Jupiter (mythology)

"Jupiter et Thétis" - by Jean Ingres, 1811.

Jupiter (Latin Iuppiter, also known as Jove) was the supreme God in the Roman mythological pantheon. As is typical of high gods of Indo-European derivation, Jupiter was related to the sky and other celestial phenomena such as rain and the storm, which is evident from some of his many epithets, including Jupiter Caelestis (or "heavenly"). He was also considered the patron deity of the Roman state, in charge of laws and social order. Along with Juno and Minerva he was the chief member of the Capitoline Triad, a group of the three foremost deities in Roman religion. Like many of the figures of Roman mythology, Jupiter was appropriated from the Greek tradition, and so is he virtually identical to Zeus, the supreme God in the Greek pantheon from whom he was adapted.

Origins

Jupiter or Iuppiter is a vocative compound derived from the archaic Latin Iovis and pater (Latin for father). Linguistic studies identify the Latin theonym Jupiter as having derived from the phonologically similar proto-Indo-European compound *dyēus- pəter-, which refers to the "Father God", ruler of the daytime sky. This is the very same deity from whom also derives the Sanskrit Dyaus or Dyaus Pita ("Sky Father") of the Vedas, the Germanic *Tiwaz, and of course the Greek Zeus. This word *dyēus- pəter- itself derives from the proto-Indo-European root diu, meaning “bright” or "to shine," obviously referring to the light of the sun and sky in daytime. For the Romans, as well as other mythological systems derived from proto-Indo-European roots such as that of the Vedas and the Norse, the god of the sky was also the supreme god. Thus, the similarity between Jupiter's Latin title and those given to the celestial gods in the Sanskrit, Germanic and Greek languages provides strong linguistic evidence that the god had a connection to the Proto-Indo-European sky god.

Jupiter's alternative title Jove, meanwhile, is an English formation based on Iov-, the stem of oblique cases of the Latin name for the Vedic Dyaus Pita.

Mythology

Jupiter was the son of Ops, the earth mother and Saturn, the prevailing sky god who ruled over the rest of the Roman pantheon. Saturn had usurped his oppressive father Caelus in order to assume the position of supremacy, however he quickly became tyrannical himself, heeding a prophecy which claimed that one of his own sons a mighty sons would overthrow him. In order to prevent this from occurring, Saturn devoured all of his children as soon as they were born. Realizing that her next child Jupiter would be susceptible to the same treatment, Ops hid him as soon as he was born and offered Saturn a large stone wrapped in swaddling clothes in his place. Saturn swallowed the stone, and was forced to disgorge Jupiter's siblings in the process of ridding it from his digestive system. Jupiter returned from hiding to overthrow Saturn, assuming leadership over the cosmos and forcing Saturn to flee to Italy.

Considering his status as the supreme god in the Roman pantheon, it is not surprising that Jupiter enjoyed numerous romantic conquests and thereby sired many offspring. By Maia he is the father of Mercury, the god of commerce; by Dione, he fathered Venus, goddess of love, and by Ceres Proserpine, goddess of the spring. Diana bore Jupiter a son and a daughter: Apollo, god of the sun, and Diana, goddess of the moon, respectively. He is also considered father to Minerva, goddess of wisdom. Complaining of a severe headache, Jupiter had Vulcan open up his head, at which point Minerva emerged from it.

Functions

Jupiter's many functions varied along with his numerous epithets. He was of course the God of the storm, evident by way of his monikers Jupiter Fulgurator ("of the lightning") and Jupiter Tonans ("thunderer"). As Jupiter Elicius, he was petitioned by worshippers to send forth rain in times of drought. He was also known as Jupiter Lucetius ("of the light"), suggesting his role as purveyor of the light which maintained the universe. Jupiter also had immense political significance. He was referred to as Juppiter Optimus Maximus Soter (the "best, greatest, saviour Jupiter") not only to describe his supremacy over the rest of the divine pantheon, but also to mark his status as the patron deity of the Roman state, in charge of laws and social order. In his connection to cosmic justice, Jupiter was especially concerned with oaths, treaties, and leagues. For instance, Roman citizens swore to Jupiter in their courts of law, uttering the phrase "By Jove!" to indicate that words were truthful in the name of God. Jupiter's connection with the conscience, obligation and trustworthiness was never quite lost throughout Roman history. Additionally, Jupiter defended Rome against foreign interests. As Jupiter Terminus or Jupiter Terminalus, the god was thought to defend the boundaries of Rome. As Jupiter Victor, he led Roman armies to victory, and as Jupiter Feretrius he helped carry away the subsequent spoils of war. As such, armies returning home victorious from the battlefield made sure to pass the Capitoline temple to Jupiter as a sign of gratefulness to their chief god.

Worship

Because of his status as the supreme god of the Roman empire, many temples were dedicated to Jupiter by the Romans, including the majority of those built temples constructed at the center of new cities in their colonies. The largest temple in Rome was that of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. This temple is also the oldest dedicated to Jupiter, and its foundations are still in existence. Here Jupiter was worshipped alongside Juno and Minerva, the trio of deities who formed the Capitoline Triad. The building was begun by Tarquinius Priscus and completed by the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus. It was officially inaugurated on September 13, at the beginning of the Republican era (509 B.C.E.). On this day, the consuls sacrificed to Jupiter a white ox, his preferred offering. After this they rendering thanks for the preservation of the state during the past year. This was followed by the feast of Jupiter. Later on, the commemoration of this day became the pivotal event of the great Roman games.

Jupiter Stator, Roman bronze from the Gallo-Roman religious centre of Gisacum, near Évreux

The original temple seems to have been marked by a number of unique features. On the roof of the temple there was a terracotta auriga, made by the Etruscan artist Vulca of Veii in the 6th century B.C.E., commissioned by Tarquinius Superbus. This was replaced in 296 B.C.E., by a bronze auriga. The cult image of Jupiter, also constructed by Vulca, was shaped from terracotta as well, and its face was painted red on festival days . Beneath the inner chamber or cella, were the favissae, or underground passages, in which were stored the old statues that had fallen from the roof, and various dedicatory gifts. The temple building stood on a high podium with an entrance staircase to the front. In front of the steps was the altar of Jupiter (ara Iovis). The large square in front of the temple (the Area Capitolina) featured a number of temples dedicated to minor divinities, in addition to other religious buildings, statues and trophies.

The temple was rebuilt in marble after it was destroyed by fires in 83 B.C.E., resulting in the loss of the cult image. Fires followed again in 69 C.E., when the Capitol was stormed by the supporters of Vitellius. The temple's ultimate dilapidation began in the fifth century, when Stilicho carried off the gold -plated doors and Narses removed many of the statues, in 571 C.E. The surviving remains of the foundations and of the podium, most of which lie underneath Palazzo Caffarelli, consist of enormous parallel sections of walling made in blocks of grey tufa-quadriga stone (cappellaccio) and bear witness to the sheer enormity of the surface area of the temple's base (about 55 by 60 meters).

Jupiter was also acknowledged at Capitoline Hill by way of the sacred oak tree, an aspect of his worship which he shared with that of Zeus. As well, the lapides silices, a collection of pebbles or small stones, were kept at the Capitoline Hill. These were used by Roman priests called Fetiales for symbolic ceremonies in which declarations of war and treaties were made official on behalf of the Roman state. In the ceremonies, the fetiales took one of these stones in their hand and then swore by Jupiter, dropping the stone at the last words. This oath made upon Iuppiter Lapis, or the Jupiter Stone, was considered by the Romans to be the most solemn oath possible . Considering Jupiter's function as ajudicator of oaths, it is not surprising that it was only in the presence of Jupiter's priest that the confarreatio, the most ancient and sacred form of marriage in the Roman tradition, took place.

All throughout the Roman Republic Jupiter was the central cult figure. Just as on the Capitoline Hill, Jupiter was worshiped on the peaks of hills all throughout the rest of Italy as well. In addition, all places struck by lightning were considered to be his property and were demarcated as sacred by circular walls. Although with the rise of Augustus (approximately 43 B.C.E.) the Gods Apollo and Mars eventually came to rival Jupiter in preeminence, Augustus went to great lengths to ensure that Iuppiter Optimus Maximus was not ousted from his position of supremacy in popular worship. Under Augustus, Jupiter came to be conceived of as the protecting deity of the reigning emperor of the state, much as he had been the protecting deity of the free republic earlier on. As such, his worship spread over the entirety of the Roman Empire.

Legacy

Much like his Greek counterpart Zeus, Jupiter has had a lasting impact upon the Western world, even despite the decline in his worship. For instance, the expression "by Jove!", once sworn in Roman courts, became a common colloquialism and is still used as an archaism today. In addition, the English adjective "jovial", which also takes its root from Jupiter's alternative moniker, is still used today to describe people who are jolly, optimistic, and buoyant in temperament. As well, the name of the god was adopted as the name of the planet Jupiter, fifth planet from the sun and fittingly the largest celestial body in our solar system. Jupiter was the original namesake of the weekday that would come to be known in English as Thursday. The contemporary name comes from the Old English Þunresdæg meaning "Day of Thor" (the comparable sky god of the Norse pantheon), this being a rough Germanic equivalent to the Latin Iovis Dies or "Jupiter's Day". Other Romantic languages use equivalent terms to refer to this day of the week, notable for their phonological resemblance the name of Jupiter, such as the French jeudi and the Italian giovedì.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Dumézil, Georges. Archaic Roman Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. ISBN 0226169685
• Dumézil, Georges Dumézil. Mitra-Varuna. New York : Zone Books, 1988. ISBN 0942299124
• "Jupiter." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Mar. 2007 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9044183>.
• "Jupiter." The Oxford Classical Dictionary. ISBN 0-19-860641-9.
• Platner, Samuel Ball & Ashby, Thomas. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press, 1929.
• Rose, H.J. "Italian 'Sondergotter.'" The Journal of Roman Studies 3 (1913), pp. 233-241.

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