Difference between revisions of "Grapefruit" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
Line 20: Line 20:
 
'''Grapefruit''' is a relatively large, [[tree#evergreen or deciduous|evergreen]] [[citrus]] [[tree]], ''Citrus paradisi''.  The term also refers to the round, edible [[fruit]] of this plant, which grows in [[grape]]-like bunches and has a yellow rind (outer skin) and typically a juicy, acidic pulp.
 
'''Grapefruit''' is a relatively large, [[tree#evergreen or deciduous|evergreen]] [[citrus]] [[tree]], ''Citrus paradisi''.  The term also refers to the round, edible [[fruit]] of this plant, which grows in [[grape]]-like bunches and has a yellow rind (outer skin) and typically a juicy, acidic pulp.
  
−
Grapefruit belongs to the ''Citrus'' genus, a taxa of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Rutaceae]] (orange family) and a common name for edible fruits of this genus. Other members of the genus include [[orange (fruit)|oranges]], [[lemon]]s, [[lime]]s, [[citron]]s, [[pomelo]]s (pummelo, pommelo), and mandarins (tangerines). Citrus fruits are a distinctive berry with the internal parts divided into segments. The number of natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are hybrids. The grapefruit is believed to have arisen from the pomelo or shaddock (''Citrus grandis'') or as a hybrid between pomelo and [[orange (fruit)|sweet orange]] (Bender and Bender 2005).  
+
Grapefruit belongs to the ''Citrus'' genus, a taxa of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Rutaceae]] (orange family) and a common name for edible fruits of this genus. Other members of the genus include [[orange (fruit)|oranges]], [[lemon]]s, [[lime]]s, [[citron]]s, [[pomelo]]s (pummelo, pommelo), and mandarins (tangerines). Citrus fruits are a distinctive berry with the internal parts divided into segments. The number of natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are hybrids. The grapefruit is believed to have arisen from the pomelo or shaddock ''(Citrus grandis)'' or as a hybrid between pomelo and sweet orange (Bender and Bender 2005).  
  
 
==Overview==
 
==Overview==
Line 35: Line 35:
 
Grapefruit trees tend to be larger than most citrus trees. They usually are found at around 5 to 6 meters, but can reach 13 to 15 meters. The [[leaf|leaves]] are dark green, long (up to 150 millimeters), and thin. It produces 5 centimeter (cm) white four-petaled [[flower]]s.  
 
Grapefruit trees tend to be larger than most citrus trees. They usually are found at around 5 to 6 meters, but can reach 13 to 15 meters. The [[leaf|leaves]] are dark green, long (up to 150 millimeters), and thin. It produces 5 centimeter (cm) white four-petaled [[flower]]s.  
  
−
The [[fruit]] is yellow-skinned in all varieties, some with a pink blush (Herbst 2001). The fruit is largely oblate and ranges in diameter from 10-15 cm and has an [[acid]]ic segmented pulp, which may be yellowish-white or pink, with the pink varieties ranging from pale yellow-pink to brilliant ruby red (Herbst 2001). The two basic color classification for the flesh are the white grapefruit and the red, of which the 1929 US Ruby Red (of the Redblush variety) has a [[patent]]. The fruit has only become popular from the late 19th century; before that it was only grown as an ornamental plant. The United States quickly became a major producer of the fruit, with [[orchard]]s in [[Florida]], [[Texas]], [[Arizona]], and [[California]].  
+
The [[fruit]] is yellow-skinned in all varieties, some with a pink blush (Herbst 2001). The fruit is largely oblate and ranges in diameter from 10-15 cm and has an [[acid]]ic segmented pulp, which may range from yellowish-white, to pale yellow-pink, to pink, to brilliant ruby red (Herbst 2001).  
  
−
The plant was named grapefruit by botanist John Lunan in ''Hortus Jamaicanensis'' (1814) because the fruit grows in [[grape]]-like clusters (Bender and Bender 2005; Herbst 2001). In Spanish, the fruit is known as ''toronja'' or ''pomelo''.
+
[[Image:Pink grapefruit.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Pink grapefruit]]
 +
Grapefruit comes in many varieties, determinable by color, which is caused by the pigmentation of the fruit in respect of both its state of ripeness and genetic bent (GMF 2007).  The most popular varieties cultivated today are [[red]], [[white]], and [[pink]] hues, referring to the inside, pulp color of the fruit. The family of flavors range from highly acidic and somewhat bitter to sweet and tart (GMF 2007). [[Para-1-menthene-8-thiol]], a [[sulfur]]-containing [[terpene]], is one of the substances that has a strong influence on the taste and odor of grapefruit, compared with other citrus fruits (Buettner and Schieberle 1999).
 +
 
 +
The fruit has only become popular from the late 19th century; before that it was only grown as an ornamental plant. The United States quickly became a major producer of the fruit, with [[orchard]]s in [[Florida]], [[Texas]], [[Arizona]], and [[California]].  
 +
 
 +
In Spanish, the fruit is known as ''toronja'' or ''pomelo''.
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
 
[[Image:2005grapefruit_and_pomelo.PNG|thumb|left|Grapefruit and [[pomelo]] output in 2005]]
 
[[Image:2005grapefruit_and_pomelo.PNG|thumb|left|Grapefruit and [[pomelo]] output in 2005]]
−
The fruit was first documented in [[1750]] by Rev. Griffith Hughes describing specimens from [[Barbados]].<ref name="Q_A:Grapefruit">World Wide Words: Questions & Answers; Grapefruit. [http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-gra3.htm Abstract]</ref> Currently, the grapefruit is said to be one of the "Seven Wonders of Barbados".<ref>Barbados Seven Wonders: The Grapefruit Tree. [http://www.barbados.org/grapefrt.htm Abstract]</ref> It had developed as a [[hybrid]] of the [[pomelo]] (''Citrus maxima'') with the sweet [[orange (fruit)|orange]] (''Citrus sinensis''), though it is closer to the former. It was brought to Florida by Odette Philippe in [[1823]]. Further crosses have produced the [[tangelo]] (1905), the [[minneola tangelo|minneola]] (1931) and the [[Sweetie (fruit)|sweetie]] (1984).  
+
The fruit was first documented in 1750 by Rev. Griffith Hughes describing specimens from [[Barbados]] (Quinion 2007). The fruit was originally named the "forbidden fruit" of Barbados (Morton 1987), in comparison to the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil in the Garden of Eden (Quinion 2007). Currently, the grapefruit is claimed by some as one of the "Seven Wonders of Barbados" (Bourne 1996).  
  
−
he '''grapefruit''' is a sub-tropical [[citrus]] [[tree]] grown for its [[fruit]] which was originally named the "forbidden fruit" of [[Barbados]].<ref name="Forbidden_Fruit">Morton, J. 1987. Grapefruit. p. 152–158. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL. [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/grapefruit.html Forbidden Fruit Reference]</ref>
+
The grapefruit was known as the ''shaddock'' or ''shattuck'' until the 1800s. Its current name alludes to clusters of the fruit on the tree, which often appear similar to [[grape]]s. The name grapefruit first appeared in English in a work by botanist John Lunan, ''Hortus Jamaicanensis'' (1814) (Bender and Bender 2005; Quinion 2007. While the name apparently arose because the fruit grows in grape-like clusters, and can imaginatively be looked at as grapes when small and green, Lunan had stated that it was "known by the name of grape-fruit, on account of its resemblance in flavour to the grape."
  
−
The grapefruit was known as the ''shaddock'' or ''shattuck'' until the [[1800s]]. Its current name alludes to clusters of the fruit on the tree, which often appear similar to [[grape]]s. Botanically, it was not distinguished from the pomelo until the [[1830s]], when it was given the name ''Citrus paradisi''. Its true origins were not determined until the [[1940s]]. This led to the official name being altered to ''Citrus &times; paradisi''.<ref name="Texas_Citrus">Texas Citrus: Puzzling Beginnings. [http://www.texasweet.com/texascitrus/grapefruit.html Article]</ref><ref name="Grapefruit_Family_Tree">Grapefruit Family Tree: Origin of Red Grapefruit. [http://primera.tamu.edu/kcchome/webpages/Origin.html Article]</ref><ref name="University_of_Florida">University of Florida: IFAS Extension; The Grapefruit. [http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/CH/CH06300.pdf Fact Sheet]</ref> Grapefruit peel oil is used in [[aromatherapy]] and it is historically known for its [[aromatic]] [[scent]].<ref name="Valerie">Ann Worwood, Valerie. The Complete Book of Essential Oils and Aromatherapy (Paperback). ''New World Library'' 1991. ISBN 0-93143-282-0</ref>
+
The grapefruit was brought to Florida by Odette Philippe in 1823. Further crosses have produced the [[tangelo]] (1905), the [[minneola tangelo|minneola]] (1931), and the [[Sweetie (fruit)|sweetie]] (1984).  
  
−
==Colors and flavors==
+
Botanically, the grapefruit was not distinguished from the pomelo until the 1830s, when it was given the name ''Citrus paradisi''. Its true origins were not determined until the 1940s. This led to the official name being altered to ''Citrus &times; paradisi'' (Williamson 1997). Grapefruit peel oil is used in [[aromatherapy]] and it is historically known for its [[aromatic]] [[scent]] (Woodward 1991).  
−
[[Image:Pink grapefruit.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Pink grapefruit]]
 
−
 
 
−
Grapefruit comes in many varieties, determinable by color, which is caused by the pigmentation of the fruit in respect of both its state of ripeness and genetic bent.<ref name="WHF"/>  The most popular varieties cultivated today are [[red]], [[white]], and [[pink]] hues, referring to the inside, pulp color of the fruit. The family of flavors range from highly acidic and somewhat bitter to sweet and tart.<ref name="WHF"/>  [[Para-1-menthene-8-thiol]], a [[sulfur]]-containing [[terpene]], is one of the substances which has a strong influence on the taste and odour of grapefruit, compared with other citrus fruits.<ref name="Andrea_Buettner_and_Peter_Schieberle">{{cite journal
 
−
| title = Characterization of the Most Odor-Active Volatiles in Fresh, Hand-Squeezed Juice of Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfayden)
 
−
| author = A. Buettner, P. Schieberle
 
−
| journal = J. Agric. Food Chem.
 
−
| year = 1999
 
−
| volume = 47
 
−
| pages = 5189-5193
 
−
| doi = 10.1021/jf990071l}}</ref>
 
  
 
==Drug interactions==
 
==Drug interactions==
−
{{main|List of drugs affected by grapefruit}}
 
  
 
Grapefruit can have a [[List of drugs affected by grapefruit|number of interactions]] with [[drugs]], often increasing the effective potency of compounds.  Grapefruit contains [[naringin]], [[bergamottin]] and [[dihydroxybergamottin]], which inhibit the [[cytochrome P450]] [[isoform]] [[CYP3A4]] in the intestine. It is via inhibition of this enzyme that grapefruit increases the effects of [[buspirone]] (Buspar), [[carbamazepine]], several [[statin]] drugs (such as [[simvastatin]]), [[terfenadine]], [[felodipine]], [[nifedipine]], [[verapamil]], [[estradiol]], [[tacrolimus]], [[dextromethorphan]] (significant only at [[Non-medical use of dextromethorphan|recreational doses]]), [[benzodiazepines]], and [[ciclosporin]].<ref name="GSE_Drug_Effect">He K; Iyer KR; Hayes RN; Sinz MW; Woolf TF; Hollenberg PF. Inactivation of cytochrome P450 3A4 by bergamottin, a component of grapefruit juice. ''Chem Res Toxicol.'' 1998 Apr;'''11'''(4):252-9. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9548795&dopt=Abstract Abstract]</ref><ref name="Bailey_DG1998">Bailey DG, Malcolm J, Arnold O, Spence JD. Grapefruit juice-drug interactions. Br J ''Clin Pharmacol.'' 1998 Aug;'''46'''(2):101-10. Comment in: Br J ''Clin Pharmacol.'' 2001 Aug;'''52'''(2):216-7. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9723817 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Carbamazepine">Garg SK, Kumar N, Bhargava VK, Prabhakar SK. Effect of grapefruit juice on carbamazepine bioavailability in patients with epilepsy. ''Clin Pharmacol Ther.'' 1998 Sep;'''64'''(3):286-8. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9757152 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Bailey_DG2004">Bailey DG, Dresser GK. Interactions between grapefruit juice and cardiovascular drugs. ''Am J Cardiovasc Drugs.'' 2004;'''4'''(5):281-97. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15449971 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Bressler_R">Bressler R. Grapefruit juice and drug interactions. Exploring mechanisms of this interaction and potential toxicity for certain drugs. ''Geriatrics.'' 2006 Nov;'''61'''(11):12-8. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=17112309 Abstract]</ref> The effect of grapefruit juice with regard to drug absorption was originally discovered in 1989. However, the effect became well-publicized after being responsible for a number of deaths due to overdosing on medication.<ref name="NYTimes">Bakalar, Nicholas. Experts Reveal the Secret Powers of Grapefruit Juice. ''New York Times.'' Published: March 21, 2006. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/21/health/21grap.html?ex=1300597200&en=61e834f36b9afac9&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss Article]</ref>
 
Grapefruit can have a [[List of drugs affected by grapefruit|number of interactions]] with [[drugs]], often increasing the effective potency of compounds.  Grapefruit contains [[naringin]], [[bergamottin]] and [[dihydroxybergamottin]], which inhibit the [[cytochrome P450]] [[isoform]] [[CYP3A4]] in the intestine. It is via inhibition of this enzyme that grapefruit increases the effects of [[buspirone]] (Buspar), [[carbamazepine]], several [[statin]] drugs (such as [[simvastatin]]), [[terfenadine]], [[felodipine]], [[nifedipine]], [[verapamil]], [[estradiol]], [[tacrolimus]], [[dextromethorphan]] (significant only at [[Non-medical use of dextromethorphan|recreational doses]]), [[benzodiazepines]], and [[ciclosporin]].<ref name="GSE_Drug_Effect">He K; Iyer KR; Hayes RN; Sinz MW; Woolf TF; Hollenberg PF. Inactivation of cytochrome P450 3A4 by bergamottin, a component of grapefruit juice. ''Chem Res Toxicol.'' 1998 Apr;'''11'''(4):252-9. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9548795&dopt=Abstract Abstract]</ref><ref name="Bailey_DG1998">Bailey DG, Malcolm J, Arnold O, Spence JD. Grapefruit juice-drug interactions. Br J ''Clin Pharmacol.'' 1998 Aug;'''46'''(2):101-10. Comment in: Br J ''Clin Pharmacol.'' 2001 Aug;'''52'''(2):216-7. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9723817 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Carbamazepine">Garg SK, Kumar N, Bhargava VK, Prabhakar SK. Effect of grapefruit juice on carbamazepine bioavailability in patients with epilepsy. ''Clin Pharmacol Ther.'' 1998 Sep;'''64'''(3):286-8. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9757152 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Bailey_DG2004">Bailey DG, Dresser GK. Interactions between grapefruit juice and cardiovascular drugs. ''Am J Cardiovasc Drugs.'' 2004;'''4'''(5):281-97. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15449971 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Bressler_R">Bressler R. Grapefruit juice and drug interactions. Exploring mechanisms of this interaction and potential toxicity for certain drugs. ''Geriatrics.'' 2006 Nov;'''61'''(11):12-8. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=17112309 Abstract]</ref> The effect of grapefruit juice with regard to drug absorption was originally discovered in 1989. However, the effect became well-publicized after being responsible for a number of deaths due to overdosing on medication.<ref name="NYTimes">Bakalar, Nicholas. Experts Reveal the Secret Powers of Grapefruit Juice. ''New York Times.'' Published: March 21, 2006. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/21/health/21grap.html?ex=1300597200&en=61e834f36b9afac9&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss Article]</ref>
Line 66: Line 60:
 
==Nutritional properties==
 
==Nutritional properties==
 
[[Image:Citrus paradisi (Grapefruit, pink).jpg|thumb|left|200px|Pink Grapefruit in slices.]]
 
[[Image:Citrus paradisi (Grapefruit, pink).jpg|thumb|left|200px|Pink Grapefruit in slices.]]
−
Grapefruit is an excellent source of many [[nutrient]]s and [[phytochemical]]s, for a [[healthy diet]]. Grapefruit is a good source of [[vitamin C]],<ref name="WHF">The World's Healthiest Foods; Grapefruit. ''The George Mateljan Foundation.'' [http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=25 Article]</ref><ref name="Fellers_PJ">Fellers PJ, Nikdel S, Lee HS. Nutrient content and nutrition labeling of several processed Florida citrus juice products. ''J Am Diet Assoc.'' 1990 Aug;'''90'''(8):1079-84. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2380455 Abstract]</ref> [[pectin]] [[fiber]],<ref name="Pectin_Benefits">Cerda JJ, Robbins FL, Burgin CW, Baumgartner TG, Rice RW.  The effects of grapefruit pectin on patients at risk for coronary heart disease without altering diet or lifestyle. ''Clin Cardiol.'' 1988 Sep;'''11'''(9):589-94. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=3229016 Abstract]</ref> and the pink and red hues contain the beneficial antioxidant [[lycopene]].<ref name="WHF"/><ref name="Lee_HS">Lee HS. Objective measurement of red grapefruit juice color. ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2000 May;'''48'''(5):1507-11. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10820051 Abstract]</ref> Studies have shown grapefruit helps lower [[cholesterol]]<ref name="WHF"/><ref name="Platt_R">Platt R. Current concepts in optimum nutrition for cardiovascular disease. ''Prev Cardiol.'' 2000 Spring;'''3'''(2):83-87. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11834923 Abstract]</ref> and there is evidence that the seeds have low levels of [[antioxidant]] properties.<ref name="Extract">Armando, C., Maythe, S., Beatriz, N. P. Antioxidant activity of grapefruit seed extract on vegetable oils.  ''Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture'' 1997 Dec;'''77'''(4):463-467. [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/10007270/ABSTRACT Abstract]</ref> Grapefruit forms a core part of the "[[grapefruit diet]]", the theory being that the fruit's low [[glycemic index]] is able to help the body's [[metabolism]] burn [[fat]].<ref name="Grapefruit_Diet">WMUR Ch. 9: New Hampshire news, weather, sports and entertainment. Researchers Put Grapefruit Diet To Test: Grapefruit Compound Lowers Cholesterol, Helps Regulate Insulin. June 11, 2003. [http://www.wmur.com/health/2262919/detail.html Article]</ref>
+
Grapefruit is an excellent source of many [[nutrient]]s and [[phytochemical]]s, for a [[healthy diet]]. Grapefruit is a good source of [[vitamin C]],<ref name="WHF">The World's Healthiest Foods; Grapefruit. ''The George Mateljan Foundation.'' [http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=25 Article]</ref><ref name="Fellers_PJ">Fellers PJ, Nikdel S, Lee HS. Nutrient content and nutrition labeling of several processed Florida citrus juice products. ''J Am Diet Assoc.'' 1990 Aug;'''90'''(8):1079-84. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2380455 Abstract]</ref> [[pectin]] [[fiber]],<ref name="Pectin_Benefits">Cerda JJ, Robbins FL, Burgin CW, Baumgartner TG, Rice RW.  The effects of grapefruit pectin on patients at risk for coronary heart disease without altering diet or lifestyle. ''Clin Cardiol.'' 1988 Sep;'''11'''(9):589-94. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=3229016 Abstract]</ref> and the pink and red hues contain the beneficial antioxidant [[lycopene]].<ref name="WHF"/><ref name="Lee_HS">Lee HS. Objective measurement of red grapefruit juice color. ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2000 May;'''48'''(5):1507-11. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10820051 Abstract]</ref> Studies have shown grapefruit helps lower [[cholesterol]]<ref name="WHF"/><ref name="Platt_R">Platt R. Current concepts in optimum nutrition for cardiovascular disease. ''Prev Cardiol.'' 2000 Spring;'''3'''(2):83-87. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11834923 Abstract]</ref> and there is evidence that the seeds have low levels of [[antioxidant]] properties.<ref name="Extract">Armando, C., Maythe, S., Beatriz, N. P. Antioxidant activity of grapefruit seed extract on vegetable oils.  ''Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture'' 1997 Dec;'''77'''(4):463-467. [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/10007270/ABSTRACT Abstract]</ref> Grapefruit forms a core part of the "[[grapefruit diet]]," the theory being that the fruit's low [[glycemic index]] is able to help the body's [[metabolism]] burn [[fat]].<ref name="Grapefruit_Diet">WMUR Ch. 9: New Hampshire news, weather, sports and entertainment. Researchers Put Grapefruit Diet To Test: Grapefruit Compound Lowers Cholesterol, Helps Regulate Insulin. June 11, 2003. [http://www.wmur.com/health/2262919/detail.html Article]</ref>
  
 
[[Grapefruit seed extract]] has been claimed to be a strong [[antimicrobial]] with proven activity against [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[fungi]]. However, studies have shown the efficacy of grapefruit seed extract as an antimicrobial is not demonstrated.  Although GSE is promoted as a highly effective plant-based preservative by some natural personal care manufacturers, studies indicate the universal antimicrobial activity associated with GSE preparations is merely due to [[contamination]] with synthetic [[paraben|preservatives]].<ref name="Study">Sakamoto S, Sato K, Maitani T, Yamada T. Analysis of components in natural food additive “grapefruit seed extract” by HPLC and LC/MS. ''Bull. Natl. Inst. Health Sci.'' 1996, '''114''':38&ndash;42. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9037863&query_hl=1 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Pharmazie">von Woedtke T, Schluter B, Pflegel P, Lindequist U, Julich WD. Aspects of the antimicrobial efficacy of grapefruit seed extract and its relation to preservative substances contained. ''Pharmazie'' 1999 '''54''':452&ndash;456. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10399191&query_hl=1 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Contamination">Takeoka G, Dao L, Wong RY, Lundin R, Mahoney N. Identification of benzethonium chloride in commercial grapefruit seed extracts. ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2001 '''49'''(7):3316&ndash;20. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11453769 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Adulteration">Takeoka GR, Dao LT, Wong RY, Harden LA. Identification of benzalkonium chloride in commercial grapefruit seed extracts. ''J Agric Food Chem.''  2005 '''53'''(19):7630&ndash;6. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16159196&query_hl=1 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Preservatives">Ganzera M, Aberham A, Stuppner H. Development and validation of an HPLC/UV/MS method for simultaneous determination of 18 preservatives in grapefruit seed extract. Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 52, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria. ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2006 May 31;'''54'''(11):3768-72. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16719494 Abstract]</ref>
 
[[Grapefruit seed extract]] has been claimed to be a strong [[antimicrobial]] with proven activity against [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[fungi]]. However, studies have shown the efficacy of grapefruit seed extract as an antimicrobial is not demonstrated.  Although GSE is promoted as a highly effective plant-based preservative by some natural personal care manufacturers, studies indicate the universal antimicrobial activity associated with GSE preparations is merely due to [[contamination]] with synthetic [[paraben|preservatives]].<ref name="Study">Sakamoto S, Sato K, Maitani T, Yamada T. Analysis of components in natural food additive “grapefruit seed extract” by HPLC and LC/MS. ''Bull. Natl. Inst. Health Sci.'' 1996, '''114''':38&ndash;42. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9037863&query_hl=1 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Pharmazie">von Woedtke T, Schluter B, Pflegel P, Lindequist U, Julich WD. Aspects of the antimicrobial efficacy of grapefruit seed extract and its relation to preservative substances contained. ''Pharmazie'' 1999 '''54''':452&ndash;456. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10399191&query_hl=1 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Contamination">Takeoka G, Dao L, Wong RY, Lundin R, Mahoney N. Identification of benzethonium chloride in commercial grapefruit seed extracts. ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2001 '''49'''(7):3316&ndash;20. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11453769 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Adulteration">Takeoka GR, Dao LT, Wong RY, Harden LA. Identification of benzalkonium chloride in commercial grapefruit seed extracts. ''J Agric Food Chem.''  2005 '''53'''(19):7630&ndash;6. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16159196&query_hl=1 Abstract]</ref><ref name="Preservatives">Ganzera M, Aberham A, Stuppner H. Development and validation of an HPLC/UV/MS method for simultaneous determination of 18 preservatives in grapefruit seed extract. Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 52, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria. ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 2006 May 31;'''54'''(11):3768-72. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16719494 Abstract]</ref>
Line 83: Line 77:
 
* Herbst, S. T. 2001. ''The New Food Lover's Companion: Comprehensive Definitions of Nearly 6,000 Food, Drink, and Culinary Terms. Barron's Cooking Guide''. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0764112589.
 
* Herbst, S. T. 2001. ''The New Food Lover's Companion: Comprehensive Definitions of Nearly 6,000 Food, Drink, and Culinary Terms. Barron's Cooking Guide''. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0764112589.
 
* Katz, S. H., and W. W. Weaver. 2003. ''Encyclopedia of Food and Culture''. New York: Schribner. ISBN 0684805685.
 
* Katz, S. H., and W. W. Weaver. 2003. ''Encyclopedia of Food and Culture''. New York: Schribner. ISBN 0684805685.
 +
 +
George Mateljan Foundation (GMF). 2007.
 +
The World's Healthiest Foods; Grapefruit. ''The George Mateljan Foundation.'' [http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=25 Article]</ref>
 +
 +
<ref name="Forbidden_Fruit">Morton, J. 1987. Grapefruit. p. 152–158. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL. [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/grapefruit.html Forbidden Fruit Reference]<
 +
 +
Michael Quinion
 +
<ref name="Q_A:Grapefruit">World Wide Words: Questions & Answers; Grapefruit. [http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-gra3.htm Abstract]</ref>
 +
 +
Margaret P. M Bourne, 1996
 +
(.<ref>Barbados Seven Wonders: The Grapefruit Tree.
 +
[http://www.barbados.org/grapefrt.htm Abstract]</ref>
 +
 +
<ref name="Andrea_Buettner_and_Peter_Schieberle">{{cite journal
 +
| title = Characterization of the Most Odor-Active Volatiles in Fresh, Hand-Squeezed Juice of Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfayden)
 +
| author = A. Buettner, P. Schieberle
 +
| journal = J. Agric. Food Chem.
 +
| year = 1999
 +
| volume = 47
 +
| pages = 5189-5193
 +
| doi = 10.1021/jf990071l}}</ref>
 +
 +
<ref name="Valerie">Worwood, V. A. 1991. The Complete Book of Essential Oils and Aromatherapy (Paperback). ''New World Library'' 1991. ISBN 0931432820</ref>
 +
 +
 +
Willamson, J. G. 1997. The grapefruit.
 +
<ref name="University_of_Florida">University of Florida: IFAS Extension; The Grapefruit. [http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/CH/CH06300.pdf Fact Sheet]</ref>
 +
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==

Revision as of 00:58, 10 October 2007

Grapefruit
Grapefruits
Grapefruits
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Subclass: Rosidae
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Genus: Citrus
Species: C. paradisi
Binomial name
Citrus paradisi
Macfad.

Grapefruit is a relatively large, evergreen citrus tree, Citrus paradisi. The term also refers to the round, edible fruit of this plant, which grows in grape-like bunches and has a yellow rind (outer skin) and typically a juicy, acidic pulp.

Grapefruit belongs to the Citrus genus, a taxa of flowering plants in the family Rutaceae (orange family) and a common name for edible fruits of this genus. Other members of the genus include oranges, lemons, limes, citrons, pomelos (pummelo, pommelo), and mandarins (tangerines). Citrus fruits are a distinctive berry with the internal parts divided into segments. The number of natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are hybrids. The grapefruit is believed to have arisen from the pomelo or shaddock (Citrus grandis) or as a hybrid between pomelo and sweet orange (Bender and Bender 2005).

Overview

All citrus trees are of the single genus Citrus and hybridize very easily. That is, there is only one "superspecies," which includes lemons, limes, grapefruit, pomelos, tangerines, and oranges. Citrus is likely the most widely planted fruit for direct human consumption in the world (Katz and Weaver 2003).

Fruits of all members of the genus Citrus are considered berries because they have many seeds, are fleshy and soft, and derive from a single ovary. The distinctive fruit is a hesperidium in that it is a specialized berry with the internal fleshy parts divided into segments (typically 10 to 16) and surrounded by a separable rind (Katz and Weaver 2003). The citrus herperidium is globose to elongated, 4 to 30 centimeters long, and 4 to 20 centimeters in diameter. The rind is leathery and the segments, or "liths," are filled with pulp vesicles.

Citrus plants are small trees or large shrubs, reaching 5 to 15 meters tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in small corymbs (a branched cluster of flowers with lower flowers having longer stems). Each flower is 2 to 4 centimeters in diameter, with five (rarely four) white petals and numerous stamens; they are often very strongly scented.

The taxonomy of the genus is complex and the precise number of natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are clonally-propagated hybrids, and there is genetic evidence that even the wild, true-breeding species are of hybrid origin. Cultivated Citrus may be derived from as few as three or four ancestral species. Katz and Weaver (2003) claim that the generally accepted view is that there were three primordial Citrus species—Citrus medica (citrons), Citrus maxima (pumelos), and Citrus reticulata (mandarins)—and that all other types of citrus rose from single or sequential hybridization events between these species or their offspring. The hybridized types of citrus may or may not be recognized as species according to different taxonomies. Thus, anywhere from 3 to 170 species are recognized, with the commonly used system of Swingle recognizing 16 species (Katz and Weaver 2003).

The grapefruit appears either to have arisen from the pomelo (shaddock or Chinese grapefruit, Citrus maxima) as a genetic mutation (sport) or as a hybrid between pomelo and sweet orange (Citrus sinensis in many taxonomies).

Grapefruit trees tend to be larger than most citrus trees. They usually are found at around 5 to 6 meters, but can reach 13 to 15 meters. The leaves are dark green, long (up to 150 millimeters), and thin. It produces 5 centimeter (cm) white four-petaled flowers.

The fruit is yellow-skinned in all varieties, some with a pink blush (Herbst 2001). The fruit is largely oblate and ranges in diameter from 10-15 cm and has an acidic segmented pulp, which may range from yellowish-white, to pale yellow-pink, to pink, to brilliant ruby red (Herbst 2001).

Pink grapefruit

Grapefruit comes in many varieties, determinable by color, which is caused by the pigmentation of the fruit in respect of both its state of ripeness and genetic bent (GMF 2007). The most popular varieties cultivated today are red, white, and pink hues, referring to the inside, pulp color of the fruit. The family of flavors range from highly acidic and somewhat bitter to sweet and tart (GMF 2007). Para-1-menthene-8-thiol, a sulfur-containing terpene, is one of the substances that has a strong influence on the taste and odor of grapefruit, compared with other citrus fruits (Buettner and Schieberle 1999).

The fruit has only become popular from the late 19th century; before that it was only grown as an ornamental plant. The United States quickly became a major producer of the fruit, with orchards in Florida, Texas, Arizona, and California.

In Spanish, the fruit is known as toronja or pomelo.

History

Grapefruit and pomelo output in 2005

The fruit was first documented in 1750 by Rev. Griffith Hughes describing specimens from Barbados (Quinion 2007). The fruit was originally named the "forbidden fruit" of Barbados (Morton 1987), in comparison to the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil in the Garden of Eden (Quinion 2007). Currently, the grapefruit is claimed by some as one of the "Seven Wonders of Barbados" (Bourne 1996).

The grapefruit was known as the shaddock or shattuck until the 1800s. Its current name alludes to clusters of the fruit on the tree, which often appear similar to grapes. The name grapefruit first appeared in English in a work by botanist John Lunan, Hortus Jamaicanensis (1814) (Bender and Bender 2005; Quinion 2007. While the name apparently arose because the fruit grows in grape-like clusters, and can imaginatively be looked at as grapes when small and green, Lunan had stated that it was "known by the name of grape-fruit, on account of its resemblance in flavour to the grape."

The grapefruit was brought to Florida by Odette Philippe in 1823. Further crosses have produced the tangelo (1905), the minneola (1931), and the sweetie (1984).

Botanically, the grapefruit was not distinguished from the pomelo until the 1830s, when it was given the name Citrus paradisi. Its true origins were not determined until the 1940s. This led to the official name being altered to Citrus × paradisi (Williamson 1997). Grapefruit peel oil is used in aromatherapy and it is historically known for its aromatic scent (Woodward 1991).

Drug interactions

Grapefruit can have a number of interactions with drugs, often increasing the effective potency of compounds. Grapefruit contains naringin, bergamottin and dihydroxybergamottin, which inhibit the cytochrome P450 isoform CYP3A4 in the intestine. It is via inhibition of this enzyme that grapefruit increases the effects of buspirone (Buspar), carbamazepine, several statin drugs (such as simvastatin), terfenadine, felodipine, nifedipine, verapamil, estradiol, tacrolimus, dextromethorphan (significant only at recreational doses), benzodiazepines, and ciclosporin.[1][2][3][4][5] The effect of grapefruit juice with regard to drug absorption was originally discovered in 1989. However, the effect became well-publicized after being responsible for a number of deaths due to overdosing on medication.[6]

Nutritional properties

Pink Grapefruit in slices.

Grapefruit is an excellent source of many nutrients and phytochemicals, for a healthy diet. Grapefruit is a good source of vitamin C,[7][8] pectin fiber,[9] and the pink and red hues contain the beneficial antioxidant lycopene.[7][10] Studies have shown grapefruit helps lower cholesterol[7][11] and there is evidence that the seeds have low levels of antioxidant properties.[12] Grapefruit forms a core part of the "grapefruit diet," the theory being that the fruit's low glycemic index is able to help the body's metabolism burn fat.[13]

Grapefruit seed extract has been claimed to be a strong antimicrobial with proven activity against bacteria and fungi. However, studies have shown the efficacy of grapefruit seed extract as an antimicrobial is not demonstrated. Although GSE is promoted as a highly effective plant-based preservative by some natural personal care manufacturers, studies indicate the universal antimicrobial activity associated with GSE preparations is merely due to contamination with synthetic preservatives.[14][15][16][17][18]

A 2007 study found a correlation between eating a quarter of grapefruit daily and a 30% increase in risk for breast cancer in post-menopausal women. The study points to the inhibition of CYP3A4 enzyme by grapefruit, which metabolizes estrogen.[19]

See also

  • Grapefruit juice
  • Grapefruit spoon

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  1. ↑ He K; Iyer KR; Hayes RN; Sinz MW; Woolf TF; Hollenberg PF. Inactivation of cytochrome P450 3A4 by bergamottin, a component of grapefruit juice. Chem Res Toxicol. 1998 Apr;11(4):252-9. Abstract
  2. ↑ Bailey DG, Malcolm J, Arnold O, Spence JD. Grapefruit juice-drug interactions. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1998 Aug;46(2):101-10. Comment in: Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2001 Aug;52(2):216-7. Abstract
  3. ↑ Garg SK, Kumar N, Bhargava VK, Prabhakar SK. Effect of grapefruit juice on carbamazepine bioavailability in patients with epilepsy. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1998 Sep;64(3):286-8. Abstract
  4. ↑ Bailey DG, Dresser GK. Interactions between grapefruit juice and cardiovascular drugs. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2004;4(5):281-97. Abstract
  5. ↑ Bressler R. Grapefruit juice and drug interactions. Exploring mechanisms of this interaction and potential toxicity for certain drugs. Geriatrics. 2006 Nov;61(11):12-8. Abstract
  6. ↑ Bakalar, Nicholas. Experts Reveal the Secret Powers of Grapefruit Juice. New York Times. Published: March 21, 2006. Article
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 The World's Healthiest Foods; Grapefruit. The George Mateljan Foundation. Article
  8. ↑ Fellers PJ, Nikdel S, Lee HS. Nutrient content and nutrition labeling of several processed Florida citrus juice products. J Am Diet Assoc. 1990 Aug;90(8):1079-84. Abstract
  9. ↑ Cerda JJ, Robbins FL, Burgin CW, Baumgartner TG, Rice RW. The effects of grapefruit pectin on patients at risk for coronary heart disease without altering diet or lifestyle. Clin Cardiol. 1988 Sep;11(9):589-94. Abstract
  10. ↑ Lee HS. Objective measurement of red grapefruit juice color. J Agric Food Chem. 2000 May;48(5):1507-11. Abstract
  11. ↑ Platt R. Current concepts in optimum nutrition for cardiovascular disease. Prev Cardiol. 2000 Spring;3(2):83-87. Abstract
  12. ↑ Armando, C., Maythe, S., Beatriz, N. P. Antioxidant activity of grapefruit seed extract on vegetable oils. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 1997 Dec;77(4):463-467. Abstract
  13. ↑ WMUR Ch. 9: New Hampshire news, weather, sports and entertainment. Researchers Put Grapefruit Diet To Test: Grapefruit Compound Lowers Cholesterol, Helps Regulate Insulin. June 11, 2003. Article
  14. ↑ Sakamoto S, Sato K, Maitani T, Yamada T. Analysis of components in natural food additive “grapefruit seed extract” by HPLC and LC/MS. Bull. Natl. Inst. Health Sci. 1996, 114:38–42. Abstract
  15. ↑ von Woedtke T, Schluter B, Pflegel P, Lindequist U, Julich WD. Aspects of the antimicrobial efficacy of grapefruit seed extract and its relation to preservative substances contained. Pharmazie 1999 54:452–456. Abstract
  16. ↑ Takeoka G, Dao L, Wong RY, Lundin R, Mahoney N. Identification of benzethonium chloride in commercial grapefruit seed extracts. J Agric Food Chem. 2001 49(7):3316–20. Abstract
  17. ↑ Takeoka GR, Dao LT, Wong RY, Harden LA. Identification of benzalkonium chloride in commercial grapefruit seed extracts. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 53(19):7630–6. Abstract
  18. ↑ Ganzera M, Aberham A, Stuppner H. Development and validation of an HPLC/UV/MS method for simultaneous determination of 18 preservatives in grapefruit seed extract. Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 52, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria. J Agric Food Chem. 2006 May 31;54(11):3768-72. Abstract
  19. ↑ Monroe, KR and Murphy SP, Kolonel LN, & Pike MC (2007). Prospective study of grapefruit intake and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: the Multiethnic Cohort Study. (E-published before print; news article)


  • Bender, D. A., and A. E. Bender. 2005. A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198609612.
  • Herbst, S. T. 2001. The New Food Lover's Companion: Comprehensive Definitions of Nearly 6,000 Food, Drink, and Culinary Terms. Barron's Cooking Guide. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0764112589.
  • Katz, S. H., and W. W. Weaver. 2003. Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. New York: Schribner. ISBN 0684805685.

George Mateljan Foundation (GMF). 2007. The World's Healthiest Foods; Grapefruit. The George Mateljan Foundation. Article</ref>

Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag

Margaret P. M Bourne, 1996 (.[1]

[2]

[3]


Willamson, J. G. 1997. The grapefruit. [4]


External links

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

  1. ↑ Barbados Seven Wonders: The Grapefruit Tree. Abstract
  2. ↑ A. Buettner, P. Schieberle (1999). Characterization of the Most Odor-Active Volatiles in Fresh, Hand-Squeezed Juice of Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfayden). J. Agric. Food Chem. 47: 5189-5193.
  3. ↑ Worwood, V. A. 1991. The Complete Book of Essential Oils and Aromatherapy (Paperback). New World Library 1991. ISBN 0931432820
  4. ↑ University of Florida: IFAS Extension; The Grapefruit. Fact Sheet
Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Grapefruit&oldid=499032

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki