Difference between revisions of "Oil spill" - New World Encyclopedia

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Latest revision as of 10:28, 11 March 2023

Aftermath of an oil spill.

An oil spill is the unintentional release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment as a result of human activity. Oil can refer to many different materials, including crude oil, refined petroleum products (such as gasoline or diesel fuel) or by-products, ships' bunkers, oily refuse, or oil mixed in waste. Most man-made oil pollution comes from land-based activity, but the term often refers to the release of oil into the ocean or coastal waters. Public attention and subsequent regulation has tended to focus mainly on seagoing oil tankers.^[1]

Petroleum-based hydrocarbons can negatively impact marine life and seabirds even at low concentrations. Oil that is denser than water settles on and penetrates the seabed, and it may take months or even years to clean up. Some methods to clean up an oil spill include the use of bioremediation, dispersants, dredging, and skimming.

It should be noted that oil is also released into the environment from natural geologic seeps on the sea floor.^[2]

Environmental effects

Oiled birds

The lighter fractions of oil, such as benzene and toluene, are highly toxic, but they are also volatile and evaporate quickly. Heavier components of crude oil, such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) appear to cause the most damage. Although they are less toxic than the lighter volatiles, they persist in the environment much longer.

A heavy oil spill can also blanket estuaries and shoreline ecosystems, such as salt marshes and tidal pools, preventing gas exchange and blocking light. The oil can mix deeply into pebble, shingle, or sandy beaches, where it may remain for months or even years.

Seabirds are severely affected by spills, as the oil penetrates and opens up the structure of their plumage, reducing the insulating ability of their feathers, making the birds more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. The oiled feathers also impairs the birds' ability to fly, making it difficult or impossible to forage and escape from predators. As they attempt to preen, birds typically ingest oil that coats their feathers, causing kidney damage, altered liver function, and digestive tract irritation. The limited foraging ability coupled with the ingestion of oil quickly leads to dehydration and metabolic imbalances. Most birds affected by an oil spill die in the absence of supportive human intervention.

Marine mammals exposed to oil spills are affected in many of the same ways as seabirds. Oil coats the fur of sea otters and seals, reducing the natural insulation ability of their fur, leading to body temperature fluctuations and hypothermia. Ingestion of the oil also causes dehydration, and impaired digestion.

Cleaning up an oil spill

Some equipment used for cleanup:

Absorbent Boom, Sausage
Containment Boom (except for gasoline where confinement can cause dangerous levels of fume buildup)
Skimmers
Snares

Some methods used for cleanup:

Bioremediation: use of biological agents to remove oil.^[3]
Burning: It can be done only when it is not windy, the oil has not dispersed, and the sea is calm.
Dispersants: Dispersants act as detergents, clustering around oil globules and allowing it to be carried away in the water.^[4] While this makes the surface look pretty, it only spreads the oil around. This could be a benefit since smaller oil droplets, scattered with currents, may cause less harm and may be easier to degrade. However, the dispersed oil droplets readily sink and can lethally contaminate coral. Moreover, recent research indicates that dispersants themselves are toxic to corals.^[5]
Do nothing: Some have advocated doing nothing and letting the oil evaporate or break down on its own, rather than making matters worse by attempting to clean up. As noted above, cleanup by detergents pollutes the seabed. Also, shoreline cleanup can further disturb the ecology by bleaching all life from the area.
Dredging: This method is used for oils dispersed with detergents and other oils denser than water.
Skimming: This approach can't be used if the sea is rough.
Solidifying the material.

Spill Prevention

Secondary Containment: This includes methods to prevent releases of oil or hydrocarbons into the environment.
SPCC: Oil Spill Prevention Containment and Countermeasures program by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Double hulling: Building and using double hull vessels and converting single hull vessels into double hull. A double hull reduces the risk and severity of a spill in case of a collision or grounding.

Estimating the volume of a spill

For an oil spill on water, one can calculate the total volume of oil by measuring the surface area of the spill and the average thickness of the film.^[6]

	Film Thickness		Quantity Spread
Appearance	in	mm	gal/sq mi	L/ha
Barely visible	0.0000015	0.0000381	25	0.365
Silvery sheen	0.0000030	0.0000762	50	0.731
First trace of color	0.0000060	0.0001524	100	1.461
Bright bands of color	0.0000120	0.0003048	200	2.922
Colors begin to dull	0.0000400	0.0010160	666	9.731
Colors are much darker	0.0000800	0.0020320	1332	19.463

Largest oil spills

Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the Prestige oil spill.

**Oil Spills of over 100,000 metric tons or 30 million US gallons, ordered by Tonnes**^[a]
Spill / Tanker	Location	Date	*Tonnes of crude oil	Reference
Gulf War oil spill	Persian Gulf	January 23, 1991	136,000 - 1,500,000	^[7]^[8]
Ixtoc I oil well	Gulf of Mexico	June 3, 1979 - March 23, 1980	454,000 - 480,000	^[9]
Atlantic Empress / Aegean Captain	Trinidad and Tobago	July 19, 1979	287,000	^[10]^[11]
Fergana Valley	Uzbekistan	March 2, 1992	285,000	^[8]
Nowruz oil field	Persian Gulf	February 1983	260,000	^[12]
ABT Summer	700 nautical miles (1,300 km) off Angola	1991	260,000	^[10]
Castillo de Bellver	Saldanha Bay, South Africa	August 6, 1983	252,000	^[10]
Amoco Cadiz	Brittany, France	March 16, 1978	223,000	^[10]^[8]
Amoco Haven tanker disaster	Mediterranean Sea near Genoa, Italy	1991	144,000	^[10]
Odyssey	700 nautical miles (1,300 km) off Nova Scotia, Canada	1988	132,000	^[10]
Sea Star	Gulf of Oman	December 19, 1972	115,000	^[10]^[8]
Torrey Canyon	Scilly Isles, UK	March 18, 1967	80,000 - 119,000	^[10]^[8]
Irenes Serenade	Navarino Bay, Greece	1980	100,000	^[10]
Urquiola	A Coruña, Spain	May 12, 1976	100,000	^[10]

One metric ton of crude oil is roughly equal to 308 US gallons, or 7.33 barrels.

Notes

↑ Petroleum: Oil Spill Portable Planetariums. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
↑ Welcome to the UCSB Hydrocarbon Seeps web site UCSB Hydrocarbon Seeps Project. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
↑ Oil Program US EPA. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
↑ Detergent and Oil Spills NEWTON BBS. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
↑ Carolyn Barry, 2007, Slick Death: Oil-spill treatment kills coral, Science News 172:67.
↑ Tchobanoglous, George, Franklin L. Burton, and H. David Stensel, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse (McGraw-Hill Series in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2003, ISBN 0070418780).
↑ Draffan, George. Major Oil Spills Endgame. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 ^8.3 ^8.4 History The Mariner Group. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
↑ John S. Patton, Mark W. Rigler, Paul D. Boehm & David L. Fiest, 1981, Ixtoc 1 oil spill: flaking of surface mousse in the Gulf of Mexico. NPG (Nature Publishing Group). Retrieved March 12, 2008.
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 ^10.4 ^10.5 ^10.6 ^10.7 ^10.8 ^10.9 Statistics ITOPF. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
↑ Atlantic Empress/Aegean Captain Cedre. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
↑ Oil Spills and Disasters infoplease. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Fingas, Mervin F., and Jennifer Charles. 2001. The Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup. Boca Raton, Fla: Lewis Publishers. ISBN 1566705371
Nelson-Smith, A. 1973. Oil Pollution and Marine Ecology. London, UK: Elek Scientific. ISBN 0236154117
Park, Ken (ed.). 2004. The World Almanac and Book of Facts. New York, NY: World Almanac. ISBN 0886879116
Reis, John C. 1996. Environmental Control in Petroleum Engineering. Houston, TX: Gulf Publ. ISBN 0884152731
Tchobanoglous, George, Franklin L. Burton, and H. David Stensel. 2003. Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse. McGraw-Hill Series in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070418780
Oil Spill Case Histories 1967-1991 NOAA/Hazardous Materials and Response Division. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

External links

All links retrieved November 17, 2022.

Credits

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Oil spill ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

History of "Oil spill"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

[1] Petroleum: Oil Spill Portable Planetariums. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

[2] Welcome to the UCSB Hydrocarbon Seeps web site UCSB Hydrocarbon Seeps Project. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

[3] Oil Program US EPA. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

[4] Detergent and Oil Spills NEWTON BBS. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

[Science_News-5] Carolyn Barry, 2007, Slick Death: Oil-spill treatment kills coral, Science News 172:67.

[6] Tchobanoglous, George, Franklin L. Burton, and H. David Stensel, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse (McGraw-Hill Series in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2003, ISBN 0070418780).

[7] Draffan, George. Major Oil Spills Endgame. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

[Mariner_Group-8] 8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 ^8.3 ^8.4 History The Mariner Group. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

[9] John S. Patton, Mark W. Rigler, Paul D. Boehm & David L. Fiest, 1981, Ixtoc 1 oil spill: flaking of surface mousse in the Gulf of Mexico. NPG (Nature Publishing Group). Retrieved March 12, 2008.

[ITOPF-10] 10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 ^10.4 ^10.5 ^10.6 ^10.7 ^10.8 ^10.9 Statistics ITOPF. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

[11] Atlantic Empress/Aegean Captain Cedre. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

[12] Oil Spills and Disasters infoplease. Retrieved March 12, 2008.

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[3]

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[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Claimed}}{{Contracted}}
+{{Copyedited}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}{{Paid}}
 [[Image:Oil-spill.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Aftermath of an oil spill.]]
-An '''oil spill''' is the unintentional release of a [[liquid]] [[petroleum]] [[hydrocarbon]] into the environment as a result of human activity. [[Oil]] can refer to many different materials, including [[crude oil]], refined petroleum products (such as [[gasoline]] or [[diesel fuel]]) or by-products, ships' bunkers, oily refuse, or oil mixed in [[waste]]. Most [[man-made]] oil pollution comes from land-based activity, but the term often refers to the release of oil into the [[ocean]] or [[coastal waters]]. Public attention and subsequent regulation has tended to focus mainly on seagoing oil tankers.<ref>[http://www.planetarios.com/handbook-contamination/petroleumoilspill.html Petroleum: Oil Spill]. Portable Planetariums. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref>
+An '''oil spill''' is the unintentional release of a [[liquid]] [[petroleum]] [[hydrocarbon]] into the environment as a result of human activity. [[Oil]] can refer to many different materials, including [[crude oil]], refined petroleum products (such as [[gasoline]] or [[diesel fuel]]) or by-products, ships' bunkers, oily refuse, or oil mixed in [[waste]]. Most [[man-made]] oil pollution comes from land-based activity, but the term often refers to the release of oil into the [[ocean]] or [[coastal waters]]. Public attention and subsequent regulation has tended to focus mainly on seagoing oil tankers.<ref>[http://www.planetarios.com/handbook-contamination/petroleumoilspill.html Petroleum: Oil Spill] Portable Planetariums. Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref>
-Spills take months or even years to clean up.
+Petroleum-based hydrocarbons can negatively impact marine life and seabirds even at low concentrations. Oil that is [[density|denser]] than [[water]] settles on and penetrates the seabed, and it may take months or even years to clean up. Some methods to clean up an oil spill include the use of [[bioremediation]], [[dispersant]]s, [[dredging]], and [[skimming]].
+{{toc}}
-It should be noted that oil is also released into the environment from natural [[geologic]] [[seeps]] on the [[sea floor]].<ref>[http://seeps.geol.ucsb.edu/ Welcome to the UCSB Hydrocarbon Seeps web site]. UCSB Hydrocarbon Seeps Project. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref>
+It should be noted that oil is also released into the environment from natural [[geologic]] [[seeps]] on the [[sea floor]].<ref>[http://seeps.geol.ucsb.edu/ Welcome to the UCSB Hydrocarbon Seeps web site] UCSB Hydrocarbon Seeps Project. Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref>
 ==Environmental effects==
+[[Image:EVOSWEB 013 oiled bird3.jpg|thumb|Oiled birds]]
-Studies of the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]] have shown that the environmental damage caused by oil spills can be greater than was previously thought. Petroleum-based hydrocarbons can negatively impact marine life at concentrations as low as one part per billion.
+The lighter fractions of oil, such as [[benzene]] and [[toluene]], are highly toxic, but they are also [[volatile]] and evaporate quickly. Heavier components of crude oil, such as [[polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs) appear to cause the most damage. Although they are less toxic than the lighter volatiles, they persist in the environment much longer.
-[[Image:EVOSWEB 013 oiled bird3.jpg|thumb|Oiled birds]]
-The lighter fractions of oil, such as [[benzene]] and [[toluene]], are highly toxic, but are also [[volatile]] and evaporate quickly. Heavier components of crude oil, such as [[polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs) appear to cause the most damage. Although they are less toxic than the lighter volatiles, they persist in the environment much longer. A heavy oil spill can also blanket [[estuaries]] and shoreline ecosystems such as [[salt marshes]] and [[tidal pools]], preventing gas exchange and blocking light. The oil can mix deeply into pebble, shingle, or sandy beaches, where it may remain for months or even years.
+A heavy oil spill can also blanket [[estuaries]] and shoreline [[ecosystem]]s, such as [[salt marshes]] and [[tidal pools]], preventing gas exchange and blocking light. The oil can mix deeply into pebble, shingle, or sandy beaches, where it may remain for months or even years.
-[[Seabird]]s are severely affected by spills as the oil penetrates and opens up the structure of their plumage, reducing the insulating ability of their feathers, making the birds more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. The oiled feathers also impairs the birds' ability to fly, making it difficult or impossible to forage and escape from predators. As they attempt to [[preen]], birds typically ingest oil that coats their feathers, causing kidney damage, altered liver function, and digestive tract irritation. The limited foraging ability coupled with the ingestion of oil quickly leads to dehydration and metabolic imbalances. Most birds affected by an oil spill die in the absence of supportive human intervention.
+[[Seabird]]s are severely affected by spills, as the oil penetrates and opens up the structure of their plumage, reducing the insulating ability of their feathers, making the birds more vulnerable to [[temperature]] fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. The oiled feathers also impairs the birds' ability to fly, making it difficult or impossible to forage and escape from predators. As they attempt to [[preen]], birds typically ingest oil that coats their feathers, causing kidney damage, altered liver function, and digestive tract irritation. The limited foraging ability coupled with the ingestion of oil quickly leads to dehydration and metabolic imbalances. Most birds affected by an oil spill die in the absence of supportive human intervention.
-Marine mammals exposed to oil spills are affected in many of the same ways as seabirds. Oil coats the fur of [[sea otters]], [[Pinniped|seals]], reducing their furs natural insulation abilities, leading to body temperature fluctuations and hypothermia. Ingestion of the oil also causes dehydration, and impaired digestion.
+Marine mammals exposed to oil spills are affected in many of the same ways as seabirds. Oil coats the fur of [[sea otters]] and [[Pinniped|seals]], reducing the natural insulation ability of their fur, leading to body temperature fluctuations and [[hypothermia]]. Ingestion of the oil also causes dehydration, and impaired digestion.
 ==Cleaning up an oil spill==
-An oil sheen can be dispersed (but not cleaned up) with detergents that make the oil settle to the bottom. However, the seabed becomes toxic. It is very difficult to clean up oils denser than water as they settle to the bottom. [[Polychlorinated biphenyl]]s (PCBs) are an example of such a pollutant.
+'''Some equipment used for cleanup:'''
-Some of the equipment used in cleaning up an oil spill include:
 * Absorbent Boom, Sausage
-* Containment Boom (except for gasoline where confinement can cause dangerous levels of fume buildup){{Fact|date=June 2007}}
+* Containment Boom (except for gasoline where confinement can cause dangerous levels of fume buildup)
 * [[Skimmer (machine)|Skimmers]]
 * Snares
-Some of the methods used include:
+'''Some methods used for cleanup:'''
-* [[Bioremediation]]: use of [[biological agents]] to remove oil.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/oilspill/ncp/bagents.htm Oil Program]. US EPA. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref>
+* [[Bioremediation]]: use of [[biological agents]] to remove oil.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/oilspill/ncp/bagents.htm Oil Program] US EPA. Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref>
 * [[Burning]]: It can be done only when it is not windy, the oil has not dispersed, and the sea is calm.
-* [[Dispersant]]s: Dispersants act as [[detergent]]s, clustering around oil globules and allowing it to be carried away in the water.<ref>[http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem00/chem00896.htm Detergent and Oil Spills.] NEWTON BBS. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref> While this makes the surface look pretty, it only spreads the oil around. This can be a benefit since smaller oil droplets, scattered with currents, may cause less harm and may be easier to degrade. However, the dispersed oil droplets readily sink and can lethally contaminate coral. Moreover, recent research indicates that dispersants themselves are toxic to corals.<ref name="Science News">Barry, Carolyn. 2007. [http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20070804/fob1.asp Slick Death: Oil-spill treatment kills coral]. ''Science News''. 172:67. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref>
+* [[Dispersant]]s: Dispersants act as [[detergent]]s, clustering around oil globules and allowing it to be carried away in the water.<ref>[http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem00/chem00896.htm Detergent and Oil Spills] NEWTON BBS. Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref> While this makes the surface look pretty, it only spreads the oil around. This could be a benefit since smaller oil droplets, scattered with currents, may cause less harm and may be easier to degrade. However, the dispersed oil droplets readily sink and can lethally contaminate coral. Moreover, recent research indicates that dispersants themselves are toxic to corals.<ref name="Science News"> Carolyn Barry, 2007, Slick Death: Oil-spill treatment kills coral, ''Science News'' 172:67.</ref>
-* Do nothing:  Sometimes it is better to do nothing and let the oil evaporate or break down on its own than to make matters worse by attempting to clean up.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}  Cleanup by detergents pollutes the seabed.  Shoreline cleanup can further disturb the ecology by bleaching all life from the area.
+* Do nothing: Some have advocated doing nothing and letting the oil evaporate or break down on its own, rather than making matters worse by attempting to clean up. As noted above, cleanup by detergents pollutes the seabed. Also, shoreline cleanup can further disturb the ecology by bleaching all life from the area.
-* [[Dredging]]: for oils dispersed with detergents and other oils denser than water.
+* [[Dredging]]: This method is used for oils dispersed with detergents and other oils denser than water.
-* [[Skimmer (machine)|Skimming]]:It can't be done if there is a rough sea
+* [[Skimmer (machine)|Skimming]]: This approach can't be used if the sea is rough.
-* Solidifying {{Fact|date=June 2007}}
+* Solidifying the material.
-===  Spill Prevention ===
+'''Spill Prevention'''
-* Secondary Containment - methods to prevent releases of oil or hydrocarbons into environment.
+* Secondary Containment: This includes methods to prevent releases of oil or hydrocarbons into the environment.
-* SPCC - Oil Spill Prevention Containment and Countermeasures program by US EPA.
+* SPCC: Oil Spill Prevention Containment and Countermeasures program by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
-* Double hulling - build double hull vessels and rebuild single hull vessels into double hull.  A double hull reduces the risk and severity of a spill in case of a collision or grounding.
+* Double hulling: Building and using double hull vessels and converting single hull vessels into double hull. A double hull reduces the risk and severity of a spill in case of a collision or grounding.
 == Estimating the [[volume]] of a spill ==
 {{Pollution}}
-For an oil spill on water, one can calculate the total volume of oil by measuring the surface area of the spill and the average thickness of the film.<ref>Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. 2003. ''Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse''. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070418780.</ref>
+For an oil spill on water, one can calculate the total volume of oil by measuring the surface area of the spill and the average thickness of the film.<ref>Tchobanoglous, George, Franklin L. Burton, and H. David Stensel, ''Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse'' (McGraw-Hill Series in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2003, ISBN 0070418780).</ref>
 {| class="wikitable" width=50%
@@ Line 103: / Line 100: @@
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
-|+ '''Oil Spills of over 100,000 tonnes or 30 million US gallons, ordered by Tonnes'''{{ref_label|Note|a|a}}
+|+ '''Oil Spills of over 100,000 metric tons or 30 million US gallons, ordered by Tonnes'''{{ref_label|Note|a|a}}
 ! Spill / Tanker || Location || Date || *Tonnes of crude oil || Reference
 |-
 |[[Gulf War oil spill]]
 |[[Persian Gulf]]
-|January 23 1991
+|January 23, 1991
 |136,000 - 1,500,000
-|<ref>Draffan, George. [http://www.endgame.org/oilspills.htm Major Oil Spills.] Endgame. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref><ref name="Mariner Group">[http://www.marinergroup.com/oil-spill-history.htm History.] The Mariner Group. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref>
+|<ref>Draffan, George. [http://www.endgame.org/oilspills.htm Major Oil Spills] Endgame. Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref><ref name="Mariner Group">[http://www.marinergroup.com/oil-spill-history.htm History] The Mariner Group. Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref>
 |-
 | [[Ixtoc I|Ixtoc I oil well]]
 | [[Gulf of Mexico]]
-| June 3 1979- March 23 1980
+| June 3, 1979 - March 23, 1980
 | 454,000 - 480,000
-| <ref>Patton, John S., Mark W. Rigler, Paul D. Boehm & David L. Fiest. 1981. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v290/n5803/abs/290235a0.html Ixtoc 1 oil spill: flaking of surface mousse in the Gulf of Mexico]. NPG (Nature Publishing Group). Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref>
+| <ref>John S. Patton, Mark W. Rigler, Paul D. Boehm & David L. Fiest, 1981, [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v290/n5803/abs/290235a0.html Ixtoc 1 oil spill: flaking of surface mousse in the Gulf of Mexico]. NPG (Nature Publishing Group). Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref>
 |-
 | [[Atlantic Empress]] / [[Aegean Captain]]
 | [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
-| July 19 1979
+| July 19, 1979
 | 287,000
-| <ref name="ITOPF">[http://www.itopf.com/stats.html Statistics]. ITOPF. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref> <ref>[http://www.cedre.fr/uk/spill/atlantic/atlantic.htm Atlantic Empress/Aegean Captain]. Cedre. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref>
+| <ref name="ITOPF">[http://www.itopf.com/stats.html Statistics] ITOPF. Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.cedre.fr/uk/spill/atlantic/atlantic.htm Atlantic Empress/Aegean Captain] Cedre. Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref>
 |-
 | [[Fergana Valley]]
 | [[Uzbekistan]]
-| March 2 1992
+| March 2, 1992
 | 285,000
 | <ref name="Mariner Group" />
@@ Line 138: / Line 135: @@
 | February 1983
 | 260,000
-| <ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001451.html|work=infoplease Oil Spills and Disasters]. infoplease. Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref>
+| <ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001451.html|work=infoplease Oil Spills and Disasters] infoplease. Retrieved March 12, 2008.</ref>
 |-
@@ Line 150: / Line 147: @@
 | [[Castillo de Bellver]]
 | [[Saldanha Bay]], [[South Africa]]
-| August 6 1983
+| August 6, 1983
 | 252,000
 | <ref name="ITOPF" />
@@ Line 157: / Line 154: @@
 | [[Amoco Cadiz]]
 | [[Brittany]], [[France]]
-| March 16 1978
+| March 16, 1978
 | 223,000
-| <ref name="ITOPF" /> <ref name="Mariner Group" />
+| <ref name="ITOPF" /><ref name="Mariner Group" />
 |-
@@ Line 178: / Line 175: @@
 | [[Sea Star Oil Spill|Sea Star]]
 | [[Gulf of Oman]]
-| December 19 1972
+| December 19, 1972
 | 115,000
-| <ref name="ITOPF" /> <ref name="Mariner Group" />
+| <ref name="ITOPF" /><ref name="Mariner Group" />
 |-
 | [[Torrey Canyon]]
 | [[Scilly Isles]], [[UK]]
-| March 18 1967
+| March 18, 1967
 | 80,000 - 119,000
-| <ref name="ITOPF" /> <ref name="Mariner Group" />
+| <ref name="ITOPF" /><ref name="Mariner Group" />
 |-
@@ Line 199: / Line 196: @@
 | [[Urquiola]]
 | [[A Coruña]], [[Spain]]
-| May 12 1976
+| May 12, 1976
 | 100,000
 | <ref name="ITOPF" />
 |}
-{{note_label|Note|a|a}}One tonne of crude oil is roughly equal to 308 US gallons, or 7.33 barrels.
+{{note_label|Note|a|a}}One metric ton of crude oil is roughly equal to 308 US gallons, or 7.33 barrels.
 ==See also==
@@ Line 217: / Line 214: @@
 ==References==
-* Fingas, Mervin F., and Jennifer Charles. 2001. ''The Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup.'' Boca Raton, Fla: Lewis Publishers. ISBN 1566705371.
+* Fingas, Mervin F., and Jennifer Charles. 2001. ''The Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup.'' Boca Raton, Fla: Lewis Publishers. ISBN 1566705371
+*Nelson-Smith, A. 1973. ''Oil Pollution and Marine Ecology''. London, UK: Elek Scientific. ISBN 0236154117
-*Nelson-Smith, A. 1973. ''Oil Pollution and Marine Ecology''. London, UK: Elek Scientific. ISBN 0236154117.
+*Park, Ken (ed.). 2004. ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts''. New York, NY: World Almanac. ISBN 0886879116
+* Reis, John C. 1996. ''Environmental Control in Petroleum Engineering.'' Houston, TX: Gulf Publ. ISBN 0884152731
-*Park, Ken ed. 2004. ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts''. New York, NY: World Almanac. ISBN 0886879116.
+* Tchobanoglous, George, Franklin L. Burton, and H. David Stensel. 2003. ''Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse.'' McGraw-Hill Series in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070418780
+* [http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/26_spilldb.pdf Oil Spill Case Histories 1967-1991] NOAA/Hazardous Materials and Response Division. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
-* Reis, John C. 1996. ''Environmental Control in Petroleum Engineering.'' Houston, TX: Gulf Publ. ISBN 0884152731.
-* Tchobanoglous, George, Franklin L. Burton, and H. David Stensel. 2003. ''Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse.'' McGraw-Hill Series in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070418780.
-* [http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/26_spilldb.pdf Oil Spill Case Histories 1967-1991.] NOAA/Hazardous Materials and Response Division. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
 ==External links==
+All links retrieved November 17, 2022.
-* [http://www.black-tides.com An educational website comprising texts, animations, diagrams, quizzes and video clips on oil spills]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
+* [http://www.cedre.fr/index_gb.html www.cedre.fr Centre of Documentation, Research and Experimentation on Accidental Water Pollution]
-* [http://www.cedre.fr/index_gb.html www.cedre.fr Centre of Documentation, Research and Experimentation on Accidental Water Pollution]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
+* [http://www.itopf.com International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation]
-* [http://www.itopf.com International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
-* [http://www.newsweek.com/id/70906 Newsweek's Black Tides Timeline]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
-* [http://www.censol.co.uk/censol%20-%20oil%20absorbents%20-%20testing.html How oil spill absorbent products Work]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
-* [http://www.whoi.edu/institutes/coi/viewTopic.do?o=read&id=367 Industrial pollution information from the Coastal Ocean Institute]. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
-* [http://www.incidentnews.gov/ IncidentNews.gov] - a NOAA site cataloguing major spills, April 14, 2005. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
-* [http://www.lastingnews.com/maps/oilspill.php A Google map of the major oil spills since 1960]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
-* [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9175553/ Oil spill on Mississippi River after Hurricane Katrina]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
-* [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/NATURE/07/19/brazil.spill.wildlife/ 2000 Oil spill in Brazil]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
-* [http://www.epa.gov/oilspill/ashland.htm Ashland oil spill in Floreffe, Pennsylvania in 1988 - considered one of the most severe inland oil spills in U.S. history]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
-* [http://www.upsorb.com Biodegradable Absorbents]. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
 [[Category:Physical sciences]]