Saxophone

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The saxophone is a conical-bored instrument of the woodwind family, usually made of brass and played with a single-reed mouthpiece (woodwind) like the clarinet. It was invented by Adolphe Sax around 1840. The saxophone is most commonly associated with popular music, big band music, and jazz, but it was originally intended as both an orchestral and military band instrument. Saxophone players are called saxophonists. Unique in its origin as being invented for its notable sound, the saxophone is an example of Adolphe Sax's realization that there was no instrument that could produce a heavy reed sound with great power. He thus created a transformation of a woodwind instrument into a more powerful device by taking on a responsibility of enlarging the woodwind family and giving both composers and musicians a new musical apparatus for performance.

History

File:Adolphe sax statue.jpg

Life-size statue of Adolphe Sax outside his birthplace in Dinant, Belgium

The saxophone was developed circa 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a Belgian-born instrument-maker, flautist, and clarinetist working in Paris. Although he had constructed saxophones in several sizes by the early 1840s, he did not receive a 15-year patent for the instrument until June, 28 1846. It was first officially revealed to the public in the presentation of the bass saxophone in C at an exhibition in Brussels in 1841. Sax also gave private showings to Parisian musicians in the early 1840s. He drew up plans for 14 different types of saxophones, but they were not all realized.

The inspiration for the instrument is unknown, but there is good evidence that it was created by fitting a clarinet mouthpiece to an ophicleide. (Sax built ophicleides among other instruments in the late 1830s). Putting the two together results in an instrument with a definitely saxophone-like sound.

Sax's intent, was to invent an entirely new instrument. He intended to provide bands, and orchestras with a bass to the woodwind and brass sections. The instrument would be capable of a more refined performance than the ophicleide, but with enough power to be used out doors. Sax intended to harness the finesse of the woodwind with the power of a brass instrament. For a long time the saxophone was restricted to military bands and not used in orchestral groups. This was because of Sax's amazing ability to offend rival instrument manufacturers, resulting in prejudice toward the man and his instrument.

For the duration of the patent (1846-1866), no one except the Sax factory could legally manufacture or modify the instruments. However this, along with a number of other of Sax's patents, were routinely breached by his rivals. After the patent expired in 1866, different manufacturers introduced competing models, and made modifications to Sax's original design.

The jazz saxophonist Klaus Doldinger playing the tenor sax.

Construction

The saxophone uses a single reed mouthpiece similar to that of a clarinet, but with a round or square evacuated inner chamber. It is considerably larger and has cork adjusting to the neck. The saxophone's body is effectively conical, giving it acoustic properties more akin to the oboe than to the clarinet. However, unlike the oboe, whose tube is a single cone, most saxophones have a distinctive curve at the bell. Straight sopranino saxophones are more common than curved ones, and very few straight alto, and tenor, saxophones have been made, as novelties. Straight baritone and C melody saxophones have occasionally been made as custom instruments, but were never production items.. There is some debate amongst players as to whether the curve affects the tone or not.

Key system

Saxophones produce different notes using a key system consisting of pads and tone holes. A saxophone has 21 to 23 keys, depending on whether it has a high F#, a high G, or a low A key. (Since 1970 the high F# key has become common among intermediate and professional level instruments, while the high G key is found on only a few modern sopranos.) When pressure is applied to a key it opens or closes one or more of the tone holes by lifting or lowering a pad. The pads, usually made of leather or an artificial material that acts as leather, cover tone holes and form an airtight seal, preventing any air from escaping. Depending on where this pad/tone hole combination is on the saxophone, it will raise or lower the pitch. Almost all woodwind instruments use the same idea to execute different notes, although the details of each instrument can differ greatly.

Members of the saxophone family

Ten members of the saxophone family. From largest to smallest: contrabass, bass, baritone, tenor, C melody, alto, F mezzo-soprano, soprano, C soprano, sopranino.

The saxophone was originally patented as two families, each consisting of seven instruments. The "orchestral" family consisted of instruments in the keys of C and F, and the "military band" family in E♭ and B♭. Each family consisted of sopranino, soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, bass and contrabass, although some of these were never made; Sax also planned—but never made—a subcontrabass (Bourdon) saxophone.

Common saxophones

In music written since 1930, only the soprano in B♭, alto in E♭, tenor in B♭ and baritone in E♭ are in common use - these form the typical saxophone sections of concert bands, military bands, and big-band jazz ensembles. The bass saxophone (in B♭) is occasionally used in band music (especially music by Percy Grainger).

The vast majority of band and big-band music calls only for E flat alto, B♭ tenor, and E♭ baritone instruments. A typical saxophone section in a concert band might consist of four to six altos, one to three tenors, and one or two baritones. A typical saxophone section in a jazz band consists of two altos, two tenors, and a baritone. Occasionally a band or jazz ensemble will perform a piece that calls for soprano saxophone - in this case it is common practice for one of the players from the alto section to switch to soprano for that piece.

Most saxophone players begin learning on the alto, branching out to tenor, soprano or baritone after gaining competency. The alto saxophone is the most popular among classical composers and performers; most classical saxophonists focus primarily on the alto. In jazz, alto and tenor are predominantly used by soloists. Many jazz saxophonists also play soprano on occasion, but nearly all of them use it only as an auxiliary instrument.

The soprano has regained a degree of popularity over recent decades in jazz/pop/rock contexts, beginning with the work of jazz saxophonist John Coltrane in the 1960s. The soprano is often thought of as more difficult to play, or to keep in tune, than the more common alto, tenor and baritone saxophones. A few bass, sopranino, and contrabass saxophones are still manufactured; these are mainly for collectors or novelty use, and are rarely heard - they are mostly relegated to large saxophone ensembles.

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Construction difficulties mean that only recently has a true sopranissimo saxophone been produced. Nicknamed the Soprillo, this piccolo-sized saxophone is an octave above the soprano, and its diminutive size necessitates an octave key on the mouthpiece.

Writing for the saxophone

Music for all sizes of saxophone is written on the treble clef. The standard written range extends from a B♭ below the staff to an F or F# three ledger lines above the staff (although there are soprano models now both straight and curved that have a key for high G and baritone models that have a key for low A). Higher notes — those in the altissimo range (ranging from high F# or above) — can also be played using advanced techniques. Sax himself had mastered these techniques; he demonstrated the instrument as having a range of over three octaves up to a high B4.

In the mid-twentieth century, some players resisted learning how to play in the altissimo register; Many written articles referred to the use of the altissimo register as a stunt, "faking," or employing "false fingerings." But there is nothing "fake" about the altissimo register; like any other woodwind instrument, the player simply employs the third and subsequent harmonics to extend the instrument's range. On the saxophone, however, the mastery of these harmonics takes more effort than on other woodwinds. There was a historical belief that the saxophone's range ends at high F; but Adolphe Sax had stopped promoting the extended range only due to its perceived difficulty.

Virtually all saxophones are transposing instruments: Sopranino, alto and baritone saxophones are in the key of E♭, and soprano, tenor and bass saxophones are in the key of B♭. Because all instruments use the same fingerings for a given written note, it is easy for a player to switch between different saxophones. When a saxophonist plays a C on the staff on an E♭ alto, the note sounds as E♭ a sixth below the written note. A C played on a B♭ tenor, however, sounds as B♭ a ninth below. The E♭ baritone is an octave below the alto, and the B♭ soprano is an octave above the tenor. The following discussion refers entirely to the notes as written, and therefore applies equally to all members of the saxophone family.

Since the baritone and alto are pitched in E♭, they can play concert pitch music written in bass clef by imagining it to be treble clef and adding three sharps to the key signature. On the baritone saxophone, this allows the playing of bassoon, tuba, trombone, or bass parts at sounding pitch. This is a useful skill if a band or orchestra lacks one of those instruments, especially if no baritone sax part is available.

Most late-model baritone saxophones have an extra key that allows the player to play a low A (concert C), but other members of the family do not (except for some basses and a few rare altos made by The Selmer Company), and composers who write this note for baritone should be aware that it may not actually be played if the saxophonist uses an older instrument.

Classical Repertory

Early on, most composers stayed away from composing for the saxophone due to their misunderstanding of the instrument. However, around the turn of the twentieth century, there was a renewed interest in commissioning compositions for the instrument. One prominent commissioner was Elise Hall, a wealthy New England socialite who took up playing the saxophone to aid in her battles with asthma (at the behest of her husband, a doctor). Though she did commission many pieces, the works didn't originally feature the saxophone very well (in all likelihood because she decided to demonstrate the saxophone's ability herself and her skills were less than admirable by most accounts).

The saxophone eventually found advocates and became an important voice in orchestral works including the "Rhapsodie" by Claude Debussy, Mauice Ravel's transcription of Modeste Moussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and his Bolero, several of the symphonies of Ralph Vaughan-Williams and the works of Arthur Honegger and Darius Mihaud. Alexander Glazunov, Frank Martin and Jacques Ibert also composed works solo saxophone and orchestra.

The saxophone also plays a prominent role in symphonic band music composed by Percy Grainger, Gustav Holst, Vaughan-Williams and Gordon Jacob.

Many present-day composers have written for the instrument, including American composer Philip Glass's Concerto for Saxophone Quartet and Orchestra composed in the 1990s, and John Cage.

Jazz and Pop Music

If classical composers were late in their advocacy of the saxophone, the instrument found great popularity in both Jazz and Pop music. As the Jazz age evolved the instrument became an important component of big bands and small ensembles. A typical big band configuration would include two alto saxophones, two tenor saxophones and a baritone saxophone. In large part it was the saxophone section that gave big bands their distinctive sound. Early big band saxophonists included Jimmy Dorsey, Charlie Barnet and Johnny Hodges of the Duke Ellington band.

With a greater emphasis on improvisation in Jazz, many notable saxophonists became important musical figures, often leading their own ensembles. These players included, Charlie "Bird" Parker, Ornette Coleman, John Coltrane, Stan Getz, Julian "Cannonball" Adderly, Albert Ayler, Coleman Hawkins, Pharoh Sanders, Lee Konitz, Gerry Mulligan, Phil Woods, Sonny Rollins and Lester Young. Paul Desmond was the long-time saxophonist in Dave Brubeck's quartet and wrote the seminal Jazz composition, Take Five.

As jazz-rock fusion became an important musical genre in the 1970s, a new generation of saxophonists emerged. Michael Brecker, Wayne Shorter, Fred Lipsius, Branford Marsalis, David Sanborn and Bill Evans all gained notoriety for their contributions to the style.

Pop music has had a love affair with the saxophone from the 1950s from the bawdy tenor sax solos found on numerous rock 'n roll tracks to the ubiquitous baritone sax parts heard on many Motown records, to Junior Walker's Soul-Funk style. Phil Woods played the solo on Billy Joel's pop classic, Just the Way You Are. Tenor saxophonist Clarence Clemens is a major figure in Bruce Sprinsteen's E Street Band, while the Doors' hit song "Touch Me," ends with a dynamic tenor saxophone solo by Curtis Amy. Amy also appeared on several of American songwriter, Carol King's tracks. The Beatles and Rolling Stones also used saxophones on tracks such as "Got To Get You Into My Life" and "Brown Sugar."

The sold-called "horn bands" of the 1960s and 1970s, such as Blood, Sweat and Tears, Chicago, Cold Blood, The Flock, The Ides of March and Tower of Power also relied heavily on sax and brass sections, as did Frank Zappa whose sax man, Ian Underwood was an oft featured soloist. Wayne Shorter worked with Steely Dan on their Aja album and Branford Marsalis appears on Sting's song, Fortress Around Your Heart. David Sanborn plays the featured sax solo on David Bowie's Young Americans.

Soprano saxophonist Kenny G has sold millions of CDs in the "Smooth Jazz" genre. Grover Washington Jr. was another high profile saxophonist in the "Smooth Jazz" realm.

The saxophone in ensembles

Besides functioning as a solo instrument, the saxophone is also an effective ensemble instrument, particularly when several members of the saxophone family are played in combination. Although only occasionally called for in orchestral music, saxophone sections (usually encompassing the alto, tenor, and baritone instruments, but sometimes also the soprano and/or bass) are an important part of the jazz big band, as well as military, concert, and marching bands.

Ensembles made up exclusively of saxophones are also popular, with the most common being the saxophone quartet.

Saxophone quartets

The saxophone quartet is usually made up of one soprano, one alto, one tenor, and one baritone. This instrumentation is often referred to as "SATB." The second most common quartet instrumentation (found most often at the middle school level) is two altos, a tenor, and a baritone (referred to as "AATB"). A few professional saxophone quartets feature non-standard instrumentation, such as James Fei's Alto Quartet (four altos) and Hamiet Bluiett's Bluiett Baritone Nation (four baritones).

There is a repertoire of classical compositions and arrangements for the SATB instrumentation dating back to the nineteenth century, particularly by French composers who knew Adolphe Sax. The Raschèr , Amherst , Aurelia , Amstel, and Rova Saxophone Quartets are among the best known groups. Historically, the quartets led by Marcel Mule and Daniel Deffayet, saxophone professors at the Conservatoire de Paris, were started in 1928 and 1953, respectively, and were highly regarded. The Mule quartet is often considered to be the prototype for all future quartets due the level of virtuosity demonstrated by its members and its central role in the development of the quartet repertoire. Organized quartets did indeed exist prior to Mule's ensemble, the prime example being the quartet headed by Eduard Lefebre (1834-1911), former soloist with the Sousa band, in the United States circa 1904-1911. Other ensembles most likely existed at this time as part of the saxophone sections of the many touring "business" bands that existed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In jazz music, saxophones are usually heard as members of a jazz combo or a big band, but one professional avant-garde jazz group, the World Saxophone Quartet, has become known as the preeminent jazz saxophone quartet. The Rova Saxophone Quartet, based in San Francisco, is noted for its work in the fields of contemporary classical music and improvised music.

Larger saxophone ensembles

There are a few larger all-saxophone ensembles as well. The most prominent include the 12-member Raschèr Saxophone Orchestra Lörrach, the 9-member London Saxophonic, the 9-member SaxAssault, the 6-member The Nuclear Whales Saxophone Orchestra, and Urban Sax, which includes as many as 52 saxophonists. Very large groups, featuring over 100 saxophones, are sometimes organized as a novelty at saxophone conventions.

Technique

Many believe it is relatively easy to become a competent saxophonist, especially when transferring from other woodwind instruments, but a considerable amount of practice is usually required to develop a pleasing tone color and fluent technique.

Playing technique for the saxophone is subjective based upon the intended style (classical, jazz, rock, funk, etc.) and the player's idealized sound. The design of the saxophone allows for a big variety of different sounds, and the "ideal" saxophone sound and keys to its production are subjects of debate. However, there is a basic underlying structure to most techniques.

The fingerings for a saxophone do not change from one instrument to another. Here, notes on a treble staff correspond to fingerings below.

Fingerings typically appear with the left and right hand side-by-side.

The embouchure

In the typical embouchure, the mouthpiece is generally not taken more than halfway into the player's mouth. The lower lip is supported by the lower teeth, and makes contact with the reed. The playing-position is stabilized with firm, light pressure from the upper teeth resting on the mouthpiece (sometimes padded with a thin strip of rubber known as a "bite-pad" or "mouthpiece-patch"). The upper lip closes to create an air-tight seal. The "double embouchure" in which the upper lip is curled over the upper teeth is not commonly used in modern times, however each player may eventually develop his/her own variation of the basic embouchure style in order to accommodate their own physical structure.

Three things are imperative to a full and quick-speaking sound: appropriate air pressure which is aided by diaphragm support, correct lip/reed contact allowing the reed to vibrate optimally, and perhaps most importantly a high tongue position within the mouth. This provides focus to the player's air stream and thus to his/her sound. The player's diaphragm acts as a bellow, supplying a constant stream of air through the instrument.

Vibrato

Saxophone vibrato is much like a vocal or string vibrato, except the vibrations are made using the jaw instead of the diaphragm or fingers. The jaw motions required for vibrato can be simulated by saying the syllables "wah-wah-wah" or "tai-yai-yai." The method which is easiest and brings the best vibrato depends on the player. While most will say vibrato is not vital to saxophone performance (as its importance is inferior to proper tone quality), many argue it as being integral to the distinct saxophone color. Classical vibrato can vary between players (soft and subtle, or wide and abrasive). Many Classical players look to violinists as a model for their sound. It has been suggested that this follows the example of Marcel Mule of the Paris Conservatory, one of the early proponents of Classical Saxophone playing. Jazz vibrato varies even more amongst its users. Fast and wide vibrato is used by older "swing" style players, while some modern players use almost no vibrato except on slow ballads. Typically, less vibrato is used at faster tempos. Players just starting out with vibrato will usually start out slow with exaggerated jaw movements. As they progress, the vibrato becomes quicker until the desired speed is reached. A vibrato can be produced also by controlling the air stream with the tongue. This is more difficult than the jaw vibrato, but often produces better results.

Tone effects

A number of effects can be used to create different or interesting sounds.

• Growling is a technique used whereby the saxophonist sings, hums, or growls, using the back of the throat while playing. This causes a modulation of the sound, and results in a gruffness or coarseness of the sound. It is rarely found in classical or band music, but is often utilized in jazz, blues, rock 'n' roll and other popular genres. Some notable musicians who utilized this technique are Earl Bostic, Boots Randolph, Gato Barbieri, Ben Webster, Clarence Clemons and King Curtis.
• Glissando is a sliding technique where the saxophonist bends the note using voicing (tongue placement)and at the same time slides up or down to another fingered note. This technique is sometimes heard in big band music (for example, Benny Goodman's "Sing Sing Sing") and, rarely, in orchestral music, e.g., George Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue." A glissando can also be created using the tongue to control the airstream and holding the embouchure immobile.
• Multi phonics is the technique of playing more than one note at once. A special fingering combination causes the instrument to vibrate at two different pitches alternately, creating a warbling sound.
• The use of overtones involves fingering one note but altering the air stream to produce another note which is an overtone of the fingered note. For example, if low B♭ is fingered, a B♭ one octave above may be sounded by manipulating the air stream. Other overtones that can be obtained with this fingering include F, B♭, and D. The same air stream techniques used to produce overtones are also used to produce notes above high F (the "altissimo register").
• The technique of manipulating the air stream to obtain various effects is commonly known as "voicing." Voicing technique involves varying the position of the tongue, causing the same amount of air to pass through either a more or less confined oral cavity. This causes the air stream to either speed up or slow down, respectively. As well as allowing the saxophonist to play overtones/altissimo with ease, proper voicing also helps the saxophonist develop a clear, even and focused sound throughout the range of the instrument. For a thorough discussion of voicing technique see "Voicing" by Donald Sinta and Denise Dabney.

Electronic effects

The use of electronic effects with the saxophone began with innovations such as the Varitone system, which Selmer introduced in 1965. The Varitone included a small microphone mounted on the saxophone neck, a set of controls attached to the saxophone's body, and an amplifier and loudspeaker mounted inside a cabinet. The Varitone's effects included echo, tremolo, tone control, and an octave divider. Two notable Varitone players were Eddie Harris and Sonny Stitt. Similar products included the Hammond Condor.

In addition to playing the Varitone, Eddie Harris experimented with looping techniques on his 1968 album Silver Cycles.

David Sanborn and Traffic member Chris Wood employed effects such as wah-wah and delay on various recordings during the 1970s.

In more recent years, the term "saxophonics" has been used to describe the use of these techniques by saxophonists such as Skerik, who has used a wide variety of effects that are often associated with the electric guitar, and Jeff Coffin, who has made notable use of an envelope follower.

Brands

Manufacturers of saxophones include Buffet Crampon, Keilwerth, Leblanc (Vito brand), P.Mauriat, Roland (Jupiter brand), Selmer, Yamaha, Yanagisawa, and Cannonball.

Of these, Keilwerth, Selmer, Yamaha, and Yanagisawa are sometimes called "the big four" as they are considered the most established manufacturers in the saxophone industry. Some brands and models have dedicated followings; perhaps the most legendary model ever produced was Selmer's Mark VI, manufactured from 1954 through 1975.

Past manufacturers no longer producing saxophones include Buescher, Conn, Julius Keilwerth (Couf brand), Holton, Martin, SML, the H.N. White Company (King brand), and York. Although these companies no longer exist or no longer produce saxophones, the rights to several of their brand names have been bought by modern corporations, so it is not uncommon to see a new "Conn" or "King" brand instrument for sale, despite the fact that both factories ceased production many years ago.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Horwood, Wally, Adolphe Sax, 1814-1894: His Life and Legacy, Revised edition (originally published in 1983), Herts: Egon Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0-905-85818-2
• Lindemeyer, Paul, Celebrating the Saxophone. 1996 hardcover: William Morrow & Co., ISBN 0-688-13518-8. 1997 paperback: Quill, ISBN 0-688-15556-1.
• Segell, Michael, The Devil's Horn: The Story of the Saxophone, from Noisy Novelty to King of Cool. 2005 hardcover: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, ISBN 0-374-15938-6. 2006 paperback: Picador, ISBN 0-312-42557-0.

External links

• Excerpt from Adolphe Sax and His Saxophone by Léon Kochnitzky Retrieved September 29, 2007.
• Web site of the 2006 World Saxophone Congress Retrieved September 29, 2007.
• The International Saxophone Home Page Retrieved September 29, 2007.
• Introduction to Saxophone Acoustics from Music Acoustics at the University of New South Wales. Retrieved September 29, 2007.
• Saxophone fingering chart Retrieved September 29, 2007.
• Time line of saxophone history
• Saxophone News and Information Retrieved September 29, 2007.

Photographic credits

Easton, Adrienne, photographer, image: "Ten members of the saxophone family". http://www.jayeaston.com (site of origin), image: "Ten members of the saxophone family". Retrieved October 4, 2007.

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