George C. Marshall

George Marshall

General of the Army George Catlett Marshall, Jr. (December 31 1880 – October 16 1959) was an American military leader, Secretary of State, and the third Secretary of Defense. Once noted as the "organizer of victory" by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II, Marshall supervised the U.S. Army during the war and was the chief military advisor to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. As Secretary of State he gave his name to the Marshall Plan, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953. Having helped to win the war, Marshall knew that a peace also required winning if the mistakes made in the post-World War I context were to be avoided. After World War I, the US had largely withdrawn from Europe. After World War II, it committed itself to assisting the reconstruction process. According to the Smithsonian, "Few Americans in the twentieth century have left a greater legacy to world peace than George C. Marshall" . Marshall accepted appointment as US Secretary of State in 1947 because he wanted above all to remove the causes of war "insofar as humanly possible, and in this way make war impossible".

Early life

George C. Marshall was born into a middle-class family in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. Marshall was a scion of an old Virginia family and a distant relation of Chief Justice John Marshall. Marshall was a cadet at the Virginia Military Institute (where he was initiated into the Kappa Alpha Order), graduating in 1901.

World War I

In 1902 Marshall received a commission into the U.S. Army. Until World War I, he was posted to various positions in the US and the Philippines, and was trained in modern warfare. During the war, he had roles as a planner of both training and operations. He went to France in the summer of 1917 as the director of training and planning for the 1st Infantry Division. In mid-1918, he was promoted to American Expeditionary Forces headquarters, where he worked closely with his mentor General John J. Pershing and was a key planner of American operations. He was instrumental in the design and coordination of the Meuse-Argonne offensive, which contributed to the defeat of the German Army on the Western Front.

Between WWI and the Eve of World War II

In 1919, he became an aide-de-camp to General John J. Pershing. Between 1920 and 1924, while Pershing was Army Chief of Staff, Marshall worked in a number of positions in the US Army, focusing on training and teaching modern, mechanized warfare. Between WWI and World War II, he was a key planner and writer in the War Department, spent three years in China, and taught at the Army War College. In 1934, then-Col. Marshall directed the publication of Infantry in Battle. a book that codified the lessons of World War I. Infantry in Battle is still used as an officer's training manual in the Infantry Officer's Course, and was the training manual for most of the infantry officers and leaders of World War II.

World War II

Marshall with Secretary of War Henry Stimson

Marshall was promoted to Brigadier General in October 1936. Nominated by President Franklin Roosevelt to be Army Chief of Staff, Marshall was sworn in on September 1, 1939, the day German forces invaded Poland, precipitating World War II. He would hold this post until the end of the war in 1945.

As Chief of Staff, Marshall oversaw the largest military expansion in U. S. history, inheriting an outmoded, poorly equipped army of 200,000 men and, partly drawing from his experience teaching and developing techniques of modern warfare as an instructor at the Army War College, coordinated the large-scale expansion and modernization of the U. S. army into a force of over eight million soldiers by 1942 (a fortyfold increase within three years).

In 1944, he became the second U.S. General to be awarded 5-star rank, otherwise known as General of the Army, after John Pershing, who was awarded the rank in September 1919; although Pershing was promoted to General of the Armies. This position is the American equivalent in rank to Field Marshal. Marshall once joked that he was glad the U.S. never created a Field Marshal rank during World War II, since he would then have to be addressed as Marshal Marshall.

During World War II, Marshall was instrumental in getting the U.S. Army and Army Air Corps reorganized and ready for combat. Marshall wrote the document that would become the central strategy for all Allied operations in Europe, selected Dwight Eisenhower as Supreme Commander in Europe, and designed Operation Overlord, the invasion of Normandy. His success in working with Congress and President Franklin D. Roosevelt, along with his refusal to lobby for the position, ultimately resulted in his being passed over as the Supreme Allied Commander in charge of the D-Day invasion. At the time, the President told him: "I couldn't sleep nights, George, if you were out of Washington."

Throughout the remainder of the World War II, Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific. He was characterized as the organizer of Allied victory by Winston Churchill. Time Magazine named Marshall Man of the Year in 1944. Marshall resigned his post of Chief of Staff in 1945, but did not retire, as regulations stipulate that Generals of the Army remain on active duty for life.

Post War: China and Secretary of State

George C. Marshall
50th United States Secretary of State
In office 21 January 1947 – 20 January 1949
Under President	Harry S. Truman
Preceded by	James F. Byrnes
Succeeded by	Dean Acheson
3rd Secretary of Defense
In office 21 September 1950 – 12 September 1951
Under President	Harry S. Truman
Preceded by	Louis A. Johnson
Succeeded by	Robert A. Lovett
Born	December 31, 1880
Died	October 16, 1959
Political party	Democratic

In December 1945, Truman sent Marshall to China to broker a coalition government between the Communists under Mao Zedong and America's Nationalist allies under Chiang Kai-shek. Marshall had no leverage over the Communists, but threatened to withdraw American aid essential to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and the Chinese Civil War escalated, with the Communists winning in 1948. His mission a failure, he returned in January of 1947. As Secretary of State in 1947-48, Marshall seems to have disagreed with strong opinions in the Pentagon and State department that Chiang's success was vital to American interests, insisting that U.S. troops not become involved. May (2002) suggests the reason was that his first priority was to spend money on his Marshall Plan of aid to Europe.

On his return in early 1947, Truman appointed Marshall Secretary of State. He became the spokesman for the State Department's ambitious plans to rebuild Europe. On June 5 1947 at a speech at Harvard University, he outlined the American plan. The European Recovery Plan, which became known as the Marshall Plan, would help Europe quickly rebuild and modernize its economy on American lines. Truman wanted to call the plan the Truman Plan, but was warned that the plan would sink before it took off if named that. Truman thought of the idea to call it the Marshall Plan. The Soviet Union forbade its satellites to participate.

Marshall was again named TIME's Man of the Year in 1948, and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953. As Secretary of State, Marshall strongly opposed recognizing the State of Israel, telling President Truman, "If you (recognize the state of Israel) and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you." In 1949, he resigned from the State Department and was named president of the American National Red Cross. The Marshall plan's role in European reconstruction helped to pave the way for the creation of what was originally called the Common Marker, or European Economic Community, which has made war untinkable in Europe.

Secretary of Defense; attacked by McCarthy

When the early months of the Korean War showed how poorly prepared was the Defense Department, Truman fired Secretary Louis A. Johnson and named Marshall as Secretary of Defense in September 1950. His main role was to restore confidence. He served in that post for less than one year, retiring from politics for good in September 1951. In 1953, he represented America at the coronation of Elizabeth II.

On June 14, 1951, as the Korean war stalemated in heavy fighting between American and Chinese forces, Republican Senator Joe McCarthy attacked. He charged that Marshall was directly responsible for the "loss of China," as China turned from friend to enemy. McCarthy said the only way to explain why the U.S. "fell from our position as the most powerful Nation on earth at the end of World War II to a position of declared weakness by our leadership" was because of "a conspiracy so immense and an infamy so black as to dwarf any previous such venture in the history of man." McCarthy said that "If Marshall were merely stupid, the laws of probability would dictate that part of his decisions would serve this country's interest." McCarthy argued that General Albert Coady Wedemeyer had prepared a wise plan that would keep China a valued ally, but that it had been sabotaged; "only in treason can we find why evil genius thwarted and frustrated it." McCarthy suggested that Marshall was old and feeble and easily duped; he did not charge Marshall with treason. Specifically McCarthy alleged:

"When Marshall was sent to China with secret State Department orders, the Communists at that time were bottled up in two areas and were fighting a losing battle, but that because of those orders the situation was radically changed in favor of the Communists. Under those orders, as we know, Marshall embargoed all arms and ammunition to our allies in China. He forced the opening of the Nationalist-held Kalgan Mountain pass into Manchuria, to the end that the Chinese Communists gained access to the mountains of captured Japanese equipment. No need to tell the country about how Marshall tried to force Chiang Kai-shek to form a partnership government with the Communists."

Family life

He married Elizabeth Carter Cole of Lexington, Virginia in 1902. She died in 1927. In 1930, he married Katherine Boyce Tupper. George Marshall maintained a home, known as Dodona Manor (now restored), in Leesburg, Virginia.

Legacy

Public opinion became bitterly divided along party lines on Marshall's record. In 1952, Eisenhower while campaigning for president denounced the Truman administration's failures in Korea, campaigned alongside McCarthy, and refused to defend Marshall's policies.

George Catlett Marshall, "The Organizer of Victory," died on Friday October 16 1959. Marshall's achievements were on a grand scale. Like Eisenhower, he is recognized as a great American soldier despite never actually seeing combat. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Like Eisenhower, he was a soldier in whose heart resided a genuine desire for peace. In helping to reconstruct Europe, Marshall made an enduring contribution towards a more peaceful world. The emergence of a new, more united Europe represented by the Eiuropean Union has made war in Europe unthinkable. When he received the Nobel Peace Prize, Marshall remarked that its award to a soldier had created some discussion:

There has been considerable comment over the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize to a soldier4. I am afraid this does not seem as remarkable to me as it quite evidently appears to others. I know a great deal of the horrors and tragedies of war. Today, as chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission, it is my duty to supervise the construction and maintenance of military cemeteries in many countries overseas, particularly in Western Europe. The cost of war in human lives is constantly spread before me, written neatly in many ledgers whose columns are gravestones. I am deeply moved to find some means or method of avoiding another calamity of war. Almost daily I hear from the wives, or mothers, or families of the fallen. The tragedy of the aftermath is almost constantly before me.

He continued to speak of the need to create conditions for peace to flourish by addressing issues of want and need in the world, "millions who live under subnormal conditions and who have now come to a realization that they may aspire to a fair share of the God-given rights of human beings." People also needed to be educated about the benefits of democracy, which holds "within itself the seeds of unlimited progress by the human race." Yet, he continued:

material assistance alone is not sufficient. The most important thing for the world today in my opinion is a spiritual regeneration which would reestablish a feeling of good faith among men generally. Discouraged people are in sore need of the inspiration of great principles. Such leadership can be the rallying point against intolerance, against distrust, against that fatal insecurity that leads to war. It is to be hoped that the democratic nations can provide the necessary leadership.

Awards and decorations

U. S. military honors

• Distinguished Service Medal with one Oak leaf cluster
• Silver Star
• Philippine Campaign Medal
• World War I Victory Medal with four battle clasps
• Army of Occupation of Germany Medal
• American Defense Service Medal
• American Campaign Medal
• World War II Victory Medal
• National Defense Service Medal

Foreign military honors

• British Order of the Bath
• French Legion of Honor
• French Croix de Guerre
• Soviet Order of Suvorov
• Soviet Grand Cross Order of Military Merit
• Moroccan Grand Cross of Ouissam Alaouite
• Cuban Order of Military Merit, First Class
• Liberian Centennial Medal
• Greek Grand Cross Order of George I with swords
• Order of the Crown of Italy
• Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Italy)
• Netherlands Grand Cross with Swords in the Order of Orange Nassau
• Montenegro Silver Medal for Bravery
• Panamanian Medal of La Solidaridad, Second Class
• Peruvian Gran Official del Sol del Peru
• Brazilian Order of Military Merit
• Chilean Order del Merito
• Ecuadorian Star of Abdon Calderon, First Class
• Colombian Grand Cross of the Order of Boyaco Cherifien

Civilian honors

• In 1948, he was awarded the Distinguished Achievement Award for his role and contributions during and after World War II.
• Nobel Peace Prize 1953 for the Marshall Plan
• 1959 Karlspreis (International Charlemagne Prize of the city of Aachen)
• The British Parliament established the Marshall Scholarship in recognition of Marshall's contributions to Anglo-American relations.
• Many building and streets throughout the U.S. and other nations are named in his honor.
• George C. Marshall Award, the highest award given to a chapter in Kappa Alpha Order

Bibliography

• Cray, Ed. General of the Army: George C. Marshall, Soldier and Statesman. NY: Norton, 1990. ISBN 9780393027754
• Gullan, Harold I. "Expectations of Infamy: Roosevelt and Marshall Prepare for War, 1938-41." Presidential Studies Quarterly 28: 3 1998.
• May, Ernest R. "1947-48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. out of War in China." Journal of Military History 2002 66(4): 1001-1010. ISSN 0899-3718 Fulltext: in Swetswise and in Jstor
• Levine, Steven I. "A New Look at American Mediation in the Chinese Civil War: the Marshall Mission and Manchuria." Diplomatic History 1979 3(4): 349-375. ISSN 0145-2096
• Parrish, Thomas. Roosevelt and Marshall: Partners in Politics and War. NY: W. Morrow, 1989 ISBN 9780688090999
• Steele, Richard W. The First Offensive, 1942: Roosevelt, Marshall, and the Making of American Strategy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973 ISBN 9780253322159
• Stoler, Mark C George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century. Boston: Twayne, 1989 ISBN 9780805777680
• Forrest Pogue, Viking, (1963–87) Four-volume authorized biography: complete text is online
  • George C. Marshall: Education of a General, 1880-1939
  • George C Marshall: Ordeal and Hope, 1939-1943
  • George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory 1943-1945
  • George C. Marshall: Statesman 1945-1959. Retrieved July 18, 2007.

Primary Sources

• The Papers of George Catlett Marshall: (Larry I. Bland and Sharon Ritenour Stevens, eds.)

Vol. 1: The Soldierly Spirit," December 1880-June 1939. (1981) Vol. 2: "We Cannot Delay," July 1, 1939-December 6, 1941. (1986) Vol. 3: The Right Man for the Job, December 7, 1941-May 31, 1943. (1991) Vol. 4: "Aggressive and Determined Leadership," June 1, 1943-December 31, 1944. (1996) Vol. 5: "The Finest Soldier," January 1, 1945-January 7, 1947. (2003)

• Bland, Larry; Jeans, Roger B.; and Wilkinson, Mark, ed. George C. Marshall's Mediation Mission to China, December 1945-January 1947. Lexington, Va.: George C. Marshall Found., 1998 ISBN 9780935524048
• Marshall, George C. George C. Marshall: Interviews and Reminiscences for Forrest C. Pogue. Lexington, Va.: George C. Marshall Found., 1991. 698 pp. online edition Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• Marshall, George C Memoirs of My Services in the World War, 1917-1918 Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1976 ISBN 9780395207253

External links

• George C. Marshall InstituteRetrieved July 18, 2007.
• Brief biography at the official Nobel Prize site
• The Marshall Foundation Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• Colonel Charles F. Brower Biography on George C. Marshall edited by Stanley L. Klos Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• The Marshall Plan Speech MP3 Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• The Marshall Films Collection Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• Marshall Scholarships Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• The Marshall Plan Speech Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• Dodona Manor Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• "George C. Marshall: Soldier of Peace" (Smithsonian Institution) Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• Annotated bibliography for George Marshall from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Retrieved July 18, 2007.
• The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921-1969, CHAPTER XIX, General of the Army George C. Marshall, Special Military Funeral, 16-20 October 1959 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark. Retrieved July 18, 2007.

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