Minor Aesir

The Minor Aesir in a Norse Context

As a Norse deities, the Minor Aesir belonged to a complex religious, mythological and cosmological belief system shared by the Scandinavian and Germanic peoples. This mythological tradition, of which the Scandinavian (and particularly Icelandic) sub-groups are best preserved, developed in the period from the first manifestations of religious and material culture in approximately 1000 B.C.E. until the Christianization of the area, a process that occurred primarily from 900-1200 C.E. The tales recorded within this mythological corpus tend to exemplify a unified cultural focus on physical prowess and military might.

Within this framework, Norse cosmology postulates three separate "clans" of deities: the Aesir, the Vanir, and the Jotun. The distinction between Aesir and Vanir is relative, for the two are said to have made peace, exchanged hostages, intermarried and reigned together after a prolonged war. In fact, the most major divergence between the two groups is in their respective areas of influence, with the Aesir representing war and conquest, and the Vanir representing exploration, fertility and wealth. The Jotun, on the other hand, are seen as a generally malefic (though wise) race of giants who represented the primary adversaries of the Aesir and Vanir.

Though these gods play a smaller role than those (discussed elsewhere), they still represent relevant aspects of the overall mythic tradition. More specifically, those gods who exist primarily as personifications of abstract values (for example, Forseti) are perhaps even more indicative of the overarching values of a people than more nuanced figures (such as Odin and Thor).

Forseti

Forseti (Old Norse: "chairman"; Modern Icelandic and Faroese: "president") is the god of justice, peace and truth among the Æsir. He was the son of Balder and Nanna. His home was Glitnir ("shining"), which referred to the hall's silver ceiling and golden pillars, which radiated light that could be seen from a great distance.

Forseti was considered the wisest and most eloquent of gods of Asgard. In contrast to his fellow god Tyr, who presided over the bloody affairs of carnal law, Forseti presided over disputes resolved by mediation. He sat in his hall, dispensing justice to those who sought it, and was said to be able to always provide a solution that all parties considered fair. Like his father Balder, he was a gentle god and favored peace so all judged by him could live in safety as long as they upheld his sentence. Forseti was so respected that only the most solemn oaths were uttered in his name. As described in the Prose Edda,

Forseti is the name of the son of Baldr and Nanna daughter of Nep; he has that hall in heaven which is called Glitnir. All that come to him with such quarrels as arise out of law-suits, all these return thence reconciled. That is the best seat of judgment among gods and men.

Since Forseti is not mentioned as a combatant at Ragnarok, it is assumed that, as a god of peace, he abstained from battle.

In Frisia, the god is known as Fosite or Foseti and is thought to have been the chief god or ancestor of their people. The Norse view of the deity is related to the Frisian one, and is thought to have spread to them around 700 C.E., when the cultural relations between Frisia and southern Norway were amenable enough to enable the Fosite-cult to move north across the Oslofjord.

Hermóðr

Hermóðr ("war-spirit") acts as Frigg's messenger after the death of Balder, sallying forth to Hel and attempting to secure the release of the beloved god.

Now when the gods had come to themselves, Frigg spake, and asked who there might be among the Æsir who would fain have for his own all her love and favor: let him ride the road to Hel, and seek if he may find Baldr, and offer Hel a ransom if she will let Baldr come home to Ásgard. And he is named Hermódr the Bold, Odin's son, who undertook that embassy.

As seen above, he is described (at least in the Prose Edda) as the All-Father's son (or at least his servant). However, some evidence (not least the fact that "Snorri never mentions Hermod in his lists of the Aesir") suggests that he is a euhemerized human hero rather than a deity.

Höðr

Loki tricks Höðr into shooting Baldr.

Höðr (often anglicized as Hod) is the blind brother of Balder, representing darkness and winter (as opposed to his brother's associations with lightness and spring). Guided by Loki, he shot the mistletoe arrow that came to slay the otherwise invulnerable Baldr. While most accounts of this tale follow the plan outlined in Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, an entirely different vision of the tale is presented in the Gesta Danorum of Saxo Grammaticus. Both will be explored below.

The Prose Edda

In the Gylfaginning section of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, Höðr is introduced in an ominous manner:

One of the Æsir is named Hödr: he is blind. He is of sufficient strength, but the gods would desire that no occasion should rise of naming this god, for the work of his hands shall long be held in memory among gods and men.

The blind god is not mentioned again until the prelude to Baldr's death is described. As a precursor to his demise, the Lord of Spring was allowing himself to be the target of various missiles, as all things (with the grievous exception of mistletoe (which was believed to be harmless)) have sworn an oath not to harm him.

Loki took mistletoe and pulled it up and went to the Thing. Hödr stood outside the ring of men, because he was blind. Then spake Loki to him: 'Why dost thou not shoot at Baldr?' He answered: 'Because I see not where Baldr is; and for this also, that I am weaponless.' Then said Loki: 'Do thou also after the manner of other men, and show Baldr honor as the other men do. I will direct thee where he stands; shoot at him with this wand.'

 

Hödr took mistletoe and shot at Baldr, being guided by Loki: the shaft flew through Baldr, and he fell dead to the earth; and that was the greatest mischance that has ever befallen among gods and men.

However, the Gylfaginning does not say what happens to Höðr after this. In fact, it specifically states that Baldr cannot be avenged, at least not immediately.

Then, when Baldr was fallen, words failed all the Æsir, and their hands likewise to lay hold of him; each looked at the other, and all were of one mind as to him who had wrought the work, but none might take vengeance, so great a sanctuary was in that place.

It does seem, however, that Höðr eventually ends up in Hel, for the last mention of him in Gylfaginning is in the description of the renewal of the world after the cataclysm of Ragnarök.

After that Baldr shall come thither, and Hödr, from Hel; then all shall sit down together and hold speech with one another, and call to mind their secret wisdom, and speak of those happenings which have been before: of the Midgard Serpent and of Fenris-Wolf.

Though Snorri does not relate the tale of Höðr's death at the hands of Váli, it is evident that he was familiar with it, as he includes "Foe of Váli" as a kenning for the Blind God and "Baldr's Avenger, [and] Foe and Slayer of Hödr" as kennings for Váli.

The accounts of this event in the Poetic Edda (specifically the Völuspá and Baldr's Draumr) are essentially compatible with the version presented in the Prose Edda.

Gesta Danorum

In Saxo's version of the story, Høtherus meets wood maidens who warn him that Balderus is a demi-god who cannot be killed by normal means.

In Gesta Danorum Høtherus is a human hero of the Danish and Swedish royal lines, who is gifted in swimming, archery, fighting and music. He first encounters Balder when they begin to compete for the hand of Nanna, daughter of Gewar, King of Norway.

In this version, Balder was a demigod who could not be wounded by common steel. The two rivals encountered each other in a terrible battle, which eventually led to Balder being beaten and forced into exile.

However, Balder, half-frenzied by his dreams of Nanna, in turn drove him [Hoether] into exile (winning the lady); finally Hother, befriended hy luck and the Wood Maidens, to whom he owed his early successes and his magic coat, belt, and girdle [there is obvious confusion here in the text], at last met Balder and stabbed him in the side. Of this wound Balder died in three days, as was foretold by the awful dream in which Proserpina (Hela) appeared to him.

In this account, the divine character of the tale (and much of its mythic resonance) is stripped away in favor of an attempt at historical accuracy (or an attempt to discredit "pagan" practices).

Hœnir

In Norse mythology, Hœnir was one of the Æsir. Along with Mímir, he went to the Vanir as a hostage to seal a truce. The Vanir made Hœnir one of their members, but he was indecisive and relied on Mímir for all of his decisions, grunting noncommital answers when Mímir was absent. This is related in the Ynglinga saga

In Völuspá, at the creation of the first human beings, Ask and Embla, Hœnir and Lóðurr help Odin. In Gylfaginning, Vili and Vé are mentioned instead. As Snorri knew Völuspá, it is possible that Hœnir was another name for Vili. Also according to Völuspá, Hœnir was one of the few gods that would survive Ragnarök.

Hœnir also has a minor role in Haustlöng and Reginsmál.

Hoenir crater on Callisto is named after him.

Meili

Meili is one of the Æsir in Norse mythology. His name appears in the Eddic poem Hárbarðsljóð where Thor lists him alone as his brother, omitting his universally acknowledged half-brothers Baldr and Váli/Bous, indicating not only that Meili is one of the sons of Odin, he is likely also the son of Jörd.

The Prose Edda supports his immediate descent from Odin with its (oft-omitted) list of the sons of Odin in the Nafnaþulur of Skáldskaparmál. The text reads:

Sons of Odin       Baldur and Meili

Vidar and Nep       Váli, Ali
Thor and Hildolf       Hermod, Sigi
Skjöld, Yngvi-Freyr       and Itreksjod

Heimdall, Sæming

His name appears to mean "mile-stepper", and if accurate, could mean that he was a Norse god of travel. Given the importance of travel in Norse culture, Meili would then have been an important figure in the Norse pantheon, but no first-hand accounts of his status are known to exist, so his rank and function among the Æsir remains a point of conjecture.

Nanna

Nanna is a goddess in Norse mythology, the daughter of Nep and wife of Baldr (Balder). She and Baldr are both Æsir and live together in the hall of Breidablik in Asgard. With Baldr, she was the mother of Forseti.

Gylfaginning

According to Gylfaginning, when Baldr was unintentionally slain by the blind god Höðr through the treachery of Loki, she was overcome with grief and died. She was placed on the funeral pyre alongside her husband on his ship Hringhorni which was then launched out to sea. Later, when Hermód set out on his quest to bring Baldr back from the underworld and entered the hall of Hel, he saw Baldr there in the seat of honour alongside Nanna who sent back with Hermód gifts for the other gods including a robe for Frigg and a ring for Fulla along with the golden arm ring Draupnir sent back to Odin by Baldr.

Skáldskaparmál

According to Skáldskaparmál, Nanna is listed among the eight Ásynjur presiding over the banquet held for Aegir when he was a guest in Asgard, though Baldr is conspicuously absent among the hosting male Æsir. Despite being known as a goddess, her name is also used in the same book in a kenning for giantess or "troll wife".

Hyndluljód

In the poem Hyndluljód, there is also a Nanna, daughter of Nokkvi, mentioned by the giantess Hyndla during her enumeration of the ancestors of Óttar, presumably referring to a human ancestor rather than the goddess.

Gesta Danorum

In Gesta Danorum, a Danish history written by Saxo Grammaticus, Nanna is a beautiful human woman caught up in a love triangle between the human king Hotherus and the demigod Balderus who, unlike their counterparts in Gylfaginning, are not brothers but rivals for the hand of Nanna.

Chronicon Lethrense

The chronicle which departs most from Norse mythology is the Danish Chronicon Lethrense (and the included Annales Lundenses). They tell that Höðr's son, the Danish king Rorik Slengeborre was succeeded by his son Wiglek. This Wiglek married Nanna and he ruled in peace. He died in his bed and was succeeded by his son Wermund, the father of Offe (Offa).

Merseburg Incantations

In the Merseburg Incantations there is a reference to a female called "Sinhtgunt" (Sinthgunt). The context of the spell seems to show that this means Nanna, wife of Balder and sister of Sunna.

Sif

This early 20th century depiction of Sif shows her with long blond hair.

Sif ("relative") is, in Norse mythology, a goddess of the Æsir, wife of Thor (Þórr) and mother of Thrud (Þrúðr), Ullr (Ull) and Modi (Móði). Thor is not the father of Ullr. Sif was not the mother of Magni; this was Thor's son with Járnsaxa.

She has hair of gold which grows just like natural hair, made by the dwarves called "sons of Ivaldi" (Dvalin). Her hair's color may have represented ripe wheat. Loki cut off Sif's hair as a prank, but when Thor found this out he forced Loki to promise to have golden hair made by the Dwarves. Loki uses this event to taunt Sif and, indirectly, Thor in Lokasenna.

Loki succeeded in having such hair made, as well as Freyr's ship Skíðblaðnir and Odin's (Óðinn's) spear Gungnir, all made by the same dwarf, Dvalin. Her name is used to designate the Earth in Skáldskaparmál 87. After Freyja, Sif is the most beautiful of the goddesses. Snorri calls her the Sybill. It is possible that Sif was a goddess of the home, of field and of the crop and she had some power on destiny. Gold was called 'hair of Sif'. Hilda R. Ellis Davidson tells us that her braids of hair was offered to mother earth. Sif appears in the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda as well as in skaldic poetry.

A volcano on the planet Venus is named after Sif. Sif is also a character in the popular comic book The Mighty Thor from Marvel Comics.

Ullr

This illustration from an 18th century Icelandic manuscript shows Ullr on his skis and with his bow.

In Norse mythology, Ullr^‡ is a son of Sif and a stepson of Thor. While extant sources are scant he appears to have been a major god in prehistoric times, or even an aspect of the head of the Proto-Germanic pantheon, mentioned on the 3rd century Thorsberg chape.

The Prose Edda

In the Gylfaginning part of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda there is a brief description of Ullr.

Ullr heitir einn, sonr Sifjar, stjúpsonr Þórs. Hann er bogmaðr svá góðr ok skíðfœrr svá at engi má við hann keppask. Hann er ok fagr álitum ok hefir hermanns atgervi. Á hann er ok gott at heita í einvígi. [1]

Ull, Sif's son and Thór's stepson, is one [too]. He is such a good archer and ski-runner that no one can rival him. He is beautiful to look at as well and he has all the characteristics of a warrior. It is also good to call on him in duels. — Young's translation

In Skáldskaparmál, the second part of the Prose Edda, Snorri mentions Ullr again in a discussion of kennings. Snorri informs his readers that Ullr can be called ski-god, bow-god, hunting-god and shield-god. In turn a shield can be called Ullr's ship. Despite these tantalising tidbits Snorri relates no myths about Ullr. It seems likely that he didn't know any, the god having faded from memory.

Skaldic poetry

Snorri's note that a shield can be called Ullr's ship is borne out by surviving skaldic poetry with kennings such as askr Ullar, far Ullar and kjóll Ullar all meaning Ullr's ship and referring to shields. While the origin of this kenning is unknown it could be connected with the identity of Ullr as a ski-god. Early skis, or perhaps sleds, might have been reminiscent of shields. A late Icelandic composition, Laufás-Edda, offers the prosaic explanation that Ullr's ship was called Skjöldr, "Shield".

The name of Ullr is also common in warrior kennings, where it is used as other god names are.

Ullr brands – Ullr of sword – warrior

rand-Ullr – shield-Ullr – warrior

Ullr almsíma – Ullr of bowstring – warrior [2]

Three skaldic poems, Þórsdrápa, Haustlöng and a fragment by Eysteinn Valdason, refer to Thor as Ullr's stepfather, confirming Snorri's information.

The Poetic Edda

Ullr is mentioned in Grímnismál where the homes of individual gods are recounted.

Ýdalir heita þar er Ullr hefir sér of görva sali.

Ydalir it is called, where Ullr has himself a dwelling made. — Thorpe's translation

The name Ýdalir, meaning "yew dales", is not otherwise attested. The yew was an important material in the making of bows, and the word ýr, "yew", is often used metonymically to refer to bows. It seems likely that the name Ýdalir is connected with the idea of Ullr as a bow-god.

Another strophe in Grímnismál also mentions Ullr.

Ullar hylli hefr ok allra goða hverr er tekr fyrstr á funa, því at opnir heimar verða of ása sonum, þá er hefja af hvera.

Ullr’s and all the gods’ favour shall have, whoever first shall look to the fire; for open will the dwelling be, to the Æsir's sons, when the kettles are lifted off. — Thorpe's translation

The strophe is obscure but may refer to some sort of religious ceremony. It seems to indicate Ullr as an important god.

The last reference to Ullr in the Poetic Edda is found in Atlakviða.

Svá gangi þér, Atli, sem þú við Gunnar áttir eiða oft of svarða ok ár of nefnda, at sól inni suðrhöllu ok at Sigtýs bergi, hölkvi hvílbeðjar ok at hringi Ullar.

So be it with thee, Atli! as toward Gunnar thou hast held the oft-sworn oaths, formerly taken - by the southward verging sun, and by Sigtý’s hill, the secluded bed of rest, and by Ullr’s ring. — Thorpe's translation

Again we seem to find Ullr associated with some sort of ceremony, this time that of swearing an oath by a ring. Both Atlakviða and Grímnismál are often considered to be among the oldest extant Eddic poems. It may not be a coincidence that they are the only ones to refer to Ullr.

Gesta Danorum

In Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum, where gods appear euhemerized as powerful humans, Ullr, under the name Ollerus, is described as a cunning wizard, having magical means of transportation.

Fama est, illum adeo praestigiarum usu calluisse, ut ad traicienda maria osse, quod diris carminibus obsignavisset, navigii loco uteretur nec eo segnius quam remigio praeiecta aquarum obstacula superaret. [3]

The story goes that he was such a cunning wizard that he used a certain bone, which he had marked with awful spells, wherewith to cross the seas, instead of a vessel; and that by this bone he passed over the waters that barred his way as quickly as by rowing. — Elton's translation

When Odin was exiled, Ollerus was chosen to take his place. Ollerus ruled under the name Odin for ten years until the true Odin was called back, whereupon Ollerus retired to Sweden where he was slain by Danes.

Etymology and place names

The coat of arms of Ullensaker displays Ullr as a charge.

The name Ullr is probably cognate with the Old English word wuldor and the Gothic word wulþus, meaning "glory".

The appearance of Ullr's name in numerous Danish, Norwegian and Swedish place names (for example Ulleråker "Ullr's field" and Ullevi "Ullr's shrine") is further evidence that Ullr had at some point a religious importance greater than is immediately apparent from the scant surviving textual references.

The most notable place names in Norway that contains the name Ullr (or the sideform Ullin) are the following: Ullensaker (municipality in Akershus county), Ullensvang (municipality in Hordaland county), Ullern and Ullevål (boroughs of Oslo) and Ullerøy (island and parish in Østfold county). (See also under the name Ringsaker.)

In Sweden: Ulleråker (Uppland), Ultuna (Uppland), Ullvi (Västmanland).

Rydberg's theories

In Viktor Rydberg's idiosyncratic Teutonic Mythology Ullr is the son of Sif and Egill-Örvandill, half-brother of Svipdagr-Óðr, nephew of Völundr and a cousin of Skaði. His father, Egill, was the greatest archer in the mythology, and Ullr follows in his father's footsteps. Ullr helped Svipdagr-Eiríkr rescue Freyja from the giants. He also ruled over the Vanir when they held Ásgarðr during the war between the Vanir and the Æsir.

While most of Rydberg's theories are dismissed as fanciful by modern scholars his idea that Ullr is connected with the elves of Völundarkviða is not absurd. Both seem associated with skiing and hunting and since Ullr's father is not identified as one of the Æsir he may have been of another race.

Váli

In Norse mythology, Váli is a son of the god Odin and the giantess Rindr. He was birthed for the sole purpose of killing Höðr as revenge for Höðr's accidental murder of his half-brother, Baldr. He grew to full adulthood within one day of his birth, and slew Höðr. Váli is fated to survive Ragnarök.

The Váli myth is referred to in Baldrs draumar:

Rindr will bear Váli

in western halls;

that son of Óðinn

will kill when one night old—

he will not wash hand,

nor comb head,

before he bears to the pyre

Baldr's adversary. - Ursula Dronke's translation

And in Völuspá:

There formed from that stem,

which was slender-seeming,

a shaft of anguish, perilous:

Hǫðr started shooting.

A brother of Baldr

was born quickly:

he started—Óðinn's son—

slaying, at one night old.

There is another Váli, a son of Loki by Sigyn, who was transformed by the gods into a slavering wolf who tore out the throat of his brother Narfi to punish Loki for his crimes. See Váli (son of Loki).

The two figures named Váli may originally have been conceived of as the same being.

In Gesta Danorum the figure Bous corresponds to Váli.

Vé

Ve was one of the Æsir and a son of Bestla and Borr in Norse mythology. His brothers were Vili and Odin. He was known for having given humanity the powers of speech and their external senses. According to Loki, in Lokasenna, he had an affair with Odin's wife, Frigg.

In Völuspá, Hoenir and Lóðurr help Odin at the creation of the first man (Ask) and woman (Embla). In Gylfaginning, Vili and Ve are mentioned instead. As Snorri Sturluson knew Völuspá, it is thus possible that Lóðurr was another name for Ve.

Vidar

In Norse mythology, Víðarr (often Anglicised Vidar or Widar) is a god associated with vengeance and is the son of Odin and the giantess Gríd. His major deed in the mythology is to avenge his father's death at Ragnarök and is one of the few gods destined to survive that final conflict.

Gylfaginning

According to Gylfaginning, Vidar is called the silent god who wears a thick shoe, is almost equal in strength to Thor, and can always be counted on to help the Aesir in their struggles. During Ragnarök, when the wolf Fenrir devours Odin, Vidar will avenge him by stepping down with one foot on the lower jaw of the monster, grabbing his upper jaw in one hand and tearing his mouth apart, killing him. Vidar's "thick shoe" consists of all the leather waste pieces that people have cut from their own shoes at the toe and heel, collected by the god throughout all time. Therefore, anyone who is concerned enough to give assistance to the gods must throw these pieces away. Following Ragnarök and the rebirth of the world, Vidar along with his brother Váli will have survived both the deluge of the sea and the fiery conflagration unleashed by Surtr, completely unharmed, and shall thereafter dwell on the field of Idavoll, "where the city of Asgard had previously been".

Skáldskaparmál

According to Skáldskaparmál, when Aegir was a guest in Asgard, Vidar was one of the twelve presiding male gods seated among those hosting the banquet. Later in the book, various kennings are given for Vidar, including again the silent god, possessor of the iron shoe, enemy and slayer of Fenrisulf, the avenging god, brother of the Aesir, son of Odin and dweller of his father's homestead. In the tale of Thor's visit to the hall of the giant Geirröd, we are told that Gríd is the mother of "Vidar the Silent", and at a certain point in the dialogue between Bragi and Aegir, Snorri himself begins speaking of the myths in euhemeristic terms and states that the historical equivalent of Vidar was Aeneas who survived the Trojan War (Snorri's basis for Ragnarök) and went on to achieve great deeds.

Völuspá

According to Völuspá, Vidar slays Fenrir not by tearing his jaws apart but by thrusting his sword into the wolf's heart, although this does not prevent Snorri from quoting the passage after giving his own version in Gylfaginning.

Vafthrúdnismál

According to Vafthrúdnismál, Vidar and Váli both "shall live in the temples of the gods when Surtr's fire is slaked". Also, "the wolf will swallow the Father of Men. Vidar will avenge this. The cold jaws of the beast he will sunder in battle". These passages, along with others from the same poem, are likewise quoted or expanded upon by Snorri in Gylfaginning.

Grímnismál

According to Grímnismál, during Odin's visions of the various dwelling places of the gods he describes that of Vidar in stanza 17:

"Brushwood grows and high grass

widely in Vidar's land

and there the son proclaims on horseback

his eagerness to avenge his father"

Lokasenna

According to Lokasenna, Loki rebukes the gods at the start of the poem for not properly welcoming him to the feast at Aegir's hall, so Odin finally relents to the rules of hospitality, urging Vidar to stand and pour a drink for the quarrelsome guest.

Theories

John Lindow, in his book Norse Mythology (2001), speculates that Vidar's silence may derive from a ritual silence or other abstentions which often accompany acts of vengeance, as for example in Völuspá and Baldrs draumar when Váli, conceived for the sole purpose of avenging Baldr's death, abstains from washing his hands and combing his hair "until he brought Baldr's adversary to the funeral pyre".

According to H. A. Guerber's Myths of the Norsemen, Vidar is considered a reflection of the primeval forest. His home was Landvidi ("wide land") which was said to be surrounded by thick vegetation deep in the woods where he could meditate in silence.

Vili

<You'll have to cut and redo this from scratch... You can't credit 11 articles in the current template!> Vili was one of the Æsir and a son of Bestla and Borr in Norse mythology. His brothers were Vé and Odin, who he helped in killing the first giant, Ymir. He was known for having given humanity emotion and intelligence. According to Loki, in Lokasenna, he had an affair with Odin's wife, Frigg.

In Völuspá, at the creation of the first man (Ask) and woman (Embla), Hœnir and Lóðurr help Odin. In Gylfaginning, Vili and Vé are mentioned instead. As Snorri knew Völuspá, it is very likely that Hœnir was another name for Vili.

References

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• Bellows, Henry Adams (transl.) The Poetic Edda. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1936. Available online
• Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (transl.) The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1916. Available online
• Björnsson, Eysteinn. Lexicon of Kennings : The Domain of Battle. 2001. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/kennings/kennings.html
• Björnsson, Eysteinn (ed.). Snorra-Edda: Formáli & Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita. 2005. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/
• Björnsson, Eysteinn (ed.). Völuspá. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html
• Davidson, H. R. Ellis. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. London: Penguin Books, 1990. ISBN 0-14-013627-4.
• Dronke, Ursula (ed.) The Poetic Edda: Mythological Poems. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0198111819.
• DuBois, Thomas A. Nordic Religions in the Viking Age. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8122-1714-4.
• Dumézil, Georges. Gods of the Ancient Northmen. Edited by Einar Haugen; Introduction by C. Scott Littleton and Udo Strutynski. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. ISBN 0-520-02044-8.
• Jónsson, Finnur. Lexicon Poeticum, "Ullr". S. L. Møllers Bogtrykkeri, København, 1931. Entry available online at [4].
• Jónsson, Guðni (ed). Eddukvæði : Sæmundar Edda. Reykjavík: Íslendingasagnaútgáfan. 1949. Available online
• Lindow, John. Handbook of Norse mythology. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001. ISBN 1-57607-217-7.
• Munch, P. A. Norse Mythology: Legends of Gods and Heroes. In the revision of Magnus Olsen; translated from the Norwegian by Sigurd Bernhard Hustvedt. New York: The American-Scandinavian foundation; London: H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1926.
• Orchard, Andy. Cassell's Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. London: Cassell; New York: Distributed in the United States by Sterling Pub. Co., 2002. ISBN 0-304-36385-5.
• The Poetic Edda. Translated and with notes by Henry Adams Bellows. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1936. Accessed online at sacred-texts.com.
• Rydberg, Viktor. Teutonic Mythology, trans. Rasmus B. Anderson. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1889. Reprinted 2001, Elibron Classics. ISBN 1-4021-9391-2. Reprinted 2004, Kessinger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-7661-8891-4.
• Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum, Books I-IX, translated to English by Oliver Elton 1905.
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• Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda. Translated from the Icelandic and with an introduction by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur. New York: American-Scandinavian foundation, 1916. Available online at http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/index.php.
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Copied from the following Wikipedia* articles:

• Forseti
• Höðr
• Hœnir
• Meili
• Nanna_(Norse_deity)
• Sif
• Ullr
• Váli_(son_of_Odin)
• Ve
• Vidar
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