Monasticism

Monasticism (from Greek: monachos—a solitary person) is the religious practice of renouncing all worldly pursuits in order to devote one's life fully to spiritual work. Those pursuing a monastic life are usually called monks or brothers (male), and nuns or sisters (female). Both monks and nuns may also be called monastics.

Many religions have monastic groups, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism, though their expressions differ considerably.

Buddhist monasticism

Main article: Buddhist monasticism

The order of Buddhist monks and nuns was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. Initially consisting only of males, the Buddhist monastic order grew to include females after the Buddha's step-mother, Mahaprajapati, asked for and eventually received permission to live as an ordained practitioner. After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy season, required by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on cenobium Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by monks and nuns- the Patimokkha- govern in great detail, the proper methods for living in a community of monks or nuns. Within the sangha, the number of rules observed varies for monks and nuns: the nuns are expected to follow more rules than the monks.

Monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. They are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline, provide a living example for the laity, and serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers. In return for the support of the laity, monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character.

Young Buddhist monks in Tibet

A monk, known as a Bhikkhu in Pali or Bhikshu in Sanskrit, first ordains as a Samanera (novice) for a year or more. Novices often ordain at a very young age, but generally no younger than eight. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu, is usually given only to men who are aged twenty or older. Nuns follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer periods of time- typically five years.

The disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. In most Buddhist lineages, celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline, being seen as being the preeminent factor in seperating the life of a monk from that of a 'householder'. Depending on the tradition and the strictness of observation, monastics may eat only one meal a day, provided either by direct donations of food from lay supporters, or from a monastery kitchen that is stocked (and possibly staffed) by donations from lay supporters.

Christian monasticism

Monasticism in Christianity is based on the counsels (e.g., vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience) found in the words of Jesus.

Christian cenobitic monasticism as it is mainly known in the West started in Egypt. Originally, all Christian monks were hermits, and this continued to be very common until the decline of Syrian Christianity in the late Middle Ages. However, not everybody was fit for solitary life, and numerous cases of hermits becoming mentally unstable are reported.

The need for some form of organized spiritual guidance was obvious, and around 300 C.E. Saint Anthony the Great started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian monastery. Soon the Egyptian desert abounded with similar institutions.

The idea caught on, and other places followed:

• Mar Awgin founded a monastery on Mt. Izla above Nisibis in Mesopotamia (~350), and from this monastery the cenobitic tradition spread in Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Georgia and even India and China.

• St. Sabbas the Sanctified organized the monks of the Judean Desert in a monastery close to Bethlehem (483), and this is considered the mother of all monasteries of the Eastern Orthodox churches.

• Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai was founded in the Sinai desert by order of Emperor Justinian.

• St. Benedict of Nursia founded the monastery of Monte Cassino in Italy (529), which was the seed of Roman Catholic monasticism in general, and of the order of Benedict in particular.

Hindu monasticism

An Indian sadhu with begging bowl and holy books.

In Hinduism, the terms Sadhu, Swami and Sannyasi refer to renunciates and spiritual masters, who have usually left behind all material attachments to live in forests, temples and caves all over India. The word "Sadhu" is the general term for a Hindu ascetic who has given up the pursuit of the first three Hindu goals of life: kama (pleasure), artha (wealth and power) and even dharma (duty), to solely dedicate himself to achieving moksha (liberation) through meditation and contemplation of God. The title Swami literally translates as "owner of oneself", denoting complete mastery over instinctive and lower urges. Many yogis and gurus (teachers) of the Hindu tradition hold the title of Swami as a sign of respect denoting spiritual accomplishment. Hindu Sadhus are easily recognized by their saffron robes. Vaishnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while Shaivite monks in most traditions let their hair and beard grow uncut.

Holy men and women have long played an important role in Indian culture and religious traditions. As a result, there are a variety of Hindu terms used to denote religious mendicants. The most famous terms are "Yogis" (those who practice Yoga), "Gurus" (those who dispel spiritual darkness), "Sadhus" (medicants), "Swamis" (Spiritual Masters), "Rishis" (Seers), and "Sannyasis" (Renunciates). The number of these terms is a sign of the importance of holy men and women in Indian life even today.

Sadhus and Swamis occupy a unique and important place in Hindu society. Vedic textual data suggests that asceticism in India - in forms similar to that practiced by sadhus today - dates back to 1700 b.c.e.. Thus, the present-day sadhus of India likely represent the oldest continuous tradition of monastic mystical practice in the world.

Traditionally, becoming a Sannyasi or Sadhu was the fourth and highest stage (asrama) in life in classical Hinduism when men, usually over sixty, would renounce the world, undergoing a ritual death (and symbolic rebirth), in the pursuit of moksha. At least three preconditions needed to be fulfilled before one could take this vow of renunciation- one needed to have completed one's duties to family and ancestors, one's hair should have turned gray, and one should have ensured a grandson to continue the obligatory family rituals.

It is estimated that there are several million sadhus in India today. Along with bestowing religious instruction and blessings to lay people, sadhus are often called upon to adjudicate disputes between individuals or to intervene in conflicts within families. Sadhus are also considered to be living embodiments of the divine, and images of what human life, in the Hindu view, is truly about - religious illumination and liberation from the cycle of birth and death (Samsara). It is also thought that the austere practices of the sadhus help to burn off their karma and that of the community at large. Thus seen as benefiting society, many people help support sadhus with donations. Thus, by and large, sadhus are still widely respected, revered and even feared, especially for their curses. However, reverence of sadhus in India is by no means universal. Indeed, sadhus have often been seen with a certain degree of suspicion, particularly amongst the urban populations of India. In popular pilgrimage cities, posing as a 'sadhu' can be a means of acquiring income for beggars who could hardly be considered 'devout.' Some sadhus fake holy status to gain respect but they are normally discovered by true sadhus.

Madhvaacharya (Madhva), the Dvaita Vedanta philosopher, established ashta matha (Eight Monastries). He appointed a monk (called swamiji or swamigalu in local parlance) for each matha or monastery who has the right to worship Lord Krishna by rotation. Each matha's swamiji gets a chance to worship after fourteen years. This ritual is called Paryaya.

Monks from the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), or Hare Krishnas as they are popularly known, are the best known Vaishnava monks outside India. They are a common sight in many places around the world. Their appearance—simple saffron dhoti, shaved head with sikha, Tulasi neckbeads and tilaka markings—and social customs (sadhana) date back many thousands of years to the Vedic era. ISKCON started as a predominantly monastic group but nowadays the majority of its members live as lay persons. Many of them, however, spent some time as monks. New persons joining ISKCON as full-time members (living in its centers) first undergo a three-month Bhakta training, which includes learning the basics of brahmacari (monastic) life. After that they can decide if they prefer to continue as monks or as married Grihasthas. A Brahmachari older than fifty years can become sannyasi, which is a permanent decision that one cannot give up.

Islamic monasticism

Dervishes — the name given to initiates of sufi orders — believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. Many of the dervishes are mendicant ascetics who have taken the vow of poverty. Though some of them are beggars by choice, others work in common professions; Egyptian Qadirites, for example, are fishermen.

There are also various dervish brotherhoods who trace their origins from various Muslim saints and teachers, especially Ali and Abu Bakr. They live in monastic conditions, superficially similar to Christian monk brotherhoods. Various sects and subsects have appeared and disappeared over the centuries.

Whirling dance, which is the practice of the Mevlevi sect in Turkey, is just one of the physical methods to try to reach religious ecstasy (majdhb) and connection with Allah. Rifgites, also called the howling dervishes, cut themselves with knives, handle red-hot iron and eat hot coals or live serpents, depending on the subsect. Other groups include Bektashites, connected to the janissaries, and Senussi, who are rather orthodox in their beliefs. Other brotherhoods and subgroups chant verses of Qur'an, play drums or dance vigorously in groups, all according to their specific traditions. Each brotherhoods uses its own garb and methods of acceptance and initiation, which may be rather severe.

Jain monasticism

Jainism has two branches, each has a slightly different take on monasticism. Digambara monks do not wear clothing; however, they do not consider themselves to be nude — they are wearing the environment. Digambaras believe that practice represents a refusal to give in to the body's demands for comfort and private property — only Digambara ascetics are required to forsake clothing . Digambara ascetics have only two possessions: a peacock feather broom and a water gourd. They also believe that women are unable to obtain moksha. As a result, of the around 6000 Jain nuns, barely 100 are Digambaras. The Shvetambaras are the other main Jainist sect. Svetambaras, unlike Digambaras, neither believe that ascetics must practice nudity, nor do they believe that women are unable to obtain moksha. Shvetambaras are commonly seen wearing face masks so that they do not accidentally breathe in and kill small creatures.

Monasticism in other religions

Sikhism specifically forbids the practice of monasticism. Hence there are no Sikh monk conclaves or brotherhoods.

Manichaeism had two types of followers, the auditors, and the elect. The elect lived apart from the auditors to concentrate on reducing the material influences of the world. They did this through strict celibacy, poverty, teaching, and preaching. Therefore the elect were probably at least partially monastic.

Scientology maintains a "fraternal order" called the Sea Organization or just Sea Org. They work only for the Church of Scientology and have signed billion year contracts. Sea Org members live communally with lodging, food, clothing, and medical care provided by the Church.

Yungdrung Bön is believed to have a rich monastic history. Bön monastaries exist today, however, the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Brooke, Christopher Nugent Lawrence. "The Age of the Cloister: The Story of Monastic Life in the Middle Ages" HiddenSpring, 2003. ISBN 978-1587680182
• Harmless, William. "Desert Christians: An Introduction to the Literature of Early Monasticism" Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0195162233
• Johnston, William M. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Monasticism. 2 vols. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 2000. ISBN 978-1579580902
• Lawrence, C.H. "Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages (3rd Edition)" Longman, 2003. ISBN 978-0582404274
• Plaiss, Mark. "The Inner Room: A Journey into Lay Monasticism" Saint Anthony Messenger Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0867164817
• Sloan, Karen E. "Flirting With Monasticism: Finding God on Ancient Paths" IVP Books, 2006. ISBN 978-0830836024
• Wijayaratna, Mohan. "Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts of the Theravada Tradition" Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0521367080

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