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Generally speaking, pygmy can refer to any human or animal of unusually small size (e.g. pygmy hippopotamus).

Comparative height of a Pygmy man (right) and a European man (left).

In an anthropological context, a Pygmy is specifically a member of one of the hunter-gatherer people living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below 1.5 metres, or 4.5 feet, on average). Pygmies are found throughout central Africa, with smaller numbers in south-east Asia (see Negrito). Members of so-called Pygmy groups often consider the term derogatory, instead preferring to be called by the name of their ethnic group (e.g., Baka, Mbuti).

The most closely studied group are the Mbuti of the Ituri Rainforest in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which were the subject of the study The Forest People (1962) by Colin Turnbull. Among the other African groups are the Aka, BaBenzelé, Baka, Binga, Efé, Twa, and Wochua. In the Central African Republic, at least, the term Bayaka is preferred to Pygmy, as it refers to the people and not only to their stature.

Pygmies are smaller because in their early teens they do not experience the growth spurt normal in most other humans. This is an environmental adaptation, called insular dwarfism; smaller bodies have evolved independently in non-human species in response to isolation on small islands or dense forest environments. By natural selection, the environments in which the ancestors to Pygmies lived favored decreased body size over many generations, and today they dominate the gene pool.

Pygmy houses made with sticks and leaves in northern Republic of the Congo

African Pygmies

The African Pygmies are particularly known for their vocal music, characterised by dense polyphony, group performance and improvisation. French-Israeli ethnomusicologist Simha Arom says that the level of polyphonic complexity of Pygmy music resembles that of European ars nova polyphony. Most pygmy musical instruments are simple and portable, suitable to a traditionally nomadic lifestyle. Pygmy societies are renowned (perhaps romanticized) for their egalitarianism. They are often romantically portrayed as both utopian and "premodern", which overlooks that they have long had relationships with more "modern" non-pygmy groups (such as inhabitants of nearby villages, agricultural employers, logging companies, evangelical missionaries and commercial hunters encroaching on their food sources). African Pygmies seem to have given up their own languages in favor of those spoken by the more dominant surrounding non-Pygmy peoples, who are usually Bantu.

Inside view of Pygmy house northern Republic of the Congo

African pygmies and a European explorer.

The homes of Pygmies of the Republic of the Congo, precisely between the towns of Ouesso and Pokola, along the Sangha River, are made of sticks and leaves; they are very small and equipped with the basic items such as a bed and shelves, which are all made from wood. Because in the rainy forest it is quite cold during the night, they usually keep an ongoing small fire inside. They are accustomed to produce homemade alcohol by distilling corn or other available fruits; they are also very good hunters.

Baka

The Baka, also known as Bebayaka, Bebayaga, Bibaya, or Babinga, are a Pygmy ethnic group inhabiting the southeastern rain forests of Cameroon, northern Congo (Brazzaville), northern Gabon, and southwestern Central African Republic. They are sometimes mistakenly called a subgroup of the Twa pygmies, but the two peoples are not closely related. Likewise, the name Baka is sometimes mistakenly applied to any of Cameroon's two to nine recognized pygmy populations. With an average height of 1.5 metres, the Baka are, strictly speaking, pygmoids rather than pygmies. Nevertheless, in everyday usage, the term "pygmy" is employed. The Baka themselves find the term "pygmy" derogatory and prefer their tribal name.

The Baka of the Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan are an unrelated people.

The Baka's exact numbers are difficult to determine, but estimates range from 5,000 to 28,000 individuals.

Unlike most other Central African pygmy groups, the Baka maintain a unique language, also called Baka. It is included in the Adamawa-Ubangi branch of the Niger-Congo language family. In addition, many Baka speak Koozime, the tongue of their Bantu neighbours, as a second language. A much smaller percentage speak French.

The Baka are a hunter-gatherer people. Groups establish temporary camps of huts constructed of bowed branches covered in large leaves (though today more and more homes are constructed following Bantu methods). The men hunt and trap in the surrounding forest, employing poisoned arrows and spears to great effect. Meanwhile, the women gather wild fruits and nuts or practise beekeeping while tending to the children. The group remains in one area until it is hunted out then abandon the camp for a different portion of the forest. The group is communal and makes decisions by consensus.

Baka religion is animist. They worship a forest spirit known as Jengi or Djengi, whom they perceive as both a parental figure and guardian. Each successful hunt is followed by a dance of thanksgiving known as the Luma, which is accompanied by drumming and polyphonic singing. One of the most important traditional ceremonies is the Jengi, a long and secret rite of initiation which celebrates the boy's passage into adulthood, studied in depth by the anthropologist Mauro Campagnoli, who also could take part into it. The Baka practice traditional medicine, and their skills are such that even non-Baka often seek out pygmy healers for treatment.

The Baka live relatively symbiotically with their Bantu neighbours. They often set their camps along roadsides to better facilitate trade; the Baka provide forest game in exchange for produce and manufactured goods. Nevertheless, exploitation of the Baka by other ethnic groups is a grave reality, especially since the Baka are still largely unaccustomed to the cash-based economy. Non-Baka sometimes hire Baka pygmies as labourers, for example, but pay them virtually nothing for a full day's work. Or, conscious of the tourism potential, some non-Baka arrange visits or stays in pygmy villages or arrange Baka guides for visitors to forest reserves, often with little compensation to the pygmies. Rates of Baka-Bantu intermarriage are also on the rise. Baka who marry outside of their ethnic group typically adopt the lifestyle of their non-Baka spouse, so some scholars predict that the pygmies will one day be completely assimilated into other groups.

The Baka are among the oldest inhabitants of Cameroon and the neighbouring countries. Their semi-nomadic lifestyle has persisted largely unchanged for thousands of years, despite the fact that during colonialism, the Baka's prowess at elephant hunting prompted ivory-hungry German and French overlords to force them to settle in roadside villages where their talents could be more easily exploited. The government of Cameroon, while stopping short of forced settlement, has attempted to maintain this policy through government incentives and regulations such as mandatory schooling for all children. However, the Baka largely resist. Today, the greatest threat to their way of life comes from multinational logging interests. As the forests disappear, the animals and plants upon which the Baka rely vanish as well.

Mbuti

The Mbuti are one of several indigenous hunter-gatherer groups in the Congo region of Africa.

Of the Pygmies, Batwa, or Bushmen, the Mbuti is one such group of hunter-gatherers. One of the oldest inhabitants of the area, the Mbuti are composed of bands which are relatively small in size, ranging from 15 to 60 people. The Mbuti population totals about 30,000 to 40,000 people. There are three distinct cultures, each with their own dialect, within the Mbuti. These are the Efe, which speak Balese, the Sua, who speak Bira, and the Aka who speak Mangbetu Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag.

The Ancient Egyptians, around 2,500 B.C.E. made reference to a "people of the trees" that could be the Mbuti. Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag

The Mbuti live in the forested Congo region, located in the heart of Africa. The country is now called The Democratic Republic of Congo. Specifically, they sustain themselves by hunting and gathering in the Ituri forest, in northeast Zaire Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag. The Mbuti escape many influences and pressures from the national government by living a traditional way of life in the forest. Civil war and violation of human rights has affected the lives of many of the Mbuti. Some of the hunter-gatherers choose to move into modern day villages instead of retaining the customary Mbuti life, due to pressure from the government. If there are disputes or wrongdoing from an individual, the Mbuti usually take matters into their own hands by either banishing, beating, or in smaller incidences, ridicule Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag.

The forest of Ituri is a tropical rain forest. In this area, there is a high amount of rainfall annually, ranging from 50 to 70 inches Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag The rainforest is 70,000 square kilometers. The dry season is relatively short, ranging from one to two months in duration ^[1]. The forest is a moist, humid region strewn with rivers and lakes. Several ecological problems exist that affect the Mbuti. Disease is prevalent in the forests and can spread quickly, not only killing humans, but plants, and animals, the major source of food, as well. One disease, carried by tsetse flies, is sleeping sickness, which limits the use of large mammals Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag. The walls of the structures are poles that are placed in the ground and at the top of the poles, a vine is tied around them to keep them together ^[2]. Large leaves are also used in the construction of the huts.

The Mbuti are primarily hunter-gatherers, foraging for food in the forest. The Mbuti have a vast knowledge about the forest and the foods it yields. Crabs, shellfish, ants, larvae, snails, fruits, roots, leaves for food, and cola nuts are some of the assortment of food that the Mbuti collect Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag. Yams, legumes, beans, peanuts, hibiscus, amaranth, and gourds are also consumed Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag.

Trading does exist between the Bantu villagers and the Mbuti. The Bantu villagers produce many items that the hunter gatherers trade some of their products for. The village goods include iron goods, pots, wooden goods, and basketry ^[1]. The hunter gatherers can trade meat, animal hides, and other forest foods in exchange ^[1]. Meat is a particularly frequently traded item. They can also trade to obtain agricultural products from the villagers. In market exchanges, prices are usually arbitrary, and people usually try to bargain for prices or trade one good for another ^[2].

Hunting is usually done in groups, with men, women, and children all aiding in the process. Women and children are not involved if the hunting involves the use of a bow and arrow, but if nets are used, it is common for everyone to participate. In some instances women may hunt using a net more often than men. The women and the children try to herd the animals to the net, while the men guard the net. Everyone engages in foraging, and women and men both take care of the children. Women are in charge of cooking, cleaning and repairing the hut, and obtaining water. The kin based units work together to provide food and care for the young.

The Mbuti descent tend to be patrilineal and residences is patrilocal post-marital, but the system is rather loose. The only type of group seen amongst the Mbuti is the nuclear family ^[2]. Kinship also provides allies for each group of people.

Sister exchange is the common form of marriage ^[2]. Based on reciprocal exchange, men from other bands exchange their sister or another female that he has ties to ^[2]. In Mbuti society, bride wealth is not customary. There is no formal marriage ceremony. It is just based on when the couple start living together. Polygamy does occur, but at different rates depending on the group, and it is not very common.

There is no ruling group or lineage, and no overlying political organization. The Mbuti are an egalitarian society in which the band is the highest form of social organization ^[2]. An instance in which leadership may be displayed is on hunting treks ^[2]. Men and women basically have equal power. Fire camps are where issues in the community and decisions are made by consensus, in which men and women engage in the conversations equivalently ^[2]. There is not much political or social structure among the Mbuti. If there is a disagreement, misdemeanor, or offense, then the person may be banished, beaten, or scorned ^[2].

Everything in the Mbuti life is centered on the forest because that is what sustains them and they believe that it is a sacred place. They sometimes call the forest “mother” or “father.” An important ritual that impacts the Mbuti life is referred to as molimo. After events such as death, it is noisily celebrated to wake the forest up, in the belief that if bad things are happening to its children, it must be asleep. ^[3]. The time it takes to complete a molimo, as for many Mbuti rituals, is not rigidly set; instead, it is determined by the mood of the group. Food is collected from each hut to feed the molimo, and in the evening the ritual is accompanied by the men dancing and singing around the fire. Women and children must remain in their huts with the doors closed.

The molimo is also the name of a trumpet the men play during the ritual. Traditionally, it was made of wood or sometimes bamboo, but Turnbull also reported the use of metal drainpipes. When not in use, the trumpet is stored in the trees of the forest. During a celebration, the trumpet is retrieved by the youth of the village and carried back to the fire.^[3].

Unfortunately, the land that the Mbuti live on is threatened for various reasons. It is not protected by the law, and the boundaries that each band claims is not distinctly marked out. They are no longer allowed to hunt large game, so they have to trade with nearby Bantu villages. Due to deforestation, gold mining, and modern influences, from plantations, agriculturalists, and efforts to conserve the forests, their food supply is threatened. There is also a lot of civil unrest in the country.

Asian Negrito

Among the Asian groups are the Agta and the Batak (in the Philippines), the Semang (on the Malay Peninsula) and the residents of the Andaman Islands.

The Negritos include the Ati, the Aeta and at least 4 other tribes of the Philippines, the Semang of the Malay peninsula, and 12 Andamanese tribes of the Andaman Islands. The Malay term for them is orang asli, or original people. They are likely the indigenous people of south-east Asia, including New Guinea. Pygmy-sized, they are numerically and physically among the smallest as well as among the least-known of all living human races. The Negrito peoples have one of the purest genetic pools of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) among anyone in humankind so their mtDNA serves as a baseline in studying Genetic Drift.

The word is the Spanish diminutive of Negro, i.e. "little Black", and was given by early explorers who thought that the Negritos were from Africa.

The Negritos of the Philippines could make fire, whereas the Andamanese could not. The Semang are recorded to have made clothing of pounded tree bark, and to have lived in both caves and leaf-covered shelters. The Negritos are believed to be the aborigines of the Philippines. They are distinct from the Austronesian peoples who arrived in boats or balangay (see Barangay). (See Antique, Philippines for the 1212 purchase of rights, by some Malay peoples, to settle on the island of Panay from the chief of the Negritos there).

Myth

In Greek myth, pygmies were a tribe of people 27" tall (about 68.5cm) in India who warred with cranes.

"Beyond these in the most outlying mountain region we are told of the Three-Span (Trispithami) Pygmae who do not exceed three spans, that is, twenty-seven inches, in height; the climate is healthy and always spring-like, as it is protected on the north by a range of mountains; this tribe Homer has also recorded as being beset by cranes. It is reported that in springtime their entire band, mounted on the backs of rams and she-goats and armed with arrows, goes in a body down to the sea and eats the cranes' eggs and chickens, and that this outing occupies three months; and that otherwise they could not protect themselves against the flocks of cranes would grow up; and that their houses are made of mud and feathers and egg-shells. Aristotle says that the Pygmies live in caves, but in the rest of this statement about them he agrees with the other authorities." — Pliny Natural History 7.23-30

Notes

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Ehret, Christopher. 1998. The Civilizations of Africa Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 ^2.5 ^2.6 ^2.7 ^2.8 Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. Culture and Customs of the Congo Westport, CT:Greenwood Press
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 Turnbull, Colin M. 1968. The Forest People. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, Inc.

1 ^ author= Mukenge, Tshilemalea | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo | year=2002 | location=Westport, Connecticut | publisher=Greenwood Press
2 ^ author =Turnbull, Colin M. | title = The Forest People | year =1968 | publisher = New York, Simon and Schuster, Inc
3 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
4 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
5 ^ author= Ehret, Christopher | title=The Civilizations of Africa | year=1998 | location=Charlottesville | publisher=University Press of Virginia
6 ^ author= Ehret | title=The Civilizations of Africa
7 ^ author= King, Glenn | title=Traditional Cultures | year=2002 | location=Prospect Heights, Illinois | publisher=Waveland Press
8 ^ author= King | title=Traditional Cultures
9 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
10 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
11 ^ author= King | title=Traditional Cultures
12 ^ author= King | title=Traditional Cultures
13 ^ author= Turnbull | title=The Forest People
14 ^ author= King | title=Traditional Cultures
15 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
16 ^ author= Ehret | title=The Civilizations of Africa
17 ^ author= Ehret | title=The Civilizations of Africa
18 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
19 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
20 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
21 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
22 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
23 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
24 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo}}
25 ^ author= Mukenge | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo
26 ^ author= Turnbull | title=The Forest People
27 ^ author= Turnbull | title=The Forest People

Bibliography

Fanso, V.G. (1989) Cameroon History for Secondary Schools and Colleges, Vol. 1: From Prehistoric Times to the Nineteenth Century. Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd.
Neba, Aaron, Ph.D. (1999) Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon, 3rd ed. Bamenda: Neba Publishers.

External links

Baka Pygmies of Cameroon with photos and ethnographic notes
Mauro Campagnoli - Fieldworks Anthropological researches among Baka Pygmies
Baka Pygmies vocal polyphony by Vincent Kenis

Baka Pygmies Culture, music and life of Baka Pygmies, by Mauro Campagnoli
"What We Learned From the Pygmies", from Awake! magazine (November 8, 2003)

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[Ehret-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Ehret, Christopher. 1998. The Civilizations of Africa Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.

[Mukenge-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 ^2.5 ^2.6 ^2.7 ^2.8 Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. Culture and Customs of the Congo Westport, CT:Greenwood Press

[Turnbull-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Turnbull, Colin M. 1968. The Forest People. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, Inc.

[1]

[2]

[3]

@@ Line 54: / Line 54: @@
 The '''Mbuti''' are one of several [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|indigenous]] [[hunter-gatherer]] groups in the [[Congo]] region of [[Africa]].
+Of the [[Pygmies]], Batwa, or [[Bushmen]], the Mbuti is one such group of [[hunter-gatherer]]s. One of the oldest inhabitants of the area, the Mbuti are composed of bands which are relatively small in size, ranging from 15 to 60 people. The Mbuti population totals about 30,000 to 40,000 people. There are three distinct [[culture]]s, each with their own [[dialect]], within the Mbuti. These are the Efe, which speak Balese, the Sua, who speak Bira, and the Aka who speak Mangbetu <ref name=Mukenge> <ref>Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>.
+The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians, around 2,500 B.C.E. made reference to a "people of the [[tree|trees]]" that could be the Mbuti. <ref name=Turnbull> <ref>Turnbull, Colin M. 1968. ''The Forest People''. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, Inc.</ref>
-Of the [[Pygmies]], Batwa, or [[Bushmen]], the Mbuti is one such group of [[hunter-gatherer]]s. One of the oldest inhabitants of the area, the Mbuti are composed of bands which are relatively small in size, ranging from 15 to 60 people. The Mbuti population totals about 30,000 to 40,000 people. There are three distinct [[culture]]s, each with their own [[dialect]], within the Mbuti. These are the Efe, which speak Balese, the Sua, who speak Bira, and the Aka who speak Mangbetu {{ref|term3}}.
+The Mbuti live in the [[forest|forested]] [[Congo]] region, located in the heart of [[Africa]]. The country is now called The [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]. Specifically, they sustain themselves by hunting and gathering in the [[Ituri]] forest, in northeast [[Zaire]] <ref name=Mukenge> <ref>Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>. The Mbuti escape many influences and pressures from the national [[government]] by living a traditional way of life in the forest. [[Civil war]] and violation of [[human rights]] has affected the lives of many of the Mbuti. Some of the [[hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherers]] choose to move into modern day villages instead of retaining the customary Mbuti life, due to pressure from the [[government]]. If there are disputes or wrongdoing from an individual, the Mbuti usually take matters into their own hands by either banishing, beating, or in smaller incidences, ridicule <ref name=Mukenge> <ref>Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>.
-The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians, around 2,500 B.C. made reference to a "people of the [[tree|trees]]" that could be the Mbuti. {{ref|term4}}.
+The forest of [[Ituri]] is a tropical [[rain forest]]. In this area, there is a high amount of rainfall annually, ranging from 50 to 70 inches <ref name=Ehret> <ref>Ehret, Christopher. 1998. ''The Civilizations of Africa'' Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.</ref>  The [[rainforest]] is 70,000 square kilometers. The [[dry season]] is relatively short, ranging from one to two months in duration <ref name=Ehret> Ehret, Christopher. 1998. ''The Civilizations of Africa'' Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.</ref>. The forest is a moist, humid region strewn with [[river|rivers]] and [[lake|lakes]]. Several ecological problems exist that affect the Mbuti. [[Disease]] is prevalent in the forests and can spread quickly, not only killing humans, but plants, and animals, the major source of food, as well. One disease, carried by [[tsetse flies]], is [[sleeping sickness]], which limits the use of large [[mammals]] <ref name=King> King, Glenn. 2002. ''Traditional Cultures''. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Too much rainfall and [[drought|droughts]] can greatly diminish the food supply as well.
+The Mbuti live in villages that consist are categorized as bands. Each [[hut]] houses a [[family]] unit. At the start of the [[dry season]], they leave the village to enter the forest and set up a series of camps <ref name=King> King, Glenn. 2002. ''Traditional Cultures''. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. This way the Mbuti are able to utilize more land area for maximum [[foraging]]. These villages are solitary and separated from other groups of people. Their houses are small, circular, and very temporary. Unlike many modern architects, they do not use [[blueprint|blueprints]], but instead trace the outline of the house into the ground <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>. The walls of the structures are poles that are placed in the ground and at the top of the poles, a vine is tied around them to keep them together <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>. Large leaves are also used in the construction of the huts.
-The Mbuti live in the [[forest|forested]] [[Congo]] region, located in the heart of [[Africa]]. The country is now called The [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]. Specifically, they sustain themselves by hunting and gathering in the [[Ituri]] forest, in northeast [[Zaire]] {{ref|term3}}. The Mbuti escape many influences and pressures from the national [[government]] by living a traditional way of life in the forest. [[Civil war]] and violation of [[human rights]] has affected the lives of many of the Mbuti. Some of the [[hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherers]] choose to move into modern day villages instead of retaining the customary Mbuti life, due to pressure from the [[government]]. If there are disputes or wrongdoing from an individual, the Mbuti usually take matters into their own hands by either banishing, beating, or in smaller incidences, ridicule {{ref|term3}}.
+The Mbuti are primarily [[hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherers]], [[forage|foraging]] for food in the forest.  The Mbuti have a vast knowledge about the forest and the foods it yields.  [[Crabs]], [[shellfish]], [[ants]], [[larvae]], [[snails]], fruits, roots, leaves for food, and cola nuts are some of the assortment of food that the Mbuti collect <ref name=King> King, Glenn. 2002. ''Traditional Cultures''. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Other food sources yielded by the forest are animals for [[meat]] consumption, root plants, palm trees, and bananas <ref name=King> King, Glenn. 2002. ''Traditional Cultures''. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press; and in some seasons, wild honey <ref name=Turnbull> Turnbull, Colin M. 1968. <ref>''The Forest People''. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, Inc.</ref>. [[yam (vegetable)|Yams]], [[legumes]], [[beans]], [[peanuts]], [[hibiscus]], [[amaranth]], and [[gourds]] are also consumed <ref name=King> King, Glenn. 2002. ''Traditional Cultures''. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. The Mbuti utilize large nets, traps, and bows and arrows are used to hunt game. [[Women]] and [[children]] sometimes help out by trying to drive the animals into the nets. Both sexes gather and forage. Each band has its own hunting ground, although boundaries are hard to maintain <ref name=Mukenge> <ref>Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>.
+[[trade|Trading]] does exist between the [[Bantu]] villagers and the Mbuti. The [[Bantu]] villagers produce many items that the hunter gatherers trade some of their products for. The village goods include iron goods, pots, wooden goods, and basketry <ref name=Ehret> Ehret, Christopher. 1998. ''The Civilizations of Africa'' Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.</ref>. The hunter gatherers can trade meat, animal hides, and other forest foods in exchange <ref name=Ehret> Ehret, Christopher. 1998. ''The Civilizations of Africa'' Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.</ref>. Meat is a particularly frequently traded item. They can also trade to obtain agricultural products from the villagers. In market exchanges, prices are usually arbitrary, and people usually try to bargain for prices or trade one good for another <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>.
-The forest of [[Ituri]] is a tropical [[rain forest]]. In this area, there is a high amount of rainfall annually, ranging from 50 to 70 inches {{ref|term1}}. The [[rainforest]] is 70,000 square kilometers. The [[dry season]] is relatively short, ranging from one to two months in duration {{ref|term1}}. The forest is a moist, humid region strewn with [[river|rivers]] and [[lake|lakes]]. Several ecological problems exist that affect the Mbuti. [[Disease]] is prevalent in the forests and can spread quickly, not only killing humans, but plants, and animals, the major source of food, as well. One disease, carried by [[tsetse flies]], is [[sleeping sickness]], which limits the use of large [[mammals]] {{ref|term2}}. Too much rainfall and [[drought|droughts]] can greatly diminish the food supply as well.
-The Mbuti live in villages that consist are categorized as bands. Each [[hut]] houses a [[family]] unit. At the start of the [[dry season]], they leave the village to enter the forest and set up a series of camps {{ref|term2}}. This way the Mbuti are able to utilize more land area for maximum [[foraging]]. These villages are solitary and separated from other groups of people. Their houses are small, circular, and very temporary. Unlike many modern architects, they do not use [[blueprint|blueprints]], but instead trace the outline of the house into the ground {{ref|term3}}. The walls of the structures are poles that are placed in the ground and at the top of the poles, a vine is tied around them to keep them together {{ref|term3}}. Large leaves are also used in the construction of the huts.
-The Mbuti are primarily [[hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherers]], [[forage|foraging]] for food in the forest.  The Mbuti have a vast knowledge about the forest and the foods it yields.  [[Crabs]], [[shellfish]], [[ants]], [[larvae]], [[snails]], fruits, roots, leaves for food, and cola nuts are some of the assortment of food that the Mbuti collect {{ref|term2}}. Other food sources yielded by the forest are animals for [[meat]] consumption, root plants, palm trees, and bananas {{ref|term2}}; and in some seasons, wild honey {{ref|term4}}. [[yam (vegetable)|Yams]], [[legumes]], [[beans]], [[peanuts]], [[hibiscus]], [[amaranth]], and [[gourds]] are also consumed {{ref|term2}} . The Mbuti utilize large nets, traps, and bows and arrows are used to hunt game. [[Women]] and [[children]] sometimes help out by trying to drive the animals into the nets. Both sexes gather and forage. Each band has its own hunting ground, although boundaries are hard to maintain {{ref|term3}}.
-[[trade|Trading]] does exist between the [[Bantu]] villagers and the Mbuti. The [[Bantu]] villagers produce many items that the hunter gatherers trade some of their products for. The village goods include iron goods, pots, wooden goods, and basketry {{ref|term1}}. The hunter gatherers can trade meat, animal hides, and other forest foods in exchange {{ref|term1}}. Meat is a particularly frequently traded item. They can also trade to obtain agricultural products from the villagers. In market exchanges, prices are usually arbitrary, and people usually try to bargain for prices or trade one good for another {{ref|term3}}.
 [[hunt|Hunting]] is usually done in groups, with men, women, and children all aiding in the process. Women and children are not involved if the hunting involves the use of a bow and arrow, but if nets are used, it is common for everyone to participate. In some instances women may hunt using a net more often than men. The women and the children try to herd the animals to the net, while the men guard the net. Everyone engages in foraging, and women and men both take care of the children. Women are in charge of cooking, cleaning and repairing the hut, and obtaining water. The kin based units work together to provide food and care for the young.
+The Mbuti descent tend to be [[patrilineal]] and residences is patrilocal post-marital, but the system is rather loose. The only type of group seen amongst the Mbuti is the [[nuclear family]] <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>. [[Kinship]] also provides allies for each group of people.
-The Mbuti descent tend to be [[patrilineal]] and residences is patrilocal post-marital, but the system is rather loose. The only type of group seen amongst the Mbuti is the nuclear family {{ref|term3}}. [[Kinship]] also provides allies for each group of people.
+Sister exchange is the common form of [[marriage]] <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>. Based on reciprocal exchange, men from other bands exchange their sister or another female that he has ties to <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>. In Mbuti society, bride wealth is not customary. There is no formal marriage ceremony. It is just based on when the couple start living together. [[Polygamy]] does occur, but at different rates depending on the group, and it is not very common.
-Sister exchange is the common form of [[marriage]] {{ref|term3}}. Based on reciprocal exchange, men from other bands exchange their sister or another female that he has ties to {{ref|term3}}. In Mbuti society, bride wealth is not customary. There is no formal marriage ceremony. It is just based on when the couple start living together. [[Polygamy]] does occur, but at different rates depending on the group, and it is not very common.
-There is no ruling group or lineage, and no overlying political organization. The Mbuti are an [[egalitarian]] society in which the band is the highest form of social organization {{ref|term3}}. An instance in which leadership may be displayed is on hunting treks {{ref|term3}}. Men and women basically have equal power. Fire camps are where issues in the community and decisions are made by consensus, in which men and women engage in the conversations equivalently {{ref|term3}}. There is not much political or social structure among the Mbuti. If there is a disagreement, [[misdemeanor]], or offense, then the person may be banished, beaten, or scorned {{ref|term3}}.
+There is no ruling group or lineage, and no overlying political organization. The Mbuti are an [[egalitarian]] society in which the band is the highest form of social organization <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>. An instance in which leadership may be displayed is on hunting treks <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>. Men and women basically have equal power. Fire camps are where issues in the community and decisions are made by consensus, in which men and women engage in the conversations equivalently <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>. There is not much political or social structure among the Mbuti. If there is a disagreement, [[misdemeanor]], or offense, then the person may be banished, beaten, or scorned <ref name=Mukenge> Mukenge, Tshilemalea. 2002. ''Culture and Customs of the Congo'' Westport, CT:Greenwood Press </ref>.
+Everything in the Mbuti life is centered on the [[forest]] because that is what sustains them and they believe that it is a sacred place. They sometimes call the forest “mother” or “father.”  An important [[ritual]] that impacts the Mbuti life is referred to as molimo. After events such as death, it is noisily celebrated to wake the forest up, in the belief that if bad things are happening to its children, it must be asleep. <ref name=Turnbull> Turnbull, Colin M. 1968. ''The Forest People''. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, Inc.</ref>. The time it takes to complete a molimo, as for many Mbuti rituals, is not rigidly set; instead, it is determined by the mood of the group. Food is collected from each hut to feed the molimo, and in the evening the ritual is accompanied by the men dancing and singing around the fire. Women and children must remain in their huts with the doors closed.
-Everything in the Mbuti life is centered on the [[forest]] because that is what sustains them and they believe that it is a sacred place. They sometimes call the forest “mother” or “father.”  An important [[ritual]] that impacts the Mbuti life is referred to as molimo. After events such as death, it is noisily celebrated to wake the forest up, in the belief that if bad things are happening to its children, it must be asleep.  {{ref|term4}}.    The time it takes to complete a molimo, as for many Mbuti rituals, is not rigidly set; instead, it is determined by the mood of the group.    Food is collected from each hut to feed the molimo, and in the evening the ritual is accompanied by the men dancing and singing around the fire. Women and children must remain in their huts with the doors closed.
+The molimo is also the name of a trumpet the men play during the ritual.  Traditionally, it was made of wood or sometimes bamboo, but Turnbull also reported the use of metal drainpipes.  When not in use, the trumpet is stored in the trees of the forest. During a celebration, the trumpet is retrieved by the youth of the village and carried back to the fire.<ref name=Turnbull> Turnbull, Colin M. 1968. ''The Forest People''. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, Inc.</ref>.
-The molimo is also the name of a trumpet the men play during the ritual.  Traditionally, it was made of wood or sometimes bamboo, but Turnbull also reported the use of metal drainpipes.  When not in use, the trumpet is stored in the trees of the forest. During a celebration, the trumpet is retrieved by the youth of the village and carried back to the fire. {{ref|term4}}.
 Unfortunately, the land that the Mbuti live on is threatened for various reasons. It is not protected by the law, and the boundaries that each band claims is not distinctly marked out. They are no longer allowed to hunt large game, so they have to trade with nearby Bantu villages. Due to [[deforestation]], gold mining, and modern influences, from plantations, agriculturalists, and efforts to [[conserve]] the forests, their food supply is threatened. There is also a lot of civil unrest in the country.
 ==Asian Negrito==
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 ''"Beyond these in the most outlying mountain region we are told of the Three-Span (Trispithami) Pygmae who do not exceed three spans, that is, twenty-seven inches, in height; the climate is healthy and always spring-like, as it is protected on the north by a range of mountains; this tribe Homer has also recorded as being beset by cranes. It is reported that in springtime their entire band, mounted on the backs of rams and she-goats and armed with arrows, goes in a body down to the sea and eats the cranes' eggs and chickens, and that this outing occupies three months; and that otherwise they could not protect themselves against the flocks of cranes would grow up; and that their houses are made of mud and feathers and egg-shells. [[Aristotle]] says that the Pygmies live in caves, but in the rest of this statement about them he agrees with the other authorities."'' — ''Pliny Natural History 7.23-30''
-== References ==
+== Notes ==
+<references/>
 {{note|term1}} author= Mukenge, Tshilemalea | title=Culture and Customs of the Congo | year=2002 | location=Westport, Connecticut | publisher=Greenwood Press
 <br>
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+==Bibliography==
 *Fanso, V.G. (1989) ''Cameroon History for Secondary Schools and Colleges, Vol. 1: From Prehistoric Times to the Nineteenth Century.'' Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd.
 *Neba, Aaron, Ph.D. (1999) ''Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon,'' 3rd ed. Bamenda: Neba Publishers.
 ==External links==