Isa, Mahadeva, and Pasupati), most of whome are simply alternative names for the deity which appear in the various Vedas. Also listed as avatars are Nandin, the white bull with whom Shiva is commonly pictured, as well as Sardula, Salabhava, Grhapatya, Yaksesavara, Kirata. These avatars are accompanied in the Shiva-Purana by a female consort, each of whom is herself considered an incarnation of Parvati. In terms of historical individuals, [[Shankara]], the influential ninth century founder of the non-dualist [[Advaita]] philosophy, is also considered Shiva incarnate. These avatars are by no means universally accepted throughout Shaivism as a whole; further, salvific power, when used in the mythology of these avatars, is always accredited solely to Shiva as opposed to his given incarnation.
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===Ardhanarishvara===
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[[Image:Arthanari.png|right|thumb|upright|Chola bronze from the [[11th century]]. Shiva in the form of [[Ardhanarisvara]]]]
  
==Shiva & Other Dieties==
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{{main|Ardhanari}}
===Sati===
 
  
One of the most important associations made in the mythology of Shiva between he and another deity is that with Sati, his first wife. Sati is the daughter of Daksa, and from an early age the purpose of her existence singularly centers upon making Shiva her husband. She was given this impetus by Brahma, who had earlier on been derisively mocked by Shiva when he had experienced pangs of incestuous lust for his own daughter. In order to exact some retribution, Brahma saw to it that Shiva would himself fall prey to sexual passion, in this case for Sati.  
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An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female.<ref>Goldberg, p. 1.</ref>  According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, (''{{IAST|Ardhanārīśvara}}'') is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman".<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.</ref>
  
Unfortunately for Sati, her life's ambition is made difficult since it is virtually impossible to draw Shiva out of his ascetic practices and into a domestic life. It is only through her own appeals to asceticism and devotion that she is able to stir Shiva's desire. At this point she asks Shiva to marry her, and he agrees. The marriage is traditional despite Shiva's impatience with the ritual and formalities. Over the course of the proceedings, Daksa begins to express trepidations with his soon-to-be-son-in-law's unsightly appearance and licentious comportment, and conflict develops between the two. After the wedding, Siva and Sati decamp to Mount Kailash where they bask in one another's company. Meanwhile, a spiteful Daksa organizes a great sacrifice to which all divine beings are invited, with the exception of the newlyweds. Furious with her father's unshakeable disapproval of her new husband, Sati kills herself.
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==={{IAST|Tripurāntaka}}===
  
When he hears of Sati's death, Shiva is furious and creates a variety of fierce beings including the demon Virabhadra. These demons overtake the various divinities assembled at Daksa's grand sacrifice, and end up killing Daksa. Shiva then enters the sacrifice and it proceeds without further issue. In alternative versions of the story, Shiva carries Sati's lifeless body all over the universe, causing various cosmic disturbances along the way. All the while, Vishnu follows Shiva throughout his destructive journey, slicing off parts of Sati's corpse as he goes. These parts fall to earth, marking sacred places commemorating the feminine divine (or ''Shakti peethas'') wherever they land. Once all the parts of Sati's body have been dispersed, Shiva returns to solitude in his mountain abode. Not only does this myth illustrate the destructive power of Shiva, but it also puts forward the idea that it is the feminine power (represented here by Sati) that makes the  hidden power of Shiva accessible to human beings in the physical world.
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{{main|Tripura (mythology)}}
  
===Parvati===
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Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, ''Tripura'', of the Asuras.<ref>For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.</ref>  Shiva's name {{IAST|Tripurāntaka}} (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|त्रिपुरान्तक}}), "Ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.<ref>For the {{IAST|Tripurāntaka}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.</ref>
After Sati's death, Shiva remarries, this time with the maiden Parvati. Prior to Parvati's birth, a demon by the name of Taraka had been granted a boon which made him invincible to any creature except for a child of Shiva. Because of Shiva's reputed asceticism and total abstinence from sex, the gods had to partake an active search to find a woman capable of pulling Shiva out of his austerities and into a sexual encounter. Sati was said to have consented to be reborn for the purpose of helping the gods, and so she readily took birth as Parvati. Much like Sati, Parvati became obsessed with Shiva at a young age. The possibility of a marriage between she and Shiva seemed even more promising by the fact that a ''rishi'' predicted, to the delight of her parents, that Parvati would marry a naked yogi.
 
  
Parvati made some initial attempts to attract Shiva's attention, but once again the god was too deeply immersed in his ascetic practices to notice her, considering women an unnecessary distraction to his [[meditation]]s. Desperate to defeat Taraka, the gods sent [[Kama]], the god of love, to stimulate Shiva's lust. The Cupid-like Kama fired his arrows-of-desire at Shiva in hopes of sending him into a lustful swoon, but Shiva quickly became aware of the love-god's trickery. Irritated by the momentary distraction, Shiva unveiled his dreadful third eye and blasted Kama with his ascetic fire, reducing him to a pile of ash. As a consequence of Shiva's actions, the entire earth was left barren and infertile in Kama's absence.
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===Lingam===
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{{main|Lingam}}
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{{seealso|Jyotirlinga}}
  
[[Image:Shiva parivar.jpg|thumb|right|An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva, [[Parvati]], [[Ganesha]] and [[Murugan|Skanda]] (Kartikeya)]]  
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Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a ''[[lingam]]'' is also important.<ref>Michaels, p. 216.</ref><ref>Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.</ref> These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column.
  
Although the gods mourned Kama's incineration, his work was not entirely in vain, as Shiva would indeed fall in love with Parvati, nonetheless. This occurred after Parvati surpassed all of the great sages in her austerities, and accumulated so much ascetic heat that she threatened even the gods themselves. This impelled them to approach Shiva and persuade him to marry her. Despite attempts made by agents of Shiva to test her devotion, Parvati proved faithful only to Shiva, and so he agreed to marry her. After the wedding, Shiva brings Kama back to life from the ashes at the request of Parvati and the desperate pleas of Ratri, Kama's own spouse. Shiva resurrected Kama not as an anthropomorphic being but as an incorporeal image only, as a representation of the fact that the true state of love is emotional and mental rather than simply physical. With that, the sexual and procreative aspect of the world was restored, and Shiva and Parvati were able to proceed in the consummation of their newly minted marriage.
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==The five mantras==
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[[Image:Five headed Shiva.jpg|thumb|right|Adoration of Five-headed Shiva by [[Vishnu]] (blue figure, to left of Shiva),[[Brahma]] (four headed figure to the right of Shiva), [[Ganesha]] (elephant-headed son of Shiva, bottom left) and other deities. Painting from [[LACMA]]]]
  
Just as in Shiva's previous marriage, he and his new bride depart to Mount Kailash for purposes of their honey-moon. Witnessing Shiva and Parvati's prodigious feats of love-making, the gods grew fearful of the potentially insurmountable strength that a child created by such powerful beings might possess. They promptly interrupt Shiva and Parvati in the midst of their embrace, and, as a result, Shiva's semen, fiery with his intense ascetic heat, lands in the Ganges River. It was at this point that the child [[Kartikeya]] was conceived and grew into an infant, whom Parvati raised as her own. Kartikeya went on to defeat the demon Taraka, thereby saving the world and so, once again, the efforts made by a woman to domesticate Shiva serve the benefit of the entire world.
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Five is a sacred number for Shiva.<ref>For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref>  One of his most important mantras has five syllables (''{{IAST|namaḥ śivāya}}'').<ref> It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref>
  
===Ganesha===
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Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the ''{{IAST|pañcabrahmans}}'':<ref>For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.</ref>  As forms of god, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:<ref>For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.</ref>
  
Shiva is also considered father, albeit indirectly, of the popular elephant-headed god [[Ganesha]]. The most common account of Ganesha's birth begins with Shiva leaving Parvati for an extended period of time to engage in further meditation upon Mount Kailash. His absence inspires intense loneliness within the goddess and, longing for some company, she conjures the shape of the young Ganesha from flecks of her discarded skin. She quickly orders her new son to stand guard at the door of her private chamber while she bathes. Eventually, Shiva returns from his meditation and attempts to access Parvati's private chamber. Ganesha refuses to let him in and a struggle ensues, which ends with Shiva beheading his adversary. Hearing the commotion, Parvati comes out of her bath and informs Shiva that he has killed her child, and in her anger threatens to destroy the entire universe if the situation is not rectified. Shiva promptly sends off his servants with orders that they should obtain the head of the first being they come across as a replacement for the missing head of the boy. The servants find an elephant and cut off its head, which they place upon Ganesh's shoulders once they have returned. When Ganesh regains consciousness, Shiva adopts him as his own. <ref>Courtright, 5.</ref>
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*[[Sadyojata|{{IAST|Sadyojāta}}]]
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*[[Vamadeva|{{IAST|Vāmadeva}}]]
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*[[Aghora]]
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*[[Tatpurusha|{{IAST|Tatpuruṣa}}]]
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*[[Ishana|{{IAST|Īsāna}}]]
  
Another story claims that Shiva created Ganesha by way of his laughter alone. After Ganesha's birth, Shiva became concerned that the youth was excessively beautiful, and so he cursed Ganesha to have the head of an elephant and a protruding belly in order to make his appearance more comical and less aesthetically pleasing.<ref>Brown, 77.</ref>
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These are represented as the five faces of Shiva, and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.<ref>For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref><ref>For the epithets ''{{IAST|pañcamukha}}'' and ''{{IAST|pañcavaktra}}'', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of {{IAST|Śiva}}, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.</ref>  Doctrinal differences and possibly errors in transmission have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.<ref>For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.</ref> But the overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
  
===Vishnu===
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 184.</ref>
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</blockquote>
  
Shiva and Vishnu, representing the two most popular male gods in the Hindu pantheon and each having inspired his own monotheistic tradition in the forms of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, respectively, have understandably developed something of a mutual rivalry. Efforts to identify each god as the antithesis of the other has lead to noticeable juxtapositions in their characters: while Shiva is the ascetic connected with a spate of macabre images, Vishnu is the bejeweled monarch, ruling over the universe as a king would a society. Further, myths arising out of each tradition will often recount similar tales involving the exploits of both gods, often presenting their chosen deity as superior. The Siva Puranas, for instance, do not allow any deity other than Shiva the satisfaction of destroying a demon; however, in the Vaishnava Puranas, Siva is unable to slay any demon without the intervention of Vishnu at the crucial moment<ref>Klostermaier, 151.</ref>. In one such myth, Siva grants the demon Vrka a boon which affords him the ability to kill whomever he touches. Vrka promptly attempts to apply the boon to Parvati and even Shiva himself. Helpless to the conditions of the very boon he had granted, Shiva is forced to rely on Vishnu's aid to save him. Vishnu suggests to Vrka that he test the boon on his own head, insinuating that Shiva is a liar, and Vrka inadvertently kills himself in the process of putting the allegations to test. Similarly, Shaivite mythographers also reinvented or reshaped stories to show how it was in fact Vishnu who was dependent on Shiva. For example, it is sometimes said by Shaivites that it was Shiva who bestowed Vishnu with his all-important weapon, the Sudarsanacakra.
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According to the ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'':
  
[[Image:Harihara.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vishnu]] (right half - blue) and [[Shiva]] (left half - white)]]
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of {{IAST|Śiva}} is of the character of the fivefold [[Brahman]]. (''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31)<ref>Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref></blockquote>
  
Despite their rivalry, Shiva and Vishnu are sometimes depicted together in the form of the Hari-Hara, a statue of a single figure split down the center into two distinct halves. One half has all the characteristic markings of Vishnu (or Hari) while the other half possesses those of Shiva (Hara). This figure is comparable to the aforementioned Ardhanarisvara, though much less common. Just as in that figure, the Hari-Hara depictions almost always place Shiva on the right hand side, pointing toward his superiority over Vishnu on the relatively inauspicious left.
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==Relationship to Vishnu==
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[[Image:Harihara.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vishnu]] (left half - blue) and [[Shiva]] (right half - white)]]
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During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 B.C.E.) both were gaining ascendance.<ref>For relatively minor position in Vedic times, and rise in progress by 1000-700 B.C.E. see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125, note 2.</ref> By the Puranic period both deities had major sects that competed with one another for devotees.<ref>For the rise in popularity of Shiva and Vishnu, and the role of Puranas in promoting sectarian positions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 110-111.</ref>  Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities.
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Sectarian forces each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva.<ref>For Visnu becoming Shiva in [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125.</ref> The ''Vishnu Purana'' (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both {{IAST|Brahmā}} to create the world, and Shiva to destroy it.<ref>For Vishnu Purana dating of 4th c. CE and role of Vishnu as supreme deity, see: Flood (1996), p. 111.</ref> Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the ''Bhagavata Purana''.<ref>For identification of Shiva as a manifestation of Vishnu see: ''Bhagavata Purana'' 4.30.23, 5.17.22-23, 10.14.19.</ref>  In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world.<ref>For predominant role of Shiva in some myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 128.</ref> In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and {{IAST|Brahmā}} are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame.<ref>For the ''lingodbhava'' myth, and Vishnu and Brahmā as emanations of Shiva, see: Zimmer (1946), pp. 128-129.</ref> The [[Shri Rudram|''Śatarudrīya'']], a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu".<ref>For translation of the epithet {{lang|sa|शिपिविष्ट}} (IAST: ''{{IAST|śipiviṣṭa}}'') as "salutation to him of the form of Vishṇu" included in the fifth ''{{IAST|anuvāka}}'', and comment that this epithet "links {{IAST|Śiva}} with {{IAST|Vishṇu}}" see: Sivaramamurti, pp. 21, 64.</ref>  Difference in viewpoints between the two sects is apparent in the story of [[Sharaba|{{IAST|Śarabha}}]] (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as [[Narasimha]], the man-lion, who killed [[Hiranyakashipu]], an ardent devotee of Shiva.<ref>For {{IAST|Śarabha}} as an "animal symplegma" form of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref><ref>For incarnation in composite form as man, bird, and beast to chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti, p. 49.</ref>
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Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. [[Harihara]] is a the name of a combined deity form of both [[Vishnu]] ([[Hari]]) and Shiva ([[Hara]]).<ref>Chakravarti, pp. 54-55.</ref> This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]].<ref>For Harirudra citation to Mbh. III.39.76f see: Hopkins (1969), p. 221.</ref> An example of a collaboration story is one given to explain Shiva's epithet {{IAST|Mahābaleśvara}}, "Lord of Great Strength" (Maha = great, Bala = strength, {{IAST|Īśvara}} = Lord). This name refers to story in which [[Ravana|{{IAST|Rāvaṇa}}]] was given a ''[[linga]]'' as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present [[Deoghar]] in [[Bihar]] to purify himself and asked [[Narada]] a devotee of Vishnu in the guise of a [[Brahmin]] to hold the ''linga'' for him, but after some time Narada put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the ''linga'', and it is said to remain there ever since.<ref>For the story of {{IAST|Rāvaṇa}} and the {{IAST|Mahābaleśvara}} ''linga'' see: Chakravarti, p. 168.</ref>
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==Avatars==
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Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as [[Avatars]]. [[Adi Shankara]], the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist [[Vedanta]] was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva.<ref>Padma Purana 6.236.7-11</ref> In the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' [[Hanuman]] is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.<ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref>
  
 
==Worship==
 
==Worship==
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{{Unreferenced|date=February 2008}}
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[[Image:108shivalingas.jpg|right|thumb|108 shiva [[linga]]s carved on the rock at the banks of river [[Tungabhadra]], [[Hampi]]]]
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In [[Shaivism]], Shiva is the God of all and is worshipped by all, from [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]] (gods) such as [[Brahma]], [[Indra]], by [[Asuras]](demons) like [[Bana]], [[Ravana]],  by humans like [[Adi Shankara]], [[Nayanars]], by creatures as diverse as [[Jatayu]], an eagle, and [[Vali]], an ape. Furthermore, people of different backgrounds and qualities worship Shiva with many temples having histories of even [[crane (bird)|crane]]s, [[bee]]s, [[elephant]]s, (see [[Kalahasti]]), [[spider]]s, [[snake]]s, worshipping Shiva and getting blessed. It concludes that the Good Lord blesses anyone who worships him with sincere devotion as there is no discrimination based on the seeker.
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Although Lord Shiva loves His devotees equally and does not ignore the [[tapasya|meditation]] even of demons such as the [[rakshasa]]s and [[asura]]s, He always finds ways to protect [[dharma|righteousness]] and never allows any evil to triumph over good.
  
Shaivism refers to a cluster of Hindu schools and traditions in which are devoted primarily to the worship of Shiva. Shaivism is practiced widely throughout India, and varies greatly in both [[philosophy]] and practice based upon distinct regional variations. With approxiamately 200 million adherents, Shaivism is one of the most prominent communities within Hinduism, second only to Vaishnavism <ref>''The World Almanac & Book of Facts'' 1998 (K-111 Reference Corp.: Mahwah, NJ), pg. 654.</ref>
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Major deities, [[rishi]]s, [[planet]]s, worshipped Shiva and established [[Shivalinga]]s in various places.
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[[Image:Somjyotir.jpg|right|thumb|Somnath Jyotirlinga]]
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# [[Pashupatinath]] Lord of all living beings, located at Kathmandu, Nepal.
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# [[Somnath]] located at Prabhas Patan in [[Saurashtra]] in [[Gujarat]].
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# [[Dwarka]] in Gujarat is home to the Nageshwar Jyotirlinga temple.
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# [[Mahakal|Mahakal, Ujjain]] (or Avanti) in [[Madhya Pradesh]] is home to the Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga temple.
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# [[Srisailam]] - Srisailam near [[Kurnool]] enshrines Mallikarjuna in an ancient temple architecturally and sculpturally rich.
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# [[Bhimashankar]], in the [[Sahyadri]] range of [[Maharashtra]], contains a Jyotirlinga shrine associated with Shiva destroying the demon Tripurasura.
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# [[Omkareshwar]] in Madhya Pradesh is an island in the [[Narmada river]], home to a Jyotirlinga shrine and the Amareshwar temple.
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# [[Sukreswar Temple]] located on Sukreswar hill in [[Guwahati]] on the southern bank of Brahmaputra, with the [[ghat]] leading down to the river.
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# [[Uma Nanda Temple]] located on the Peacock island in middle of River [[Brahmaputra]] in [[Guwahati]].
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# [[Kedarnath]] in [[Uttarakhand]] is the northernmost of the [[Jyotirlinga]]s.
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# [[Varanasi]] (Benares) in [[Uttar Pradesh]] is home to the Vishwanath Jyotirling temple.
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# [[Trimbakeshwar]], near [[Nashik]] in [[Maharashtra]], has a Jyotirlinga shrine located associated with the origin of the [[Godavari river]].
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# [[Grishneshwar]] Jyotirlinga shrine, in [[Maharashtra]], is located near the rock-cut temples of [[Ellora]].
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# [[Deoghar]], in the [[Santhal Parganas]] region of [[Jharkhand]], is home to the Vaidyanath Jyotirlinga temple.
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# [[Ganesha]] worshipped Shiva at [[Pillayar patti]] (100 km from [[Madurai]], India)
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# The four [[Veda]]s worshipped Shiva at [[Thirumaraikaadu]] (i.e., [[Vedaaranyam]] near [[Tanjore]])
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# [[Skanda]] worshipped Shiva at [[Thiruchendur]] (200 km from Madurai, India)
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# [[Rama]] ([[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]) worshipped Shiva in [[Rameswaram]](India)
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# [[Vishnu]] worshipped Shiva at[[Kanchipuram]] ([[Kachiswarar]] Temple)
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# [[Parasurama]] (avatar of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva at [[Sreesailam]], [[Karnataka]] and also at [[Chennai]] (Parasurama at [[Lingeshwara]] Temple, [[Iyanavaram]])
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# Goddess [[Lakshmi]] (wife of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva at [[Tirupachethi]] (50 km from [[Madurai]]).
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# [[Surya]] worshipped Shiva at Srivilliputhur (Vaidhyanathaar Temple 100 km from Madurai)
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# [[Brahma]] and [[Vishnu]] at [[Tiruvannamalai]] (180 km from Chennai)
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# Brahma at [[Vrinchipuram]] (155 km from [[Chennai]], 15 km from [[Vellore]])
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# [[Rahu]] and [[Ketu]] at [[Kaalahasthi]] (50 km from [[Tirupathi]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]])
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# [[Indra]] at [[Madurai]] ([[Soma Sundareeswar]] Temple)
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# The Rishi [[Agastya]] at [[Papanasam]] (100 km from [[Tirunelveli]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India)
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# Goddess [[Parvati]] at [[Kancheepuram]] ([[Ekambeeswarar]] [[Temple]], 70 km from [[Chennai]], India)
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# [[Shani]] at [[Thirnallar]] (near [[Kaaraikal]], [[Pondicherry]])
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# [[Moongod]] at [[Thingalur]] (near [[Tanjore]])
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# Shiva and [[Sani]] at [[Thirvidaimaruthoor]] (near [[Kumbakonam]])
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# [[Brahma]] at [[Kumbakoonam]] ([[Kumbeeswarar]], near [[Tanjore]])
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# [[Ujjain]] Jyotirlinga shrine, in [[Madhya Pradesh]].
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# Lord Shiva at Trilochan, is famous with name of Trilochan Mhadev Temple, 30 km from [[varanasi]] , [[india]]
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# [[Manjunatha]] - Lord of mist at [[Dharmasthala]] this one famous pilgrim of [[Dakshina Kannada]],[[Karnataka]].
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# [[Nanjundeshwara]] - One who has gulped nanju-pain or [[Halahala]] in his throat or [[SriKanteshwara]] at [[Nanjangud]] near [[Mysore]],[[Karnataka]]
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# Atma[[Linga]] at [[Gokarna]] ,[[Karnataka]].
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# [[Panchalingeshwara]] - 5 [[Linga]]s, all of which are covered with sand but opens up at specific dates at [[Talakad]], Karnataka.
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# [[Shivagange]]- Believed to be patala[[Ganga]] flowing by rishi [[Agastya]] worship. [[Bangalore]], Karnataka.
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# [[Murudeshwara]] in [[Uttara Kannada]], Karnataka.
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# [[Kudalasangama]] in [[Basavakalyana]], Karnataka.
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# By [[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]] and [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] (sons of [[Rama]]) in Kurungaleeswar temple at Koyambedu Chennai.
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# [[Bakreshwar]] and [[Tarakeshwar]] in [[West Bengal]]
  
Some of the most prominent Shaivite schools include:
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In South India, five temples of Shiva are held to be particularly important, as being manifestations of him in the five elemental substances:
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# [[Tiruvannamalai]], as fire
 +
# [[Chidambaram]], as ether
 +
# [[Srikalahasti]], as air
 +
# [[Tiruvanaikal]], as water
 +
# [[Kanchipuram|Conjeeveram]], as earth
  
*The '''Pashupatas''' (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|Pāśupatas}}''), one of the oldest named Shaivite sects, wielded great influence over South Indian Shaivism from the 7th to 14th centuries. The sect is well known because of two surviving texts, the ''Ganakarika'' and the ''Pasupata Sutra'', each of which put forth the dualistic distinction between souls (pashu), God (pati) and the physical word (pāsha), which become a cornerstone of various traditions that followed, especially Shaiva Siddhanta.
+
==Names of Shiva== 
  
*The '''Kapalikas''' centred around bhakti devotion to Bhairava. Recapitulating the mythology of Bhairava themselves, Kapalikas based their religious lives upon penance for the murder of Brahmins in order to accumulate merit, and so they too carried skulls with them as they wandered from town to town. Members of this sect were linked with a number of bizarre ritual practices, including meat-eating, intoxication, orgies, and even cannibalism, all in an effort to satisfy the horrifying god to whom they were devoted. 
+
[[Image:statueofshiva.JPG|right|thumb|A statue of Shiva near [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]], [[Delhi]]]]
  
*The '''Kalamukhas''' (or "black-faced"), meanwhile, are often closely linked to the Kapalikas, although their practices were more congruent with the Bramanical tradition than opposed to it. Information on this sect, though limited, suggests that the Kalamukhas existed in ''mathas'', monastic organizations centered around a temple.
+
In Hinduism, deities are called by many names, which describe them in different ways. These names often refer to specific stories about the deities, functions they perform, or ways of thinking about them. Study of these names is helpful to understanding deities from multiple points of view. Some names are used by more than one deity, so looking for names that ''uniquely'' describe a deity is one way to pinpoint their functions.
  
*The '''[[Nayanars]]''', an exalted group comprised of sixty-three poet-saints that arose in South India during the seventh century C.E., were among the first proponents of the vernacular [[bhakti]] tradition. The hymns penned by these saints communicate deep emotional love for Shiva in his personal form.
+
===Sahasranamas===
 
*'''Kashmir Shaivism''' is a name given to a number of diverse and influential sects which thrived in the northern Indian region of  Kashmir during the second half of the ninth century CE.  Among these groups were the dualistic Shaiva Siddhantas (see below) and a number of monistic traditions, such as those of the Trika and Krama.
 
  
*'''Shiva Siddhanta''' is a tradition which seems to have originated as early as the sixth century CE in Kashmir and central India,<ref>Keay, 62.</ref> although it also flourished in South India. Between the eleventh or twelfth centuries CE Shaiva Siddhanta was well-established in this area of the subcontinent, particularly in Tamil Nadu.<ref>Flood (2003), 217.</ref> Shaiva Siddhanta upholds the older Pashupata distinction between three eternal substrates: souls, God, and the physical world, and is still widely practiced today.
+
There are at least eight different versions of the ''[[Shiva Sahasranama]]'', devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=viii-ix}}</ref> The version appearing in Book 13 ({{IAST|Anuśāsanaparvan}}) of the [[Mahabharata]] is considered the kernel of this tradion.<ref>This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5.</ref>
  
*'''Virashaivism''' ("heroic Shaivism", whose followers are know as the Lingayats or "bearers of the linga") is a reformist Shaivite sect with approxiamately six million adherents located in the South India state of Karnataka.<ref>Padoux, "Virashaivas", 12.</ref> The movement originated along the border regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra in the mid-12th century. As is evident by their alternative moniker, the linga represents the most important religious symbol for this group, and so members must pay homage to it at least twice every day.
+
The nine versions of Shiva sahasranamas are
  
===Temples===
+
:1. ''Mahabharata'' 13.17.30-150 ({{IAST|Anuśāsanaparvan}} Version)
There are innumerable temples and shrines dedicated to Shiva throughout India, each of which is based upon the instructions for temple construction delineated in one of the twenty-eight volumes which make up the Agamas. The architecture and layout, locations of the images, and directions for methods of worship are all prescribed in the chosen Agama, and no deviation from these directions is permitted. Shiva temples have a number of common features, including a tall multi-storied gopuram, which rises tower-like at the temple entrance and is enclosed within a high wall. A focal linga usually resides deep within the temple compound of buildings, courtyards and gardens; the linga and the special structure that houses it are placed in such a way that they face the compound entrance directly. Only the guru may enter this [[sanctum sanctorum]]. Every Siva temple has at least one path encircling its sacred space, around which a procession may walk as part of the devotional service. A stone statue of Siva as Teacher, the ''Dakshinamurthy'', faces south. These images and symbols of Shiva are commonly accompanied by icons dedicated to those closely related to him in his mythology, including sons [[Ganesha]] and [[Skandha]], as well as [[Shakti|Śakti]] with whom he is often depicted as Ardhanarishvara.
+
:2. 'Rudrayamala''
 +
:3. ''Linga Purana'' (version 1, LP 1.65.54-168) is close to the Mahabharata {{IAST|Anuśāsanaparvan}} version.
 +
:4. ''Linga Purana'' (version 2, LP 1.98.27-159) has some passages in common with LP version 1, but also with other sources
 +
:5. ''Shivapurana'' 4.35.1-131.
 +
:6. ''Mahabharata'' ({{IAST|Śāntiparvan}} version). The critical edition of the Mahabharata does not include this version, relegating it to Appendix 28 to {{IAST|Śāntiparvan}}. It does appear in the text of the Gita Press edition as 12.284.68-180.
 +
:7. ''Vayu Purana'' (1.30.179-284) is almost the same as the Mahabharata {{IAST|Śāntiparvan}} version.
 +
:8. ''Brahmanda Purana'' (38.1.1-100) is almost the same as the Vayu Purana version.
 +
:9. ''{{IAST|Mahābhāgavata}} Upapurana'' (67.1-125) appears to be of comparatively recent origin.
  
===Ritual===
+
Lord Shiva also has DashaSahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa.
''Shivacharyas'' ("teachers of Shiva") conduct Shiva worship services. The usual service proceeds with the anointing of the image of the Shiva with [[oil]], water, [[milk]], [[ghee]], [[honey]], [[curd]], [[sandalwood]] paste, and a number of other substances. Immediatly afterward, the icon of Shiva is showered with blossoms, then adorned with jewels and flower garlands. Incense is burned, and a food offering is made, typically consisting of rice. After [[camphor]] and lamps of various designs are lit and presented to the image of the deity, the burning camphor is carried to the entirety of the congregation. The worshippers reverentially place their palms over the flame before placing them over their eyes, a gesture signifying the idea that devotion to Shiva is as precious to the worshipper as his or her own sight. Finally, sacred ash and powdered turmeric mixed with slaked lime are distributed into the upraised palms of the worshippers, who touch this mixture to their foreheads. The worshippers then progress along the path of circumambulation around the diety at least once before prostrating in prayer to the sacrosanct linga, all the while singing and reciting verses from the holy texts.
 
  
===Shiva Ratri===
+
===Rudram Chamakam===
 +
The [[Shri Rudram Chamakam]], also known as the  ''Śatarudriya'', is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.<ref>For an overview of the ''Śatarudriya'' see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.</ref><ref>For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).</ref>
  
The foremost festival dedicated to Shiva is that of Shiva Ratri, literally the "night of Shiva", which celebrates the day the god drank the Halahala poison, thereby saving all of humanity. The event takes place on fourteenth day of the waning moon in the month of Falgun (February- March), and, on this day, Shaivite Temples are elaborately decorated, with hordes of devotees lining up to offer obeisances to Shiva.<ref>[http://www.vmission.org/hinduism/festivals/shivratri.htm]</ref> In honour of Shiva's insouciant attitude toward the phenomenal world, for this occassion devotees become intoxicated by a drink called Thandai made from cannabis, almonds, and milk. This beverage is consumed as [[prasad]] while singing devotional hymns and dancing to the rhythm of drums. <ref>[http://hinduism.about.com/library/weekly/aa022001a.htm]</ref>
 
  
==Significance==
+
== Notes ==
 +
{{reflist|2}}
  
In terms of the theologically diverse Hindu tradition, Shiva is the great synthesizer, in that he has subsumed the traits and traditions of many, multifarious deities. His highly personalistic form serves to represent the manifold and malleable nature of divinity, rather than a static, impersonal force pervading the universe. What results is a rich, vibrant, and truly human god, marked by seemingly paradoxical elements of his character. For instance, in his mythological connections with Sati and Parvati, Shiva illustrates not only the power of asceticism, but also the equal necessity of physical love and domestic responsibility. Further, in his aspects as Rudra and Bhairava he provides one of the most obvious examples of [[Rudolph Otto]]'s ''mysterium tremendum fascinans'' — that is, he not only represents the benevolent aspects typical of a typical creator god, but also the equally important fear-inspiring elements of a cosmic destroyer. As such, Shiva's very character is defined by a process of reconciliation of opposites, and so he can be thought of the divine embodiment of a continual dialectical synthesis.
+
==References==
  
==Notes==
+
[[Image:Shivalinga.png|right|thumb|A Shiva Linga]]
 +
 
 +
*{{Citation
 +
| last=Apte
 +
| first=Vaman Shivram
 +
| year=1965
 +
| title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary
 +
| place=Delhi
 +
| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
 +
| edition=Fourth revised and enlarged
 +
| isbn=81-208-0567-4
 +
}}
 +
*Arya, Ravi Prakash & K. L. Joshi. ''{{IAST|Ṛgveda Saṃhitā}}: Sanskrit Text, English Translation''. Parimal Publications, Delhi, 2001, ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9.
 +
*{{Citation
 +
| last=Chakravarti
 +
| first=Mahadev
 +
| year=1994
 +
| title=The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages
 +
| place=Delhi
 +
| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass
 +
| edition=Second Revised
 +
| isbn=81-208-0053-2
 +
}}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Chidbhavananda |first=Swami |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Siva Sahasranama Stotram: With Navavali, Introduction, and English Rendering. |year=1997 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam |location= |isbn=81-208-0567-4 }} (Third edition). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the Anuśāsana Parva of the Mahābharata.
 +
*{{cite book |last=Courtright |first=Paul B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title={{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=ISBN 0-19-505742-2 }}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |authorlink= Gavin Flood |coauthors= |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn= 0-521-43878-0}}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin (Editor)|authorlink= Gavin Flood |coauthors= |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|location=Malden, MA|isbn=1-4051-3251-5 }}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Goldberg |first=Ellen |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective|year=2002 |publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, New York |isbn= 0-7914-5326-X}}
 +
*{{Citation
 +
| last=Griffith
 +
| first=T. H.
 +
| year=1973
 +
| title=The Hymns of the {{IAST|Ṛgveda}}
 +
| place=Delhi
 +
| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass
 +
| edition=New Revised
 +
| isbn=81-208-0046-X
 +
}}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Gupta |first=Shakti M.|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva|year=1988 |publisher=Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd.|location=Bombay |isbn=81-7039-186-5 }}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=E. Washburn |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Epic Mythology|year=1969 |publisher=Biblo and Tannen |location=New York |isbn= }} Originally published in 1915.
 +
*{{cite book |last=Jansen |first=Eva Rudy|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Book of Hindu Imagery|year=1993 |publisher=Binkey Kok Publications BV |location=Havelte, Holland |isbn=90-74597-07-6 }}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Keay |first=John|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=India: A History |year=2000 |publisher=Grove Press |location=New York |isbn=0-8021-3797-0 }}
 +
*{{cite book |series= |last=Kramrisch |first=Stella |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Presence of Śiva |year=1981 |publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=0-691-01930-4 }}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Macdonell |first=Arthur Anthony |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1996 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-215-0715-4 }}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Mate |first=M. S. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Temples and Legends of Maharashtra |year=1988 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |location=Bombay |isbn= }}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Michaels |first=Axel|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Hinduism: Past and Present |year=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=0-691-08953-1 }}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Sarup |first=Lakshman|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The {{IAST|Nighaṇṭu}} and The Nirukta |year=1920-1927 |publisher=|location=|isbn= }} Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002, ISBN 81-208-1381-2.
 +
*{{Citation
 +
| last=Sharma
 +
| first=Ram Karan
 +
| year=1988
 +
| title=Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata
 +
| place=Delhi
 +
| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass
 +
| edition=Second
 +
| isbn=81-208-0544-5
 +
}}
 +
*{{Citation
 +
| last=Sharma
 +
| first=Ram Karan
 +
| year=1996
 +
| title={{IAST|Śivasahasranāmāṣṭakam}}: Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of Śiva
 +
| place=Delhi
 +
| publisher= Nag Publishers
 +
| edition=
 +
| isbn=81-7081-350-6
 +
}} This work compares eight versions of the Śivasahasranāmāstotra with comparative analysis and Śivasahasranāmākoṣa (A Dictionary of Names). The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit.
 +
*{{cite book |series= |last=Sivaramamurti |first=C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Śatarudrīya: Vibhūti of Śiva's Iconography |year=1976 |publisher= Abhinav Publications|location=Delhi|isbn= }}
 +
*{{cite book |last=Stutley |first=Margaret|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography|year=1985 |publisher=|location=|isbn= }} First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003, ISBN 81-215-1087-2.
 +
*{{cite book |last=Tattwananda |first=Swami|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship  |year=1984 |publisher=Firma KLM Private Ltd. |location=Calcutta |isbn= }} First revised edition.
 +
*{{cite book |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization  |year=1946 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=0-691-01778-6 }} First Princeton-Bollingen printing, 1972.
 +
*{{cite book |last= |first=|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Hanuman Chalisa |year=1985 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |location=Chennai, India|isbn=81-7120-086-9 }}
 +
 
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<references/>
 
  
==References==
 
*Bhandarkar, Ramakrishna Gopal. ''Vaisnavism, Śaivism, and Minor Religious Systems'', Third AES reprint edition. 1913 New Delhi: Asian Educational Services,  1995. ISBN 81-206-0122-X
 
*Brown, Robert L. ''Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God''. Albany: State University of New York, 1991. ISBN 0791406571
 
*Chakravarti, Mahadev. ''The Concept of Rudra-Shiva Through the Ages.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986. ISBN 8120800532
 
*Courtright, Paul B. ''Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. ISBN 0195057422
 
*Doniger, Wendy. ''Asceticism and eroticism in the mythology of Śiva''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. ISBN 0197135730
 
*Flood, Gavin. ''An Introduction to Hinduism''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521438780
 
*Flood, Gavin (Editor). ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism''. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2003. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5
 
*Goldberg, Ellen. ''The Lord Who Is Half Woman: Ardhanarisvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective''. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0791453261
 
*Keay, John. ''India: A History.'' New York: Grove Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0 
 
*Klostermaier, Klaus K. ''Hinduism: A Short History.'' Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000. ISBN 1-85168-213-9
 
*Lorenzen, David. ''The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Saivite Sects''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1972. ISBN 81-208-0708-1
 
*Mukundan, A.P. ''Unto Shiva Consciousness''. New Delhi: Samkaleen Prakashan, 1992. ISBN 81-7083-109-1
 
*Padoux, Andre. "Saivism: Virasaivas." ''Encyclopedia of Religion''. Edited by Mercia Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987, 12-13. ISBN 0029098505
 
  
  
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[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
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{{Credit| 218047834}}

Revision as of 21:02, 12 June 2008

For other uses, see Shiva (disambiguation).

Template:IndicTextRight

Shiva
A statue in Bangalore depicting Shiva meditating
A statue in Bangalore depicting Shiva meditating
Devanagari: शिव
Sanskrit Transliteration: Śiva
Abode: Mount Kailāsa[1]
Mantra: Aum Namah Sivaya
Weapon: Trident (Trishul)
Consort: Parvati or Sati or Shakti or Durga
Mount: Nandi (bull)

Shiva (pronunciation: [ʃɪ.ʋə]; Sanskrit: शिव, Śiva, lit. "Auspicious one") is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. Within Shaivism he is viewed as the Supreme deity, whereas in other branches of Hinduism such as the Smarta tradition he is worshipped as one of the six manifestations of the Divine. Followers of Hinduism who focus their worship upon Shiva are called Shaivites or Shaivas (Sanskrit Śaiva).[2] His role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("great god"; mahā = great + deva = god),[3][4] Maheśvara ("great lord"; mahā = great + īśvara = lord),[5][6] and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord").[7] Shaivism, along with Vaiṣṇava traditions that focus on Vishnu, and Śākta traditions that focus on the goddess (Devī) are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism.[8]

Shiva is one of the six primary forms of the Divine in Smartism, a denomination of Hinduism that puts particular emphasis on six deities, the other five being Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Kartikkeya and Surya.[9] Another way of thinking about the divinities in Hinduism identifies Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva as each representing one of the three primary aspects of the divine in Hinduism, known collectively as the Trimurti. In the Trimurti system, Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer or transformer.[10]

Shiva is usually worshipped as the Shiva linga. In images, he is generally represented as immersed in deep meditation or dancing the Tandava upon the demon of ignorance in his manifestation of Nataraja, the lord of the dance.

Etymology

The Sanskrit word śiva or Shivam (Devanagari िशव) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.[11][12] As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a euphemistic name for Rudra.[13] In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. Pronunciation is written in the International Phonetic Alphabet as IPA: [ɕivə]. The adjective śiva meaning "auspicious" is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.[14] In the Rig Veda, Indra uses this word to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3)

In Tamil Siva literally means "the supreme one". Adi Sankara in his interpretation of the name Shiva, the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to mean either "The Pure One," i.e., the One who is not affected by three Gunas of Prakrti, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. or "the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name." [15] Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu sahasranama further elaborates on that verse: Shiva means the One who is eternally pure, or the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas [16]

The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism, and for a member of one of those sects.[17] It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[18]

The name Shiva, in one interpretation, is also said to have derived from the Dravidian word “Siva” meaning “to be red”. It is the equivalent of Rudra, “the red” RigVeda.[19]

Historical development

For the early history, see Rudra.

The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.[20][21] Modern historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built-up over time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure.[22] How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well-documented.[23] Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows:

Like Vişņu, Śiva is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: Śaivism. Like Vaişņavism, the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.[24]

An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes.[25] The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri.[26] Khandoba has been assimilated both as a name for Karttikya[27] and also as a form of Shiva himself[28] in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.[29][30] Khandoba's varied associations also include an indentification with Surya.[31] The derivation of the name Khandoba has been variously interpreted, and M. S. Mate says that the most commonly-held belief is that it was a distorted form of Skanda, but also notes alternate theories.[32]

The Pashupati seal

File:Pashupati.gif
An Indus Valley seal with the seated figure termed pashupati.

A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.[33] This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals,or Lord of Beings Sanskrit paśupati)[34] seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.[35] Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.

This claim has not fared well with some modern academics. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.[36][37] Historian John Keay is more specifically dismissive, saying:

...there is little evidence for the currency of this myth. Rudra, a Vedic deity later identified with Shiva, is indeed referred to as pasupati because of his association with cattle; but asceticism and meditation were not Rudra's specialties, nor is he usually credited with an empathy for animals other than kine. More plausibly, it has been suggested that the Harappan figure's heavily horned headgear bespeaks a bull sect, to which numerous other representations of bulls lend substance.[38]

Rudra

Main article: Rudra
File:ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.jpg
Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century CE

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra[39] and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.

The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700–1100 B.C.E. based on linguistic and philological evidence.[40] A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods.[41] Furthermore, the Rudram, one of the most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas, and addressed to Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances.

The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:

To what extent Śiva's origins are in fact to be sought in Rudra is extremely unclear. The tendency to consider Śiva an ancient god is based on this identification, even though the facts that justify such a far-reaching assumption are meager.[42]

Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: Śarva)[43] and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra.[44] This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.[45] The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv- which means "to injure" or "to kill"[46] and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness".[47] The names Dhanvin ("Bowman")[48] and Bāṇahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands")[49][50] also refer to archery.

Identification with Vedic deities

Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others.[51]

Agni

Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[52][53] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.[54] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says "Agni is called Rudra also".[55] The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:

The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.[56]

In the Śatarudrīa, some epithets of Rudra such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright") suggest a fusing of the two deities.[57] Agni is said to be a bull[58] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.[59][60] In medieval sculpture both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.[61]

Indra

The Indologist, Koenraad Elst proposes that Shiva of Puranic Hinduism is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.[citation needed] He gives several reasons for his hypothesis. Both Shiva and Indra are known for having a thirst for Soma. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[62] 6.45.17,[63][64] and 8.93.3.[65])

Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[66][67]

Indra is likened to a white elephant named 'Airavat' instead of the bull. The two deity are separate from each other.

In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.[68]

Attributes of Shiva

Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, with crescent moon on his head, the Ganga flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull necklace, covered in ashes and Trisula and Damaru are seen in the background.
Shiva Bearing the Descent of the Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look, folio from a Hindi manuscript by the saint Narayan, circa 1740
  • Third Eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes.[69] There has been controversy regarding the original meaning of Shiva's name Tryambakam (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम्), which occurs in many scriptural sources.[70] In classical Sanskrit the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "Having Three Eyes".[71] However, in Vedic Sanskrit the word ambā or ambikā means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "Having Three Mothers" that was used by Max Müller and Arthur Macdonell.[72][73] Since no story is known in which Shiva had three mothers, E. Washburn Hopkins suggested that the name refers not to three mothers, but to three Mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās.[74] Other related translations have been "having three wives or sisters", or based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā.[75]
  • Blue Throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = blue, kaṇtha = throat)[76][77] refers to a story in which Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean.[78][79] (see: Halāhala)
  • Crescent Moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the moon.[80] The epithet Chandraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" - chandra = Moon, śekhara = crest, crown)[81][82][83] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.[84] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly emplored, and in later literature Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the Moon.[85]
  • Matted Hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "The One with matted hair"[86] and Kapardin, "Endowed with matted hair"[87] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".[88] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or more generally hair that is shaggy or curly.[89]
  • Sacred Ganga: The Ganga river flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The epithet Gaṅgādhara ("Bearer of the river Gaṅgā") refers to this feature.[90][91] The Ganga (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.[92] The legend of Bhagiratha states that when the sage of that name invoked the gods to send the divine Ganges to earth to relieve a drought and purify the remains of his ancestors, he was warned that the earth had not the capacity to withstand the descent of the Ganges from heaven, in pursuit of which he propitiated Siva to receive the Ganges upon her descent from heaven and release her with diminished force. Siva agreed to trap the youthful and mischievous Ganges in his matted locks and release her to the earth. It was thus, according to Hindu legend, that the Ganges came to be trapped in Siva's locks, and to be portrayed as flowing therefrom, in all representations of Siva.[citation needed]
  • Ashes: Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma).[93] Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.[94] These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.[95] One epithet for Shiva is "Inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: śmaśānavāsin, also spelled Shmashanavasin) referring to this connection.[96]
  • Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[98]
  • Trident: (Sanskrit: Trishula) Shiva's particular weapon is the trident.[99]
  • Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru (Sanskrit: ḍamaru).[100][101] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation[102] known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum.[103] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.[104]
  • Nandī, also known as Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: vāhana).[105][106] Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati or Pashupati (Sanskrit पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "Lord of cattle"[107] and by Kramrisch as "Lord of Animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.[108]
  • Gaṇa : In Hinduism, the Gaṇas (Devanagari: गण) are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailasa. They are often referred to as the Boothaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their Lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the Lord on behalf of the devotee. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati, "lord of the gaṇas".[109]
  • Varanasi (Benares) is considered as the city specially-loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.[112]

Forms and depictions

According to Gavin Flood, "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox", whose attributes include opposing themes.[113] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

Destroyer versus benefactor

Shiva carrying the corpse of his consort दाक्षायनि (सती) Dakshayani (Sati).

In the Yajurveda two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here."[114] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.[115] The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.

The name Rudra (Sanskrit रुद्र) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud- which means "to cry, howl."[116] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means wild, of rudra nature, and translates the name Rudra as "the Wild One" or "the Fierce God".[117] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "Terrible".[118] Hara (Sanskrit हर) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "One who captivates", "One who consolidates", and "One who destroys."[119] Kramrisch translates it as "The Ravisher".[120] Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kāla (Sanskrit: काल), "Time", and as Mahākāla (Sanskrit: महाकाल), "Great Time", which ultimately destroys all things.[121][122][123] Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव), "Terrible" or "Frightful"[124] is a fierce form associated with annihilation.[125]

In contrast, the name Śaṇkara (Sanskrit शङ्कर), "Beneficent"[126] or "Conferring Happiness"[127] reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Śaṇkara (c. 788-820 C.E.), who is also known as Shankaracharya.[128][129] The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु), "Causing Happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.[130][131]

Ascetic versus householder

An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha and Skanda (Kartikeya)

He is depicted as both an ascetic yogin and as a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[132] When depicted as a yogin he may be shown sitting and meditating.[133] His epithet Mahāyogin (The Great Yogi: Mahā = great, Yogin = one who practices Yoga) refers to his association with yoga.[134] While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism, became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.[135]

As a family man and householder he has a wife, Parvati (also known as Umā), and two sons, Ganesha and Skanda. His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama.[136] Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including Pārvatī.[137][138] She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother, and with Shakti (divine energy).

Shiva and Parvati are the parents of Karthikeya and Ganesha. Karthikeya is worshipped in southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in northern India, is better known by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.[139]

Nataraja

Bronze Chola Statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.


The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Tamil: நடராஜா, Sanskrit: naṭarāja, "Lord of Dance") is popular.[140][141] The names Nartaka ("Dancer") and Nityanarta ("Eternal Dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[142] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.[143] In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu (in southern India) in particular.[144]

Dakṣiṇāmūrti

Dakṣiṇāmūrti (Sanskrit: दक्षिणामूर्ति)[145] literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras.[146] This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.[147] Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.[148]

Mruthyunjaya

Literally translated as 'victor over death', this is an aspect of Shiva worshipped as the conqueror of Death as manifested in the Hindu lord of death, Yama. The particular legend in question deals with the sage Markandeya, who was fated to die at the age of sixteen. On account of the sage's worship and devotion to Shiva, the Lord vanquished Yama to liberate his devotee from death. Shiva is often worshipped as Mruthyunjaya by the aged or ill, to ward off death and mitigate its harshness when it does occur. He is worshipped as such at the temples of Thirupainyeeli, near Trichinopoly, and at a shrine in Thirukadaiyur, near Chidambaram.

Ardhanarishvara

Chola bronze from the 11th century. Shiva in the form of Ardhanarisvara


An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female.[149] According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, (Ardhanārīśvara) is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman".[150]

Tripurāntaka

Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras.[151] Shiva's name Tripurāntaka (Sanskrit: त्रिपुरान्तक), "Ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.[152]

Lingam

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam is also important.[153][154][155] These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column.

The five mantras

File:Five headed Shiva.jpg
Adoration of Five-headed Shiva by Vishnu (blue figure, to left of Shiva),Brahma (four headed figure to the right of Shiva), Ganesha (elephant-headed son of Shiva, bottom left) and other deities. Painting from LACMA

Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[156] One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).[157]

Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans:[158] As forms of god, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:[159]

These are represented as the five faces of Shiva, and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[160][161] Doctrinal differences and possibly errors in transmission have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.[162] But the overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:

Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.[163]

According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:

One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)[164]

Relationship to Vishnu

File:Harihara.jpg
Vishnu (left half - blue) and Shiva (right half - white)

During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 B.C.E.) both were gaining ascendance.[165] By the Puranic period both deities had major sects that competed with one another for devotees.[166] Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities.

Sectarian forces each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva.[167] The Vishnu Purana (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both Brahmā to create the world, and Shiva to destroy it.[168] Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the Bhagavata Purana.[169] In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world.[170] In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and Brahmā are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame.[171] The Śatarudrīya, a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu".[172] Difference in viewpoints between the two sects is apparent in the story of Śarabha (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as Narasimha, the man-lion, who killed Hiranyakashipu, an ardent devotee of Shiva.[173][174]

Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. Harihara is a the name of a combined deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara).[175] This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the Mahabharata.[176] An example of a collaboration story is one given to explain Shiva's epithet Mahābaleśvara, "Lord of Great Strength" (Maha = great, Bala = strength, Īśvara = Lord). This name refers to story in which Rāvaṇa was given a linga as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present Deoghar in Bihar to purify himself and asked Narada a devotee of Vishnu in the guise of a Brahmin to hold the linga for him, but after some time Narada put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the linga, and it is said to remain there ever since.[177]

Avatars

Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars. Adi Shankara, the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist Vedanta was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva.[178] In the Hanuman Chalisa Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.[179]

Worship

108 shiva lingas carved on the rock at the banks of river Tungabhadra, Hampi

In Shaivism, Shiva is the God of all and is worshipped by all, from Devas (gods) such as Brahma, Indra, by Asuras(demons) like Bana, Ravana, by humans like Adi Shankara, Nayanars, by creatures as diverse as Jatayu, an eagle, and Vali, an ape. Furthermore, people of different backgrounds and qualities worship Shiva with many temples having histories of even cranes, bees, elephants, (see Kalahasti), spiders, snakes, worshipping Shiva and getting blessed. It concludes that the Good Lord blesses anyone who worships him with sincere devotion as there is no discrimination based on the seeker. Although Lord Shiva loves His devotees equally and does not ignore the meditation even of demons such as the rakshasas and asuras, He always finds ways to protect righteousness and never allows any evil to triumph over good.

Major deities, rishis, planets, worshipped Shiva and established Shivalingas in various places.

File:Somjyotir.jpg
Somnath Jyotirlinga
  1. Pashupatinath Lord of all living beings, located at Kathmandu, Nepal.
  2. Somnath located at Prabhas Patan in Saurashtra in Gujarat.
  3. Dwarka in Gujarat is home to the Nageshwar Jyotirlinga temple.
  4. Mahakal, Ujjain (or Avanti) in Madhya Pradesh is home to the Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga temple.
  5. Srisailam - Srisailam near Kurnool enshrines Mallikarjuna in an ancient temple architecturally and sculpturally rich.
  6. Bhimashankar, in the Sahyadri range of Maharashtra, contains a Jyotirlinga shrine associated with Shiva destroying the demon Tripurasura.
  7. Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh is an island in the Narmada river, home to a Jyotirlinga shrine and the Amareshwar temple.
  8. Sukreswar Temple located on Sukreswar hill in Guwahati on the southern bank of Brahmaputra, with the ghat leading down to the river.
  9. Uma Nanda Temple located on the Peacock island in middle of River Brahmaputra in Guwahati.
  10. Kedarnath in Uttarakhand is the northernmost of the Jyotirlingas.
  11. Varanasi (Benares) in Uttar Pradesh is home to the Vishwanath Jyotirling temple.
  12. Trimbakeshwar, near Nashik in Maharashtra, has a Jyotirlinga shrine located associated with the origin of the Godavari river.
  13. Grishneshwar Jyotirlinga shrine, in Maharashtra, is located near the rock-cut temples of Ellora.
  14. Deoghar, in the Santhal Parganas region of Jharkhand, is home to the Vaidyanath Jyotirlinga temple.
  15. Ganesha worshipped Shiva at Pillayar patti (100 km from Madurai, India)
  16. The four Vedas worshipped Shiva at Thirumaraikaadu (i.e., Vedaaranyam near Tanjore)
  17. Skanda worshipped Shiva at Thiruchendur (200 km from Madurai, India)
  18. Rama (avatar of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva in Rameswaram(India)
  19. Vishnu worshipped Shiva atKanchipuram (Kachiswarar Temple)
  20. Parasurama (avatar of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva at Sreesailam, Karnataka and also at Chennai (Parasurama at Lingeshwara Temple, Iyanavaram)
  21. Goddess Lakshmi (wife of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva at Tirupachethi (50 km from Madurai).
  22. Surya worshipped Shiva at Srivilliputhur (Vaidhyanathaar Temple 100 km from Madurai)
  23. Brahma and Vishnu at Tiruvannamalai (180 km from Chennai)
  24. Brahma at Vrinchipuram (155 km from Chennai, 15 km from Vellore)
  25. Rahu and Ketu at Kaalahasthi (50 km from Tirupathi, Andhra Pradesh, India)
  26. Indra at Madurai (Soma Sundareeswar Temple)
  27. The Rishi Agastya at Papanasam (100 km from Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India)
  28. Goddess Parvati at Kancheepuram (Ekambeeswarar Temple, 70 km from Chennai, India)
  29. Shani at Thirnallar (near Kaaraikal, Pondicherry)
  30. Moongod at Thingalur (near Tanjore)
  31. Shiva and Sani at Thirvidaimaruthoor (near Kumbakonam)
  32. Brahma at Kumbakoonam (Kumbeeswarar, near Tanjore)
  33. Ujjain Jyotirlinga shrine, in Madhya Pradesh.
  34. Lord Shiva at Trilochan, is famous with name of Trilochan Mhadev Temple, 30 km from varanasi , india
  35. Manjunatha - Lord of mist at Dharmasthala this one famous pilgrim of Dakshina Kannada,Karnataka.
  36. Nanjundeshwara - One who has gulped nanju-pain or Halahala in his throat or SriKanteshwara at Nanjangud near Mysore,Karnataka
  37. AtmaLinga at Gokarna ,Karnataka.
  38. Panchalingeshwara - 5 Lingas, all of which are covered with sand but opens up at specific dates at Talakad, Karnataka.
  39. Shivagange- Believed to be patalaGanga flowing by rishi Agastya worship. Bangalore, Karnataka.
  40. Murudeshwara in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka.
  41. Kudalasangama in Basavakalyana, Karnataka.
  42. By Lava and Kusha (sons of Rama) in Kurungaleeswar temple at Koyambedu Chennai.
  43. Bakreshwar and Tarakeshwar in West Bengal

In South India, five temples of Shiva are held to be particularly important, as being manifestations of him in the five elemental substances:

  1. Tiruvannamalai, as fire
  2. Chidambaram, as ether
  3. Srikalahasti, as air
  4. Tiruvanaikal, as water
  5. Conjeeveram, as earth

Names of Shiva

A statue of Shiva near Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi

In Hinduism, deities are called by many names, which describe them in different ways. These names often refer to specific stories about the deities, functions they perform, or ways of thinking about them. Study of these names is helpful to understanding deities from multiple points of view. Some names are used by more than one deity, so looking for names that uniquely describe a deity is one way to pinpoint their functions.

Sahasranamas

There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.[180] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradion.[181]

The nine versions of Shiva sahasranamas are

1. Mahabharata 13.17.30-150 (Anuśāsanaparvan Version)
2. 'Rudrayamala
3. Linga Purana (version 1, LP 1.65.54-168) is close to the Mahabharata Anuśāsanaparvan version.
4. Linga Purana (version 2, LP 1.98.27-159) has some passages in common with LP version 1, but also with other sources
5. Shivapurana 4.35.1-131.
6. Mahabharata (Śāntiparvan version). The critical edition of the Mahabharata does not include this version, relegating it to Appendix 28 to Śāntiparvan. It does appear in the text of the Gita Press edition as 12.284.68-180.
7. Vayu Purana (1.30.179-284) is almost the same as the Mahabharata Śāntiparvan version.
8. Brahmanda Purana (38.1.1-100) is almost the same as the Vayu Purana version.
9. Mahābhāgavata Upapurana (67.1-125) appears to be of comparatively recent origin.

Lord Shiva also has DashaSahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa.

Rudram Chamakam

The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.[182][183]


Notes

  1. For the name Kailāsagirivāsī (Sanskrit कैलासगिरिवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranama, see: Sharma 1996, p. 281.
  2. Tattwananda, p. 45.
  3. Kramrisch, p. 476.
  4. For appearance of the name महादेव in the Shiva Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996, p. 297
  5. Kramrisch, p. 477.
  6. For appearance of the name महेश्वर in the Shiva Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996, p. 299.
  7. For Parameśvara as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.
  8. Flood (1996), p. 17.
  9. Flood (1996), p. 17.
  10. Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
  11. Apte, p. 919.
  12. Macdonell, p. 314.
  13. Macdonell, p. 314.
  14. For use of the term śiva as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.
  15. Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition, pg.47 and pg. 122.
  16. Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu sahasranama, pg. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust .
  17. Apte, p. 927
  18. For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of Śiva (śivaśāna) and which focus on the deity Śiva... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.
  19. Encyclopedia of Indian Tribes By Shyam Singh Shashi, p. 190
  20. Flood (1996), p. 17
  21. Keay, p.xxvii.
  22. Keay, p. xxvii.
  23. For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well-documented, see: Keay, p. 147.
  24. Michaels, p. 215.
  25. Courtright, p. 205.
  26. For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.
  27. For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Preface, and p. 40.
  28. 'Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."
  29. Courtright, p. 205.
  30. For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.
  31. Courtright, p. 205.
  32. Mate, p. 176.
  33. Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
  34. For translation of paśupati as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.
  35. For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood (1996), p. 29.
  36. Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
  37. Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.
  38. Keay, p. 14.
  39. Michaels, p. 216.
  40. For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.
  41. Doniger, pp. 221-223.
  42. Michaels, p. 217.
  43. For Śarva as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.
  44. For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p. 32.
  45. Sharma 1996, p. 306
  46. For root śarv- see: Apte, p. 910.
  47. Sharma 1996, p. 306
  48. Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
  49. Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
  50. For translation of Bāṇahasta as "Armed with arrows in his hands") see: Sharma 1996, p. 294.
  51. For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.
  52. For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
  53. For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.
  54. For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as Rudra-Śiva." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.
  55. For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.
  56. Kramrisch, p. 18.
  57. For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets Sasipañjara and Tivaṣīmati see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.
  58. Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others
  59. For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
  60. RV 8.49; 10.155.
  61. For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
  62. For text of RV 2.20.3a as स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा िशवो नरामस्तु पाता । and translation as "May that young adorable Indra, ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
  63. For text of RV 6.45.17 as यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती िशवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ and translation as "Indra, who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.
  64. For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: Griffith 1973, p. 310.
  65. For text of RV 8.93.3 as स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥ and translation as "May Indra, our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
  66. For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
  67. RV 7.19.
  68. For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.
  69. For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.
  70. For a review of theories about the meaning of tryambaka, see: Chakravarti, pp.37-39.
  71. For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.
  72. For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mothers" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.
  73. For vedic Sanskrit meaning and "having three mothers" as the translation of Max Müller and Macdonell, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-38.
  74. For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the Ambikās see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.
  75. For the Ambikā variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.
  76. Sharma 1996, p. 290
  77. See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.
  78. For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.
  79. Kramrisch, p. 473.
  80. For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.
  81. For śekhara as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.
  82. For Chandraśekhara as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.
  83. For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
  84. For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.
  85. For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.
  86. Chidbhavananda, p. 22.
  87. For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: Sharma 1996, p. 279.
  88. Kramrisch, p. 475.
  89. For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.
  90. For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name Gaṅgādhara see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.
  91. For description of the Gaṅgādhara form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.
  92. For Shiva supporting Gaṅgā upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.
  93. Flood (1996), p. 151.
  94. Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.
  95. Flood (1996), p. 161.
  96. Chidbhavananda, p. 23.
  97. Flood (1996), p. 151.
  98. Flood (1996), p. 151
  99. Flood (1996), p. 151.
  100. Michaels, p. 218.
  101. For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.
  102. Jansen, p. 44.
  103. Jansen, p. 25.
  104. For use by Kāpālikas, see: Apte, p. 461.
  105. For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.
  106. For spelling of alternate proper names Nandī and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.
  107. Sharma 1996, p. 291
  108. Kramrisch, p. 479.
  109. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola
  110. Flood (1996), p. 151.
  111. For identification of Mount Kailāsa as the central linga, see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.
  112. Keay, p. 33.
  113. For quotation "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.
  114. For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.
  115. For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: Sharma 1988, p. 20-21.
  116. For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
  117. Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.
  118. Sharma 1996, p. 301.
  119. Sharma 1996, p. 314.
  120. Kramrisch, p. 473.
  121. For translation of Mahākāla as "Time beyond time" see: Kramrisch, p. 476.
  122. For the name Kāla translated as "time; death", see: Kramrisch, p. 474.
  123. The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(The Supreme Lord of) Time". See: Sharma 1996, p. 280.
  124. For भैरव as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and translation of the adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful" see: Apte, p. 727, left column.
  125. For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p. 471.
  126. Sharma 1996, p. 306
  127. Kramrisch, p. 481.
  128. For adoption of the name Śaṇkara by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
  129. For dating Shankaracharya as 788-820 C.E. see: Flood (1996), p. 92.
  130. For translation of Śambhu as "Causing Happiness" see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
  131. For speculation on the possible etymology of this name, see: Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.
  132. For the contrast beteween ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.
  133. For Shiva's representation as a yogin, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
  134. For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.
  135. For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
  136. For Umāpati, Umākānta and Umādhava as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: Sharma 1996, p. 278.
  137. For Umā as the oldest name, and variants including Pārvatī, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.
  138. For Pārvatī identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.
  139. For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, Preface.
  140. For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.
  141. For interpretation of the naṭarāja form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.
  142. For names Nartaka (Sanskrit नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: Sharma 1996, p. 289.
  143. For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
  144. For popularity of the nṛtyamūrti and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.
  145. For iconographic description of the Dakṣiṇāmūrti form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.
  146. For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
  147. For characterization of Dakṣiṇāmūrti as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
  148. For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as Dakṣiṇāmūrti, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.
  149. Goldberg, p. 1.
  150. Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
  151. For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.
  152. For the Tripurāntaka form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.
  153. Michaels, p. 216.
  154. Flood (1996), p. 29.
  155. Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.
  156. For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  157. It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  158. For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.
  159. For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.
  160. For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  161. For the epithets pañcamukha and pañcavaktra, both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of Śiva, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.
  162. For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.
  163. Kramrisch, p. 184.
  164. Quotation from Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  165. For relatively minor position in Vedic times, and rise in progress by 1000-700 B.C.E. see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125, note 2.
  166. For the rise in popularity of Shiva and Vishnu, and the role of Puranas in promoting sectarian positions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 110-111.
  167. For Visnu becoming Shiva in Vaishnava myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125.
  168. For Vishnu Purana dating of 4th c. CE and role of Vishnu as supreme deity, see: Flood (1996), p. 111.
  169. For identification of Shiva as a manifestation of Vishnu see: Bhagavata Purana 4.30.23, 5.17.22-23, 10.14.19.
  170. For predominant role of Shiva in some myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 128.
  171. For the lingodbhava myth, and Vishnu and Brahmā as emanations of Shiva, see: Zimmer (1946), pp. 128-129.
  172. For translation of the epithet शिपिविष्ट (IAST: śipiviṣṭa) as "salutation to him of the form of Vishṇu" included in the fifth anuvāka, and comment that this epithet "links Śiva with Vishṇu" see: Sivaramamurti, pp. 21, 64.
  173. For Śarabha as an "animal symplegma" form of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
  174. For incarnation in composite form as man, bird, and beast to chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti, p. 49.
  175. Chakravarti, pp. 54-55.
  176. For Harirudra citation to Mbh. III.39.76f see: Hopkins (1969), p. 221.
  177. For the story of Rāvaṇa and the Mahābaleśvara linga see: Chakravarti, p. 168.
  178. Padma Purana 6.236.7-11
  179. Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5
  180. Sharma 1996, p. viii-ix
  181. This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5.
  182. For an overview of the Śatarudriya see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.
  183. For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).

References
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File:Shivalinga.png
A Shiva Linga
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  • Goldberg, Ellen (2002). The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-5326-X. 
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  • Hopkins, E. Washburn (1969). Epic Mythology. New York: Biblo and Tannen.  Originally published in 1915.
  • Jansen, Eva Rudy (1993). The Book of Hindu Imagery. Havelte, Holland: Binkey Kok Publications BV. ISBN 90-74597-07-6. 
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  • Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1. 
  • Sarup, Lakshman (1920-1927). The Nighaṇṭu and The Nirukta.  Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002, ISBN 81-208-1381-2.
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  • Sivaramamurti, C. (1976). Śatarudrīya: Vibhūti of Śiva's Iconography. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. 
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