Murray, Henry

From New World Encyclopedia
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[[Category:Psychology]]
 
[[Category:Psychology]]
 
[[Category:Biography]]
 
[[Category:Biography]]
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{{epname|Murray, Henry}}
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'''Henry Alexander Murray''' (May 13, 1893 – June 23, 1988) was an [[United States|American]] [[psychology|psychologist]] who taught for over 30 years at [[Harvard]]. He was founder of the Boston Psychoanalytic Society and developed a theory of [[personality]] based on "[[need]]s". He also is developer of the [[Thematic Apperception Test]] (TAT) which became one of the most widely used tests by psychologists.
 +
 +
==Life==
 +
 +
'''Henry A. Murray''' was born into a wealthy family in [[New York City]], [[New York]], in 1893. He had an older sister and a younger brother. It is said that he had good relationship with his father, but a poor one with his mother, resulting in a deep-seated feeling of [[depression]] (Carver and Scheier, p.100). His early-life experiences probably helped him to be especially aware of people's [[need]]s and their importance as underlying determinants of behavior.
 +
 +
Murray completed his undergraduate work at [[Harvard]], majoring in [[history]]. He exhibited rather poor performance, but compensated with [[football]], [[Sport rowing|rowing]] and [[boxing]]. At [[Columbia University|Columbia College]] he did much better, completing his M.D. and receiving an M.A. in [[biology]] in 1919. For the next two years he was an instructor in [[physiology]] at Harvard and in 1927 he received his doctorate degree in [[biochemistry]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]].
 +
 +
A turning point in Murray's life occurred at the age of 30, when he met and fell in love with [[Christiana Morgan]]. At the time he had been married for seven years, and now he was experiencing serious conflict as he did not want to leave his wife. This experience contributed toward Murray’s theory of conflicting needs. On the persuasion of Morgan, Murray met [[Carl Gustav Jung|Jung]] in 1925 in [[Zurich]], the experience that changed his life. Jung's advice to Murray concerning his personal life was to continue openly with both relationships. After his meeting with Jung, Murray decided to shift his career toward [[depth psychology]].
 +
 +
In 1927, Murray became assistant director and in 1937 the director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic. In 1935 he developed, with help from Christaina Morgan, his famous [[Thematic Apperception Test]] (TAT). In 1938, he published the now classic ''Explorations in Personality''.
  
 +
During [[World War II]], Murray left Harvard and joined [[Army Medical Corps]] to help with the war effort. He worked as [[lieutenant colonel]], establishing the [[Office of Strategic Services|Office of Strategic Services (OSS)]]. The goal of the agency was to find and train men for special tasks.
  
 +
After the war, Murray returned to [[Harvard]], lecturing part-time and establishing with others the Psychological Clinic Annex in 1949. He also served as a chief researcher. Murray retired in 1962. He became emeritus professor, receiving the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the [[American Psychological Association]] and Gold Medal Award for lifetime achievement from the [[American Psychological Foundation]]. He continued to lecture and study the works of author [[Herman Melville]].
  
−
{{epname|Murray, Henry}}
+
Murray died from pneumonia in Cambridge, [[Massachusetts]], at the age of 95.
 +
 
 +
==Work==
 +
 
 +
Similar to [[Carl Gustav Jung]], Murray believed that [[human personality]] could be better understood by investigating the [[unconscious]] [[mind]].
 +
 
 +
===Theory of needs===
 +
Murray believed that human action is motivated largely by [[need]]s. Those needs are mostly [[unconscious]], and they influence and drive our behavior. He defined need as a:
 +
: “potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances… It is a noun which stands for the fact that a certain trend is apt to recur.” (''Explorations in Personality'', p. 124).
  
 +
Murray assumed that human natural state is the state of disequilibrium, and that is why we have needs - to satisfy the lack of something. He divided needs into:
  
−
'''Henry A. Murray''' (May 13, 1893 – June 23, 1988) was an [[United States|American]] [[psychologist]] who taught for over 30 years at [[Harvard]]. He was founder of the [[Boston Psychoanalytic Society]] and developed a theory of [[personality]] based on "[[need]]" and "[[press]]." He also is developer of the [[Thematic Apperception Test]] (TAT) which is widely used by psychologists.
+
#Primary needs (biological needs) – need for food, water, air, avoidance of pain.
 +
#Secondary needs (psychological needs, or as Murray called them - the '''psychogenic''' needs).
  
−
== Personal Background ==
+
Murray made a list of 27 psychogenic needs:
 +
*Abasement
 +
*Achievement
 +
*Acquisition
 +
*Affiliation
 +
*Aggression
 +
*Autonomy
 +
*Blameavoidance
 +
*Construction
 +
*Contrariance
 +
*Counteraction
 +
*Defendance
 +
*Deference
 +
*Dominance
 +
*Exhibition
 +
*Exposition
 +
*Harmavoidance
 +
*Infavoidance
 +
*Nurturance
 +
*Order
 +
*Play
 +
*Recognition
 +
*Rejection
 +
*Sentience
 +
*Sex
 +
*Similance
 +
*Succorance
 +
*Understanding
  
−
Henry Murray was born into a wealthy family in New York in 1893. He had an older sister and a younger brother. Carver and Scheier, in "Perspectives on Personality" p100, note that "he got on well with his father but had a poor relationship with his mother" resulting in a deep-seated feeling of depression. They hypothesize that the disruption of this relationship led Murray to be especially aware of people's needs and their importance as underlying determinants of behavior. At Harvard, he majored in [[history]] with a poor performance, but compensated with [[football]], [[Sport rowing|rowing]] and [[boxing]]. At Columbia College he did much better in [[medicine]] and completed M.D. and also received an M.A. in [[biology]] 1919. For the next two years he was an instructor in physiology at Harvard and 1927 he received his doctorate degree in [[biochemistry]] at Cambridge.  
+
Murray also developed the concept of:
 +
*latent needs (needs not openly displayed),
 +
*manifest needs (needs observed in people's actions),  
 +
*"press" (external influences on motivation) and
 +
*"thema" - "a pattern of press and need that coalesces around particular interactions."
  
−
A turning point in Murray's life occurred at the age of 30, when he had been married for seven years. He met and fell and love with Christina Morgan but experienced serious conflict as he did not want to leave his wife. This raised his awareness of conflicting needs, the pressure that can result, and the links to motivation. Carver and Scheier note that it was Morgan who was "fascinated by the psychology of Carl Jung" and it was a result of her urging that he met [[Carl Jung]] in Switzerland. He described Jung as "The first full blooded, spherical - and Goethian, I would say, intelligence I had ever met." He was analyzed by him and studied his works. "The experience of bringing a problem to a psychologist and receiving an answer that seemed to work had a great impact on Murray, leading him to seriously consider psychology as a career" (J. W. Anderson). Jung's advice to Murray concerning his personal life was to continue openly with both relationships.
+
=== Thematic Apperception Test===
 +
Murray developed [[Thematic Apperception Test]] (TAT) together with his colleague [[Christiana Morgan]] in mid-1930s. He published in 1938 ''Explorations in Personality'', which included a description of the test.  
  
−
== Professional career ==
+
Murray used the term "apperception" to refer to the process of projecting fantasy imagery onto an objective stimulus. The concept of apperception and the assumption that everyone's thinking is shaped by subjective, often unconscious processes provides the rationale behind the Thematic Apperception Test.
  
−
In 1927, at the age of 33, he became assistant director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic. Murray developed the concepts of latent needs (not openly displayed), manifest needs (observed in people's actions), "press" (external influences on motivation) and "thema" - "a pattern of press and need that coalesces around particular interactions." Murray used the term "apperception" to refer to the process of projecting fantasy imagery onto an objective stimulus. The concept of apperception and the assumption that everyone's thinking is shaped by subjective processes provides the rationale behind the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). This was developed by Murray and Morgan (1935). In 1937 Murray became director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic. In 1938 he published "Explorations in Personality," now a classic in psychology, which includes a description of the Thematic Apperception Test.  During his period at Harvard, Murray sat in on lectures by [[Alfred North Whitehead]] whose [[process philosophy]] marked his philosophical and metaphysical thinking throughout his professional career (Laughlin 1973).
+
The test consists of a series of provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject must tell a story. The client identifies with the protagonist (main character) in the picture and tells a story about them. The test is based on an assumption that the client actually expresses his own concerns, fears, desires, and conflicts as reflected in what is going on with the story’s main character. The stories are later carefully analyzed to uncover client’s underlying needs, attitudes, and patterns of reaction.
  
−
During [[World War II]], he left Harvard and worked as [[lieutenant colonel]] for the [[Office of Strategic Services|Office of Strategic Services (OSS)]]. James Miller, in charge of the selection of secret agents at the OSS during World War Two, reports that Murray was the originator of the term "situation test." This type of assessment, based on practical tasks / activities was pioneered by the British Military. Murray acted as a consultant for the British Government (1938) in the setting up of the Officer Selection Board. Murray's previous work at The Harvard Psychological Clinic enabled him to apply his theories in the design of the selection processes used by WOSB and OSS to assess potential agents. The assessments were based on analysis of ''specific criteria'' (e.g. "leadership") by a number of raters across a range of activities. Results were pooled to achieve an overall assessment. The underlying principles were later adopted by AT&T in the development of [[Assessment Center]] methodology, now widely used to assess management potential in both private and public sector organisations.
+
===Situation test===
 +
Murray was the originator of the term "situation test." This type of assessment, based on practical tasks/activities was pioneered by the [[Great Britain|British]] Military. Murray acted as a consultant for the British Government (from 1938) in the setting up of the Officer Selection Board. Murray's previous work at the Harvard Psychological Clinic enabled him to apply his theories in the design of the selection processes used by WOSB and OSS to assess potential [[secret agent]]s. The assessments were based on analysis of ''specific criteria'' (e.g. "[[leadership]]") by a number of raters across a range of activities. Results were pooled to achieve an overall assessment. The underlying principles were later adopted by [[AT&T]] in the development of Assessment Center methodology, now widely used to assess management potential in both private and public sector organizations.
  
−
Murray's identification of core psychological needs, including Achievement, Affiliation and Power (1938) provided the theoretical basis for the later research of [[David McClelland]] and underpins development of competency-based models of management effectiveness ([[Richard Boyatzis]]), [[Maslow]]'s Hiearchy of Needs, and ideas relating to [[Positive Psychology]]. However, Murray's contribution is rarely acknowledged in contemporary academic literature. McClelland, Boyatzis and Spencer went on to found the McBer Consultancy.
+
===Analysis of Adolph Hitler===
 +
Commissioned by OSS in 1943, Murray helped complete the ''Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler''. The report used many sources to profile [[Hitler]], including a number of informants such as [[Ernst Hanfstaengl]], [[Herman Rauschning]], [[Stephanie von Hohenlohe|Princess Stephanie von Hohenlohe]], [[Gregor Strasser]], [[Friedelinde Wagner]], and [[Kurt Ludecke]].  
  
−
Commissioned by OSS boss, [[William Joseph Donovan|William "Wild Bill" Donovan]], in 1943 Professor Murray helped complete "''[[Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler]]''." The report was done in collaboration with [[psychoanalyst]] [[Walter C. Langer]], Dr. Ernst Kris, New School for Social Research, and Dr. Bertram D. Lawin, New York Psychoanalytic Institute. The report used many sources to profile Hitler including a number of informants such as [[Ernst Hanfstaengl]], [[Herman Rauschning]], [[Stephanie von Hohenlohe|Princess Stephanie von Hohenlohe]], [[Gregor Strasser]], [[Friedelinde Wagner]], and [[Kurt Ludecke]]. The groundbreaking study was the pioneer of [[Offender profiling]] and political psychology, today commonly used by many countries as part of assessing international relations.
+
In addition to predicting that if defeat for [[Germany]] was near, [[Adolf Hitler]] would choose [[suicide]], Murray's collaborative report stated that Hitler was [[impotency|impotent]] as far as [[heterosexual]] relations were concerned and that there was a possibility that Hitler had participated in a [[homosexual]] relationship. The 1943 report stated that: "The belief that Hitler is homosexual has probably developed (a) from the fact that he does show so many [[Femininity|feminine]] characteristics, and (b) from the fact that there were so many homosexuals in the [[National Socialist German Workers Party]] during the early days and many continue to occupy important positions. It is probably true that Hitler calls [[Albert Förster]] "Bubi," which is a common nickname employed by homosexuals in addressing their partners."
  
−
In addition to predicting that if defeat for Germany was near, [[Adolf Hitler]] would choose suicide, Professor Murray's collaborative report stated that Hitler was impotent as far as [[heterosexual]] relations were concerned and that there was a possibility that Hitler had participated in a [[homosexual]] relationship. The 1943 report stated that: "The belief that Hitler is homosexual has probably developed (a) from the fact that he does show so many [[Femininity|feminine]] characteristics, and (b) from the fact that there were so many homosexuals in the [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Party]] during the early days and many continue to occupy important positions. It is probably true that Hitler calls [[Albert Förster|Foerster]] "Bubi," which is a common nickname employed by homosexuals in addressing their partners."
+
==Legacy==
  
−
Having returned to Harvard 1947, Murray lectured and established with others the Psychological Clinic Annex and was a chief researcher at [[Harvard]]. Alston Chase's book "Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist" tells of psychological experiments which [[Theodore Kaczynski]] is reported to have undergone at Harvard, under the direction of Henry Murray. Chase connects these experiences in a controversial thesis to Kaczynski's later career as Unabomber.
+
Murray's identification of core psychological needs provided the theoretical basis for the later research of [[David McClelland]] and underpins development of competency-based models of management effectiveness ([[Richard Boyatzis]]), [[Maslow]]'s Hierarchy of Needs, and ideas relating to [[Positive Psychology]]. Three of Murray's needs have undergone substantial research: The Need for Power (nPow), Affiliation (nAff) and Achievement (nAch).
  
−
When Murray became emeritus professor at Harvard, he earned the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the American Psychological Association and Gold Medal Award for lifetime achievement from the American Psychological Foundation.
+
Murray’s Thematic Apperception Test eventually became one of the most widely used and researched projective psychological tests. His groundbreaking study on Hitler was the pioneer of [[Offender profiling]] and political psychology, today commonly used by many countries as part of assessing international relations.
  
−
Murray died from pneumonia at the age of 95.
+
Some of Murray’s work was regarded as highly controversial, especially in relations to his work for the CIA. Alston Chase's book "Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist" (2003) tells of psychological experiments which [[Theodore Kaczynski]] is reported to have undergone at Harvard, under the direction of Henry Murray. Chase connects these experiences in a controversial thesis to Kaczynski's later career as Unabomber.
  
−
== Works ==
+
==Publications==
  
−
* Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in Personality. New York: Oxford University Press
+
* Murray, Henry A. 1940. What should psychologists do about psychoanalysis?  Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 35, 150–175.
−
* Murray, H. A. (1940). What should psychologists do about psychoanalysis?  Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 35, 150–175.
+
* Murray, Henry A. 1943. Analysis of the personality of Adolph Hitler: with predictions of his future behavior and suggestions for dealing with him now and after Germany's surrender. Washington: OSS Archives.
−
* OSS Assessment Staff. (1948). Assessment of men: Selection of personnel for the Office of Strategic Service. New York: Rinehart.
+
* Murray, Henry A. 1943. Thematic apperception test manual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
 +
* Murray, Henry A. 1960. Myth and mythmaking. New York: G. Braziller.
 +
* Murray, Henry A. 2007 (original published in 1938). Explorations in Personality. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019530506X
 +
* Murray, Henry A., and Christiana D. Morgan. 1945. A clinical study of sentiments. Genetic psychology monographs, v. 32, no. 1-2. Provincetown, Mass: the Journal press.
  
−
== References ==
+
==References==
  
−
* [http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/psychtesting/profiles/murray.htm Test Developer Profiles: Henry A. Murray, M.D., Ph.D.]
+
* Anderson, J. W. 1988. Henry Murray's early career. A psychobiographical exploration. ''Journal of Personality'', 56, 138-171.
−
* [http://web.utk.edu/~wmorgan/tat/tattxt.htm TAT Research]
+
* Carver, Charles S. and Scheier, Michael F. 1992. ''Perspectives on Personality'' (5th edition). Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 0205375766
−
* [http://www.psych.westminster.edu/psy311/murray_files/frame.htm Sandra K. Webster: Henry Murray]
+
* Chase, Alston. 2003. ''Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393020029.
−
* [http://www.counterpunch.org/tedk.html Ted K., the CIA & LSD: Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair]
+
* Cockburn, Alexander and Jeffrey St. Clair. 1999. Ted K., the CIA & LSD. CounterPunch, at <http://www.counterpunch.org>. Retrieved on August 24, 2007, <http://www.counterpunch.org/tedk.html>
−
* [[Cornell University]] Law Library [http://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/library/donovan/hitler/] - "''Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler ''"  Readers can download a [[PDF]] version of the whole document [http://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/library/donovan/hitler/ HERE]
+
* Laughlin, Charles D. 1973. The Influence of Whitehead's Organism on Murray's Personology. ''Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences'', 9(3), 251-257.
−
* Anderson, J. W. (1988). Henry Murray's early career. A psychobiographical exploration. ''Journal of Personality'', 56, 138-171.
+
* Murray, Henry A. 1943. Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler. Cornell University Law Library, at <http://library.lawschool.cornell.edu>. Retrieved on August 24, 2007,      <http://library.lawschool.cornell.edu/WhatWeHave/SpecialCollections/Donovan/Hitler/index.cfm>
−
* Carver and Scheier (1992) ''Perspectives on Personality'' (2nd edition), Allyn & Bacon.
+
* Robinson, Forrest. 1992. ''Love's story told: A life of Henry A. Murray''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674539281
−
* Chase, Alston (2003) ''Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-02002-9.
+
* Shneidman, E. S. ed. 1981. ''Selections from the Personology of Henry A. Murray'' New York: Harper-Collins Publishers. ISBN 0060140399
−
* Laughlin, Charles D. (1973) "The Influence of Whitehead's Organism on Murray's Personology," ''Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences'', 9(3):  251-257.
+
* Test Developer Profiles: Henry A. Murray, M.D., Ph.D. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, at <http://www.mhhe.com>. Retrieved on August 24, 2007, <http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/psychtesting/profiles/murray.htm>
−
* Robinson, Forrest (1992) ''Love's story told: A life of Henry A. Murray''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
 
−
* Shneidman, E. S. ed., (1981) ''Selections from the Personology of Henry A. Murray'' New York: Harper-Collins Publishers.
 
  
 +
==External links==
  
 +
*[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9001042 Henry Murray] – Biography in Encyclopedia Britannica
 +
*[http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/psychtesting/profiles/murray.htm Henry Murray] – Biography on McGraw-Hill Higher Education
 +
*[http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/traits/PersonalityTraitsNeedsHenryMurray.html Needs as personality: Henry Murray] – On Murray’s work
 +
*[http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/murray.html Psychogenic Needs] – On Murray’s theories
 +
*[http://www.minddisorders.com/Py-Z/Thematic-Apperception-Test.html Thematic Apperception Test] – On the TAT in Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders
  
 
{{Credit1|Henry_Murray|101824344|}}
 
{{Credit1|Henry_Murray|101824344|}}

Revision as of 01:58, 24 August 2007

Henry Alexander Murray (May 13, 1893 – June 23, 1988) was an American psychologist who taught for over 30 years at Harvard. He was founder of the Boston Psychoanalytic Society and developed a theory of personality based on "needs". He also is developer of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) which became one of the most widely used tests by psychologists.

Life

Henry A. Murray was born into a wealthy family in New York City, New York, in 1893. He had an older sister and a younger brother. It is said that he had good relationship with his father, but a poor one with his mother, resulting in a deep-seated feeling of depression (Carver and Scheier, p.100). His early-life experiences probably helped him to be especially aware of people's needs and their importance as underlying determinants of behavior.

Murray completed his undergraduate work at Harvard, majoring in history. He exhibited rather poor performance, but compensated with football, rowing and boxing. At Columbia College he did much better, completing his M.D. and receiving an M.A. in biology in 1919. For the next two years he was an instructor in physiology at Harvard and in 1927 he received his doctorate degree in biochemistry at Cambridge.

A turning point in Murray's life occurred at the age of 30, when he met and fell in love with Christiana Morgan. At the time he had been married for seven years, and now he was experiencing serious conflict as he did not want to leave his wife. This experience contributed toward Murray’s theory of conflicting needs. On the persuasion of Morgan, Murray met Jung in 1925 in Zurich, the experience that changed his life. Jung's advice to Murray concerning his personal life was to continue openly with both relationships. After his meeting with Jung, Murray decided to shift his career toward depth psychology.

In 1927, Murray became assistant director and in 1937 the director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic. In 1935 he developed, with help from Christaina Morgan, his famous Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). In 1938, he published the now classic Explorations in Personality.

During World War II, Murray left Harvard and joined Army Medical Corps to help with the war effort. He worked as lieutenant colonel, establishing the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). The goal of the agency was to find and train men for special tasks.

After the war, Murray returned to Harvard, lecturing part-time and establishing with others the Psychological Clinic Annex in 1949. He also served as a chief researcher. Murray retired in 1962. He became emeritus professor, receiving the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the American Psychological Association and Gold Medal Award for lifetime achievement from the American Psychological Foundation. He continued to lecture and study the works of author Herman Melville.

Murray died from pneumonia in Cambridge, Massachusetts, at the age of 95.

Work

Similar to Carl Gustav Jung, Murray believed that human personality could be better understood by investigating the unconscious mind.

Theory of needs

Murray believed that human action is motivated largely by needs. Those needs are mostly unconscious, and they influence and drive our behavior. He defined need as a:

“potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances… It is a noun which stands for the fact that a certain trend is apt to recur.” (Explorations in Personality, p. 124).

Murray assumed that human natural state is the state of disequilibrium, and that is why we have needs - to satisfy the lack of something. He divided needs into:

  1. Primary needs (biological needs) – need for food, water, air, avoidance of pain.
  2. Secondary needs (psychological needs, or as Murray called them - the psychogenic needs).

Murray made a list of 27 psychogenic needs:

  • Abasement
  • Achievement
  • Acquisition
  • Affiliation
  • Aggression
  • Autonomy
  • Blameavoidance
  • Construction
  • Contrariance
  • Counteraction
  • Defendance
  • Deference
  • Dominance
  • Exhibition
  • Exposition
  • Harmavoidance
  • Infavoidance
  • Nurturance
  • Order
  • Play
  • Recognition
  • Rejection
  • Sentience
  • Sex
  • Similance
  • Succorance
  • Understanding

Murray also developed the concept of:

  • latent needs (needs not openly displayed),
  • manifest needs (needs observed in people's actions),
  • "press" (external influences on motivation) and
  • "thema" - "a pattern of press and need that coalesces around particular interactions."

Thematic Apperception Test

Murray developed Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) together with his colleague Christiana Morgan in mid-1930s. He published in 1938 Explorations in Personality, which included a description of the test.

Murray used the term "apperception" to refer to the process of projecting fantasy imagery onto an objective stimulus. The concept of apperception and the assumption that everyone's thinking is shaped by subjective, often unconscious processes provides the rationale behind the Thematic Apperception Test.

The test consists of a series of provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject must tell a story. The client identifies with the protagonist (main character) in the picture and tells a story about them. The test is based on an assumption that the client actually expresses his own concerns, fears, desires, and conflicts as reflected in what is going on with the story’s main character. The stories are later carefully analyzed to uncover client’s underlying needs, attitudes, and patterns of reaction.

Situation test

Murray was the originator of the term "situation test." This type of assessment, based on practical tasks/activities was pioneered by the British Military. Murray acted as a consultant for the British Government (from 1938) in the setting up of the Officer Selection Board. Murray's previous work at the Harvard Psychological Clinic enabled him to apply his theories in the design of the selection processes used by WOSB and OSS to assess potential secret agents. The assessments were based on analysis of specific criteria (e.g. "leadership") by a number of raters across a range of activities. Results were pooled to achieve an overall assessment. The underlying principles were later adopted by AT&T in the development of Assessment Center methodology, now widely used to assess management potential in both private and public sector organizations.

Analysis of Adolph Hitler

Commissioned by OSS in 1943, Murray helped complete the Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler. The report used many sources to profile Hitler, including a number of informants such as Ernst Hanfstaengl, Herman Rauschning, Princess Stephanie von Hohenlohe, Gregor Strasser, Friedelinde Wagner, and Kurt Ludecke.

In addition to predicting that if defeat for Germany was near, Adolf Hitler would choose suicide, Murray's collaborative report stated that Hitler was impotent as far as heterosexual relations were concerned and that there was a possibility that Hitler had participated in a homosexual relationship. The 1943 report stated that: "The belief that Hitler is homosexual has probably developed (a) from the fact that he does show so many feminine characteristics, and (b) from the fact that there were so many homosexuals in the National Socialist German Workers Party during the early days and many continue to occupy important positions. It is probably true that Hitler calls Albert Förster "Bubi," which is a common nickname employed by homosexuals in addressing their partners."

Legacy

Murray's identification of core psychological needs provided the theoretical basis for the later research of David McClelland and underpins development of competency-based models of management effectiveness (Richard Boyatzis), Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, and ideas relating to Positive Psychology. Three of Murray's needs have undergone substantial research: The Need for Power (nPow), Affiliation (nAff) and Achievement (nAch).

Murray’s Thematic Apperception Test eventually became one of the most widely used and researched projective psychological tests. His groundbreaking study on Hitler was the pioneer of Offender profiling and political psychology, today commonly used by many countries as part of assessing international relations.

Some of Murray’s work was regarded as highly controversial, especially in relations to his work for the CIA. Alston Chase's book "Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist" (2003) tells of psychological experiments which Theodore Kaczynski is reported to have undergone at Harvard, under the direction of Henry Murray. Chase connects these experiences in a controversial thesis to Kaczynski's later career as Unabomber.

Publications

  • Murray, Henry A. 1940. What should psychologists do about psychoanalysis? Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 35, 150–175.
  • Murray, Henry A. 1943. Analysis of the personality of Adolph Hitler: with predictions of his future behavior and suggestions for dealing with him now and after Germany's surrender. Washington: OSS Archives.
  • Murray, Henry A. 1943. Thematic apperception test manual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Murray, Henry A. 1960. Myth and mythmaking. New York: G. Braziller.
  • Murray, Henry A. 2007 (original published in 1938). Explorations in Personality. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019530506X
  • Murray, Henry A., and Christiana D. Morgan. 1945. A clinical study of sentiments. Genetic psychology monographs, v. 32, no. 1-2. Provincetown, Mass: the Journal press.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

External links

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