Madhva

Shri Madhvacharya (1238-1317 C.E.; also known as Vasudeva, Poornaprajnya, Purnabodha, and Anandateertha) was a Hindu philosopher who founded the Dvaita or dualistic school of Hindu philosophy. Dvaita is one of the three most influential Vedanta philosophies, along-side the schools of Advaita (non-dualism) and Visistadvaita (qualified dualism). Madhva’s dualism insisted that human beings and God (Vishnu) were wholly separate, and that the division between humanity and the divine could only be bridged by bhakti, or devotion. Many of Madhva's views, such as his beliefs in eternal damnation and the co-eternal nature of God, Time, and matter, stand in contrast to many standard Hindu philosophical conventions.

Life

Little is known about the actual life of Shri Madhvacharya, save for that which can be culled from hagiographies. He was born as Vaasudeva (or “the son of Vishnu”) to Madhyageha Bhatta (father) and Vedavati (mother) at Pajakaksetra in Udupi District, in the Tulunadu area of the southern Indian state of Karnataka. Madhva was obviously influenced by the pluralistic religious climate of region in which he grew up. Karnataka of the 13th and 14th century was not only replete with scholars of Vedantic thinkers like Ramanuja and Shankara, but also with Jainism, Virashaivism and Buddhism, as well as tribal traditions dedicated to Shiva. As Sarma states, “it is likely that this atmosphere of plurality (…) made [Madhvacarya] aware of the boundaries of between religious worlds and the ways to maintain those boundaries.”

He was educated in the Vedas as well as the emerging exegetical traditions of Advaita and Visistadvaita, from which his later teachings would come to differ so drastically. Unsatisfied with what he had learned from these schools, Madhva met Acyutapreksa, an ascetic who also disagreed with the other Vedanta schools, particularly Advaita. With Acyutapreksa, Madhva underwent traditionally initiation rites to become a sanyassin (a renunciate). However, in the years that came he and his teacher had vehement disagreements, though Acyutapreksa made him head of the matha due to Madhva’s superior abilities.

Upon completion of his studies, Madhva proceeded to travel across India for purposes of debate his new variation of Vedanta with other learned individuals. In the process, Madhva went about refuting the other schools of Hindu philosophy with considerable success. He eventually ended up in Mahabadarikasrama, home of Vyasa, the founder of Vedanta who had penned the Brahma Sutras. With guidance from Vyasa, Madhva wrote his own commentary upon this text, the Brahma Sutra Bhasya. He composed a total of 37 other similar treatises over the course of his life. Unlike many other significant religious figures throughout history, Madhva openly proclaimed himself to be divine in his writings. He claimed to represent the third avatar of Vayu, the Vedic wind god, following Hanuman, the devotee of Rama, and Bhima, second of the Pandava brothers. Thus, Mahdhva considered his knowledge as directly revelation of the divine rather than derivative of his worldly experience.

In addition to his writings, Madhva founded the Madhva sampradaya in Udipi, where it is said he discovered an idol of Krishna encased in mud. He placed this statue in the Udipi temple. He also ordained 8 monks in eight different monasteries (astamathas) who propagated his teachings both during his life and afterward. He died in 1317 C.E. Hagiographies suggest that Madhva did not actually die but rather disappeared, his departure from the physical world marked by a shower of flowers provided by the gods. Accordingly, Madhva is still considered to be alive by his followers, residing in the Himalayas with Vyasa, Vishnu incarnate.

Teachings

Ontology

Madhva’s Dvaita school belongs to the Realist school of Indian philosophy, in the same category as Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Purva mimamsa schools. In contrast to Advaita Vedanta, Madhava explained that the universe is not fundamentally illusory, but is instead a real creation of Brahman. Therefore all objects within the universe exist in and of themselves. Within this reality, Madhva insisted that there are two kinds of realities, asvatantra (dependent entities) and svatantra (independent entities). Dependent realities include the plurality of Jivas or souls, as well as Prakriti, the preexistent material aspect of the universe described by the ancient Samkhya philosophy. Vishnu, meanwhile, is the sole independent entity in the universe; all other things depend on Vishnu. He is the pinnacle of the created world and governs all real things existing within it, living or dead, as well as events. This bifurcated nature of reality marks a fundamental dualism between creator and created, hence affording Madhva Vedanta the name Dvaita, or "dualism".

Due to the dualistic nature of reality delineated in his Vedanta, the concept of difference is discussed in detail within the works of Madhva. For Madhva, difference is the essence or svarupa of any given apprehended object which distinguishes it from other objects. Madhva noted quite common-sensically that if svarupa was not characterized by difference, then no differentiation of objects would ever occur between objects. Moreover, one could not see themselves as different from other things. Madhva conceives the universe to be governed by pancabheda, referring to fundamental types difference. These five fundamental real differences are between: matter and matter, matter and Brahman, matter and Selves, one Self and another Self, and most importantly, as we will see below Selves and Brahman. Contrary to the Idealistic schools like Yogacara, Madhyamika buddhism or Advaita, Dvaita maintains that difference, rather than sameness, is in the very nature of every substance.

Theology

Madhva's Conception of the Soul

Madhva was greatly opposed to the monistic worldviews which had been upheld by other Vendanta schools which claimed atman was fully equivalent to Brahman. Instead, he claimed that reality was purely dualistic in that there is a fundamental differentiation between the individual soul and the supreme divine, with Brahman existing separate from humanity. Madhvacharya has hypothesized (based on vedic texts and yukti) that souls are eternal and not created ex nihilo by God, as in the Semitic religions. Madhva has compared this relationship of God with souls to the relationship between a source (bimba) and its reflection (pratibimba). Dvaita Vedanta holds that all souls are independent, both from each other and from Vishnu, though God is responsible for each soul's existence and continuity. While Shakara took certain passages to suggest oneness between Brahman and Atman, Madhva reinterprets them to suggest a mere similarity. The essence of the soul is comprised of elements of Vishnu such as knowledge and bliss, however, jiva is incomplete, and can in no way be said to be equivalent to the supreme divinity. Jiva is but a reflection of Brahman. Souls depend on Vishnu in order to exist, and so the two are eternally connected. As dependent beings, the agency of the soul is only partial, as it can only perform prescribed activities. Power to act derives from Vishnu.

Madhva's Conception of God

Madhva's Brahman is completely personalized, as he claims that the Brahman in the Vedas and the Upanishads is indeed Vishnu. Vishnu transcends all physical things, yet exists within them, as well. Moreover, Vishnu possesses fully perfected characteristics, quite unlike the indescribable Nirguna Brahman. Despite the numerous references in formative Hindu religious texts which describe Brahman as being without traits, Madhva claims that such descriptions are merely a reflection of the human inability to fully comprehend Vishnu's magnificence. Madhva’s God can be classified as Saguna Brahman, or Brahman with qualities, without any exception. Unlike Advaita Vedanta, which held "Nirguna Brahman", or Brahman without qualities, to the highest spiritual ideal, this doctrine is altogether absent from Madhva’s teachings. Madhva felt that such a religious ideal was inaccessible to religion as it exists upon the everyday level. Philosophers such as B.N.K. Sharma have noted that such a nebulous conception of god prevents the attribution of anthropomorphic characteristics to Brahman, a difficulty which has been avoided by followers of the Dvaita philosophy. For Dvaitas, Brahman is not devoid of qualities, but rather replete with a dynamic character. These anthropomorphic characteristics are not perceived by Dvaitas to deplete Brahman's ultimate identity as supreme cosmic principle in any way. Thus, Madhva’s notion of the divine is conceived of as a singular, immutable, wholly transcendent, and highly personal creator god. Invariably, this divine persona is Vishnu.

This form of monotheism is comparable to that of the Judeo-Christian tradition, in which the anthropomorphic creator is separated from His creation. However, Vishnu does not create the universe ex nihilo in Madhva’s philosophy in the way that the Judeo-Christian god does. Instead, he creates all non-eternal entities from prakriti. Thus, in an analogy provided by Deepak Sarma, God is more like a chef, using materials that have existed all throughout eternity in order to prepare the universe. As in Thomas Aquina’s cosmological argument, Madhva suggests that Brahman must be the first cause for the rest of the universe. However, he does not create the universe ex nihilo, but instead, he creates all non-eternal entities. Thus, Vishnu is an efficient cause and not a material cause. This position does not jeopardize his position that God is immutable. If Vishnu were the material cause, he would undergo a change, which would suggest Vishnu was imperfect. Nonetheless, this doctrine mitigates Vishnu’s monotheistic power, as he is said to be co-eternal with other entities such as Time and prakriti. On the other hand, it also solves problems of theodicy, since wicked sentient beings are also exist eternally, and so Vishnu cannot be held accountable for their actions. By following the concepts of souls not being created by God and classification of the souls, Madhvacharya provides a lucid answer to the problem of evil by seeking a root cause like the intrinsic nature of the soul itself. Often, evil behaviour displayed in the world might not be just the nature of the soul but also depends upon the timeless actions (Karma) of the soul itself.

Soteriology

An incorrect knowledge of the nature of Brahman is the reason why souls are reborn as sentient beings. Humans are dependent beings, as is dictated in Madhva’s ontology, though many humans are ignorant of this fact, seeing themselves as independent. One’s knowledge of Vishnu as well as one’s place within the hierarchy of Vishnu’s creation is what allows for liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Once a human being realizes his or her fundamental dependence on God, he or she can then attain moksha. Those who do not realize that Vishnu is the only independent entity will stay trapped in the cycle of rebirth until they understand. Some jiva are able possees a higher level of eligibility (adhikara) to access the knowledge of the true nature of brahman and exude devotion toward him, while others can only gain partial knowledge and devotion, or else none at all. He divides souls into three classes, one class which qualifies for liberation, Mukti-yogyas, another subject to eternal rebirth or eternally transmigrating due to samsara, Nitya-samsarins, and significantly, a class that is eventually condemned to eternal hell or Andhatamas, known as Tamo-yogyas. Madhvacharya differed significantly from traditional Hindu beliefs in his concept of eternal damnation; by contrast, most Hindus believe that souls will eventually obtain moksha, even after millions of rebirths. Among those who are most eligible to attain this knowledge are male members of the twice-born castes (Brahmins, Kshaytrya, Sudras), while females and lower caste members have only limited access to Madhva's teachings.

In order to attain liberation, one must attend to caste duties (karma yoga) and gain knowledge of brahman (jnana yoga) although these are only first steps. However, the only true way to gain unmediated knowledge (aparoksa-jnana) of Brahman is through bhakti yoga, the path of devotion toward god. Without bhakti, jnana and karma yogas are insufficient means to liberation. This complete loving devotion and absorption of all aspects of the self into God is both the means and end of spiritual attainment. The experience of moksha, according to Madhva, involves the actualization of a deep personal engagement with the divine, the most intense possible level of bhakti. However, this is not based solely upon devotional works; Vishnu is the only entity which can cease the bondage of a soul within the cycle of rebirth.and so attaining moksha is ultimately impossible without Vishnu's grace. In contrast to Advaita, Madhva holds that souls maintain their individual identities after coming into union with Vishnu, and so their separation from and subordination to him remains eternal. In this realm, people live a liberated life eating, playing, and frolicking with women and chanting Vedic hymns along with the other liberated souls. Even Madhva's notion of the afterlife is hierarchical, accordingly, those with less cultivated levels of bhakti obtain lesser forms of moksha.

Impact of Madhva's Movement

Madhva's Dualistic view, along with Shankara's Advaita or Nondualism and Ramanuja's Qualified Nondualism,or Vishishtadvaita form some core Indian beliefs on the nature of reality. He is considered to be one of the influential theologians in Hindu history. He revitalized an Hindu monotheism in light of attacks in the face of powerful doctrines of monism and polytheism. His influence was particularly evident in Karnataka, where great leaders of the Vaishnava Bhakti movement such as Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa followed the Dvaita traditions. Also, the famous Hindu saint, Raghavendra Swami, was a dedicated follower of the Dvaita tradition. Narayana pandit Acharya captures Madhvacharaya's life in a beautiful poetic verses in his "Shri Madhva Vijaya" which is in 16 Sarga (chapters), this book is an authentic work composed during his own time and presenting the life history of Mahdva Acharaya . This is a very rare work, there is no evidence of anyone composing works on any major philosopher like this before or after him from other disciplines. His 8 monasteries (ashta mathas) of Udupi are still in existence today, and the main icon of Lord Krishna still stands in the temple there, as well.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Rao, Vasudeva. Living Traditions in Contemporary Context: The Madhva Matha of Udupi. London: Sangam Books, 2002. ISBN 978-8125022978
• Sarma, Deepak. An Introduction to Madhva Vedanta. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 2003. ISBN 978-0754606376
• Sarma, Deepak. Epistemologies and the Limitations of Philosophical Inquiry: Doctrine in Madhva Vedanta. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005. ISBN 978-0415308052
• Sharma, B.N.K. History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and its Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1981. ISBN 81-208-1575-0
• Sharma, B.N.K. Philosophy of Sri Madhvacarya. Delhi: Motilal Barnarsidass, 1986. ISBN 81-208-0068-0

External links

• Biographical links to Madhvacharya and other dvaita resources
• Madhva and other dvaita saints text resource
• Madhva's differences with Sankara and Ramanuja.

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