Encyclopedia, Difference between revisions of "Franz Joseph Gall" - New World
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'''Franz Gall''' was born in Grand Duchy of Baden, in the village of Tiefenbronn (today’s [[Germany]]). As the second eldest son, in the family of ten children, he was intended for the [[priest|priesthood]], and was educated by his priest uncle. Gall however decided to enroll in the studies of [[medicine]], in the city of Strasbourg, [[France]], in 1777. There Gall studied comparative [[anatomy]] under Johann Hermann (1738-1800), who taught of physical similarity of men and apes. | '''Franz Gall''' was born in Grand Duchy of Baden, in the village of Tiefenbronn (today’s [[Germany]]). As the second eldest son, in the family of ten children, he was intended for the [[priest|priesthood]], and was educated by his priest uncle. Gall however decided to enroll in the studies of [[medicine]], in the city of Strasbourg, [[France]], in 1777. There Gall studied comparative [[anatomy]] under Johann Hermann (1738-1800), who taught of physical similarity of men and apes. | ||
| − | In 1781 Gall enrolled in the medical school in [[Vienna]], studied under famous Maximilian Stoll (1742-1787). Gall received the degree doctor of medicine in 1785 and opened a successful, private practice in Vienna. In 1790 he married for the first time. He became a well-known physician, often treating wealthy and aristocratic patients. In 1794 he even rejected an offer to become the personal physician to Emperor [[Franz II]]. | + | In 1781 Gall enrolled in the medical school in [[Vienna]], studied under famous Maximilian Stoll (1742-1787). Gall received the degree doctor of medicine in 1785 and opened a successful, private practice in Vienna. In 1790 he married for the first time. He became a well-known physician, often treating wealthy and aristocratic patients. In 1794 he even rejected an offer to become the personal physician to Emperor [[Francis II Holy Roman Emperor|Franz II]]. |
| − | By the end of the 18th century, Gall developed his theory of “organology" and "Schädellehre" (doctrine of the skull), in which he explained the relationship between brain centers and various personality traits and abilities. With | + | By the end of the 18th century, Gall developed his theory of “organology" and "Schädellehre" (doctrine of the skull), in which he explained the relationship between [[brain]] centers and various [[personality traits]] and abilities. With this revolutionary concepts, Gall offended [[religion|religious]] leaders and [[science|scientists]] alike. The [[Catholic Church]] considered his theory as contrary to [[religion]] (that the [[mind]], created by [[God]], should have a physical seat in brain matter, was [[anathema]]). Established science also condemned these ideas for lack of scientific proof of his theory. His ideas were not acceptable to the Austrian government, which eventually banned his teachings for leading to materialism and going against [[morality]] and [[religion]]. Due to this, Gall, who worked and lectured in Vienna, in 1805 decided to leave. |
| − | Gall sought a teaching position in Germany, and lectured in Berlin and other major German universities. During the Napoleonic Wars he traveled to more than fifty cities throughout Germany, Denmark, The Netherlands, Switzerland, and France. | + | Gall sought a teaching position in [[Germany]], and lectured in [[Berlin]] and other major German universities. During the [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleonic]] Wars he traveled to more than fifty cities throughout [[Germany]], [[Denmark]], The [[Netherlands]], [[Switzerland]], and [[France]]. |
| − | Gall eventually settled in Paris. Revolutionary France was most likely the most hospitable place for Gall's theories. However, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], the ruling [[emperor]], and the scientific establishment, led by the [[Institute of France]], pronounced his science as invalid. Despite all this, Gall was able to secure a comfortable existence on the basis of his specialty. Gall became a celebrity of sorts as he was accepted into Parisian intellectual salons. | + | Gall eventually settled in [[Paris]]. Revolutionary France was most likely the most hospitable place for Gall's theories. However, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], the ruling [[emperor]], and the scientific establishment, led by the [[Institute of France]], pronounced his science as invalid. Despite all this, Gall was able to secure a comfortable existence on the basis of his specialty. Gall became a celebrity of sorts as he was accepted into Parisian intellectual salons. |
Gall became in 1819 a naturalized Frenchman, and eventually tried to obtain admission to the French Academy of Sciences. His efforts, although supported by [[E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], were unsuccessful. | Gall became in 1819 a naturalized Frenchman, and eventually tried to obtain admission to the French Academy of Sciences. His efforts, although supported by [[E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], were unsuccessful. | ||
| − | He visited Britain in 1823, with the intention of delivering series of lectures | + | He visited [[United Kingdom|Britain]] in 1823, with the intention of delivering series of lectures in [[London]] universities, but the reception he met there was not warm, and he abandoned his plans. He instead continued lecturing in Paris. After his first wife died in Vienna in 1825, Gall took a second wife, Marie Anne Barbe. |
| + | |||
| + | Gall died in 1828. Although twice married he had no descendents. After his death his head was removed and was added to his collection of 300+ human skulls, skull casts, and brain casts. | ||
==Work== | ==Work== | ||
| − | While in the medical school, Gall noticed the association between external physical appearance and ability. He saw that some of his colleagues, especially those with special language or memory skills, had distinctive shape of their skulls. Gall concluded that it was probably that physical characteristics and talents were connected, and started to investigate further this theory. | + | While in the [[medical]] school, Gall noticed the association between external [[physical]] appearance and ability. He saw that some of his colleagues, especially those with special [[language]] or [[memory]] skills, had distinctive shape of their skulls. Gall concluded that it was probably that physical characteristics and talents were connected, and started to investigate further this theory. |
| − | Gall collected human and animal skulls and made wax moulds of brain, in order to study the cranial contours of | + | Gall collected human and animal skulls and made wax moulds of brain, in order to study the cranial contours of [[brain]]s of specific species that exhibited characteristic [[behavior]]. Through comparing different casts from different brains, he was able to conclude that different regions of the brain corresponded to different personality traits and abilities. Someone with certain ability had more developed particular region in the brain, which reflected in the characteristic bump on the skull. |
| − | Gall called his theory “organology" and "Schädellehre" (doctrine of the skull), but later renamed it to simple "the physiology of the brain". He developed the new technique of dissecting the brain, in which he sliced the brain “from below”, unlike other physicians who performed it “from above”. On that way Gall was able to follow the brain stem upwards into the brain, and trace fibers into different parts of the brain. He discovered that brain was not made of a soft substance, but rather that the soft substance was in fact made of bundles of neurons. He claimed that he discovered centers for different body functions, where the grey matter were actual nerves, and the white matter served a conducting function. | + | Gall called his theory “organology" and "Schädellehre" (doctrine of the skull), but later renamed it to simple "''the physiology of the brain''". He developed the new technique of dissecting the brain, in which he sliced the brain “from below”, unlike other physicians who performed it “from above”. On that way Gall was able to follow the [[brain stem]] upwards into the brain, and trace fibers into different parts of the brain. He discovered that brain was not made of a soft substance, but rather that the soft substance was in fact made of bundles of neurons. He claimed that he discovered centers for different body functions, where the [[grey matter]] were actual nerves, and the [[white matter]] served a conducting function. |
| − | In 1796 another respected German anatomist, Samuel Thomas von Soemmerring (1755-1830) published his Über das Organ der Seele (On the Organ of the Soul). He claimed that the sensorium commune ("the human soul") rests in the intraventricular cerebral spinal fluid. Gall never paid special attention to the soul, but argued that psychological phenomena start from specific regions in the cerebral cortex. He claimed that the nervous system was composed of numerous independent nervous centers, which he then mapped and described. This was the first scientific attempt of cerebral localization. | + | In 1796 another respected German anatomist, [[Samuel Thomas von Soemmerring]] (1755-1830) published his ''Über das Organ der Seele'' (''"On the Organ of the Soul"''). He claimed that the ''sensorium commune'' ("the human soul") rests in the intraventricular cerebral [[spinal fluid]]. Gall never paid special attention to the soul, but argued that psychological phenomena start from specific regions in the [[cerebral cortex]]. He claimed that the nervous system was composed of numerous independent nervous centers, which he then mapped and described. This was the first scientific attempt of [[cerebral localization]]. |
| − | Gall attempted to make a definite list of brain centers for each human personality trait and ability. He collected thousands of data on people who showed extremes of talents or possessed some other striking abilities. He visited jails, hospitals, and mortuaries, and measured skulls of famous, gifted, criminals, and mental patients. He developed a method of skull-measurement, which he called the "[[cranioscopy]]" («''cranium''»: skull, «''scopos''»: vision). | + | Gall attempted to make a definite list of brain centers for each human [[personality trait]] and ability. He collected thousands of data on people who showed extremes of talents or possessed some other striking abilities. He visited jails, hospitals, and mortuaries, and measured skulls of famous, gifted, criminals, and mental patients. He developed a method of skull-measurement, which he called the "[[cranioscopy]]" («''cranium''»: skull, «''scopos''»: vision). |
| − | Gall was particularly interested in prison inmates and mental patients. He claimed that that criminal behavior and mental diseases were innate and quantifiable, not the result of moral lapse. He advocated that personality characteristics be taken into account when sentencing, and that punishment alone was not enough to change criminal mind. Rather, he said, it is the complete reform of the criminal that is needed to change his future behavior. He also claimed that mental illness had organic cause, rather than “spiritual”. | + | Gall was particularly interested in [[prison]] inmates and [[mental]] patients. He claimed that that [[criminal behavior]] and mental diseases were innate and quantifiable, not the result of moral lapse. He advocated that personality characteristics be taken into account when sentencing, and that punishment alone was not enough to change criminal mind. Rather, he said, it is the complete reform of the criminal that is needed to change his future behavior. He also claimed that mental illness had organic cause, rather than “spiritual”. |
In 1822 he outlined the four theses that summarized his theory. He said: | In 1822 he outlined the four theses that summarized his theory. He said: | ||
| − | #Moral and intellectual qualities are innate; | + | # Moral and intellectual qualities are innate; |
# their functioning depends upon organic supports; | # their functioning depends upon organic supports; | ||
# the brain is the organ of all faculties, of all tendencies, of all feelings ("the organ of the soul"); | # the brain is the organ of all faculties, of all tendencies, of all feelings ("the organ of the soul"); | ||
| Line 47: | Line 49: | ||
Gall claimed that brain is divided into 27 regions, which he called “organs”: | Gall claimed that brain is divided into 27 regions, which he called “organs”: | ||
| − | #The instinct of reproduction (located in the cerebellum). | + | #The [[instinct]] of [[reproduction]] (located in the [[cerebellum]]). |
| − | #The love of one's offspring. | + | #The [[love]] of one's offspring. |
| − | #Affection; friendship. | + | #[[Affection]]; [[friendship]]. |
| − | #The instinct of self-defense; courage; the tendency to get into fights. | + | #The instinct of self-defense; [[courage]]; the tendency to get into fights. |
#The carnivorous instinct; the tendency to murder. | #The carnivorous instinct; the tendency to murder. | ||
#Guile; acuteness; cleverness. | #Guile; acuteness; cleverness. | ||
#The feeling of property; the instinct of stocking up on food (in animals); covetousness; the tendency to steal. | #The feeling of property; the instinct of stocking up on food (in animals); covetousness; the tendency to steal. | ||
| − | #Pride; arrogance; haughtiness; love of authority; loftiness. | + | #[[Pride]]; [[arrogance]]; haughtiness; love of authority; loftiness. |
| − | #Vanity; ambition; love of glory | + | #[[Vanity]]; [[ambition]]; love of [[glory]] |
#Circumspection; forethought. | #Circumspection; forethought. | ||
| − | #The memory of things; the memory of facts; educability; perfectibility. | + | #The [[memory]] of things; the memory of facts; educability; perfectibility. |
#The sense of places; of space proportions. | #The sense of places; of space proportions. | ||
#The memory of people; the sense of people. | #The memory of people; the sense of people. | ||
#The memory of words. | #The memory of words. | ||
| − | #The sense of language | + | #The sense of [[language]] and of [[speech]]. |
| − | #The sense of color. | + | #The sense of [[color]]. |
| − | #The sense of | + | #The sense of [[sound]]s; the gift of [[music]]. |
#The sense of connection between numbers. | #The sense of connection between numbers. | ||
| − | #The sense of mechanics, of construction; the talent for architecture. | + | #The sense of [[mechanics]], of [[construction]]; the talent for [[architecture]]. |
#Comparative sagacity. | #Comparative sagacity. | ||
| − | #The sense of metaphysics. | + | #The sense of [[metaphysics]]. |
#The sense of satire; the sense of witticism. | #The sense of satire; the sense of witticism. | ||
| − | #The poetical talent. | + | #The [[poetry|poetical]] talent. |
| − | #Kindness; benevolence; gentleness; compassion; sensitivity; moral sense. | + | #Kindness; benevolence; gentleness; [[compassion]]; sensitivity; moral sense. |
#The faculty to imitate; the mimic. | #The faculty to imitate; the mimic. | ||
| − | #The organ of religion. | + | #The organ of [[religion]]. |
#The firmness of purpose; constancy; perseverance; obstinacy. | #The firmness of purpose; constancy; perseverance; obstinacy. | ||
==Legacy== | ==Legacy== | ||
| − | Gall’s method of “cranioscopy” and his theories were later renamed to [[phrenology]] («''phrenos''»: mind, «''logos''»: study) by his follower [[Johann Spurzheim]]. They were initially ill-received in the general public, especially due to church opposition. However, between 1820 and 1840 numerous phrenological societies appeared across Europe and United States, which popularized phrenology as an esoteric discipline. People started to hire phrenologists, very much like they hired astrologists or tarot-card readers. | + | Gall’s method of “cranioscopy” and his theories were later renamed to [[phrenology]] («''phrenos''»: mind, «''logos''»: study) by his follower [[Johann Spurzheim]]. They were initially ill-received in the general public, especially due to [[church]] opposition. However, between 1820 and 1840 numerous phrenological societies appeared across [[Europe]] and [[United States]], which popularized phrenology as an [[esoteric]] discipline. People started to hire phrenologists, very much like they hired [[astrology|astrologists]] or [[tarot]]-card readers. |
| − | Gall's phrenological theories and practices were best accepted in [[England]], where the ruling class used it to justify the "inferiority" of its colonial subjects, including the [[Ireland|Irish]], and then in the [[ | + | Gall's phrenological theories and practices were best accepted in [[England]], where the ruling class used it to justify the "inferiority" of its colonial subjects, including the [[Ireland|Irish]], and then in the [[United States|America]], where it became very popular from 1820 to 1850. The misuse of Gall's ideas and work to justify discrimination were deliberately furthered by his associates, including J.C. Spurzheim. Later, others tried to improve his theories with systems such as [[characterology]]. |
| − | However, Gall made significant contributions to neurological science. Emotions were not located in the heart but in the brain and certain parts of the brain controlled certain emotions and actions. At the time these were revolutionary ideas. The opposition to Gall's ideas can be compared to the earlier opposition of Galileo's theory that the earth revolved around the sun. Gall's concept that [[brain]] functions were localized proved to be correct. | + | However, Gall made significant contributions to [[neurology|neurological]] science. [[Emotions]] were not located in the [[heart]] but in the [[brain]] and certain parts of the brain controlled certain emotions and actions. At the time these were revolutionary ideas. The opposition to Gall's ideas can be compared to the earlier opposition of [[Galileo]]'s theory that the earth revolved around the sun. Gall's concept that [[brain]] functions were localized proved to be correct. |
==Publications== | ==Publications== | ||
| − | * Gall, Franz J. 1791. Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen über Natur und Kunst im gesunden und kranken Zustande des Menschen. | + | * Gall, Franz J. 1791. ''Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen über Natur und Kunst im gesunden und kranken Zustande des Menschen.'' |
| − | * Gall, Franz J. 1798. Schreiben über seinen bereits geendigten Prodromus über die Verrichtungen des Gehirns der Menschen und der Thiere an Herrn Jos. Fr. von Retzer' | + | * Gall, Franz J. 1798. ''Schreiben über seinen bereits geendigten Prodromus über die Verrichtungen des Gehirns der Menschen und der Thiere an Herrn Jos. Fr. von Retzer'''. Der neue Teutsche Merkur. |
| − | * Gall, Franz J. 1807. Beantwortung der Ackermann'schen Beurtheilung und Wiederlegung der Gall'schen Hirn- Schedel- und Organenlehre, vom Gesichtspuncte der Erfahrung aus. Von einigen Schülern des Dr. Gall und von ihm selbst berichtigt. Halle. | + | * Gall, Franz J. 1807. ''Beantwortung der Ackermann'schen Beurtheilung und Wiederlegung der Gall'schen Hirn- Schedel- und Organenlehre, vom Gesichtspuncte der Erfahrung aus''. Von einigen Schülern des Dr. Gall und von ihm selbst berichtigt. Halle. |
| − | * Gall, Franz J. 1807. | + | * Gall, Franz J. 1807. Doktor Gall über Irrenanstalten. ''Allgemeine Zeitung'', Ulm. 10, Nro. 21. Beilage, pp. 81-83. |
| − | * Gall, Franz J. 1822-25. Sur les fonctions du cerveau et sur celles de chacune de ses parties. avec des observations sur la possibilité de reconnaitre les instincts, les penchans, les talens, ou les dispositions morales et intellectuelles des hommes et des animaux, par la configuration de leur cerveau et de leur tête. (6 vols). Paris: J. B. Baillière | + | * Gall, Franz J. 1822-25. ''Sur les fonctions du cerveau et sur celles de chacune de ses parties. avec des observations sur la possibilité de reconnaitre les instincts, les penchans, les talens, ou les dispositions morales et intellectuelles des hommes et des animaux, par la configuration de leur cerveau et de leur tête''. (6 vols). Paris: J. B. Baillière |
| − | * Gall, Franz J. 1979. Franz Joseph Gall, 1758-1828, Naturforscher und Anthropologe: Ausgewählte Texte. H. Huber. ISBN 3456806922 | + | * Gall, Franz J. 1979. ''Franz Joseph Gall, 1758-1828, Naturforscher und Anthropologe: Ausgewählte Texte''. H. Huber. ISBN 3456806922 |
==References== | ==References== | ||
| − | * Ackerknecht, E. H. & Vallois, H. V. 1956. Franz Joseph Gall, inventory of phrenology and his collection. Madison: University of Wisconsin Medical School. | + | * Ackerknecht, E. H. & Vallois, H. V. 1956. ''Franz Joseph Gall, inventory of phrenology and his collection''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Medical School. |
| − | * Phrenology.com. Franz Joseph Gall. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, <http://www.phrenology.com/franzjosephgall.html> | + | * Phrenology.com. ''Franz Joseph Gall''. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, <http://www.phrenology.com/franzjosephgall.html> |
| − | * Soemmerring, Samuel T. von. Über das Organ der Seele. Königsberg: F. Nicolovius | + | * Soemmerring, Samuel T. von. ''Über das Organ der Seele''. Königsberg: F. Nicolovius |
| − | * Temkin O. 1947. Gall and the Phrenological Movement. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 21, 275-321. | + | * Temkin O. 1947. Gall and the Phrenological Movement. ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 21,'' 275-321. |
| − | * Wells, Charlotte F. 1896. Some account of the life and labors of Dr. Franz Joseph Gall, founder of phrenology. Fowler & Wells. | + | * Wells, Charlotte F. 1896. ''Some account of the life and labors of Dr. Franz Joseph Gall, founder of phrenology''. Fowler & Wells. |
| − | * WhoNamedIt.com. Franz Joseph Gall. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, <http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1018.html> | + | * WhoNamedIt.com. ''Franz Joseph Gall''. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, <http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1018.html> |
| − | * Wyhe, John van. Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) the originator of what later became phrenology. British Library. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, <http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology/fjgall.html> | + | * Wyhe, John van. ''Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) the originator of what later became phrenology''. British Library. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, <http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology/fjgall.html> |
| − | * Wyhe, John van. 2004. Phrenology and the Origins of Victorian Scientific Naturalism. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0754634086 | + | * Wyhe, John van. 2004. ''Phrenology and the Origins of Victorian Scientific Naturalism''. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0754634086 |
| − | * Young, Robert M. 1990. Mind, Brain, and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century: Cerebral Localization and Its Biological Context from Gall to Ferrier. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195063899 | + | * Young, Robert M. 1990. ''Mind, Brain, and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century: Cerebral Localization and Its Biological Context from Gall to Ferrier''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195063899 |
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
Revision as of 10:37, 17 February 2007
Franz Joseph Gall (born March 9, 1758 – died August 22, 1828) was a German neuroanatomist and physiologist, the father of phrenology and one of the early pioneers in the study of the localization of mental functions in the brain.
Life
Franz Gall was born in Grand Duchy of Baden, in the village of Tiefenbronn (today’s Germany). As the second eldest son, in the family of ten children, he was intended for the priesthood, and was educated by his priest uncle. Gall however decided to enroll in the studies of medicine, in the city of Strasbourg, France, in 1777. There Gall studied comparative anatomy under Johann Hermann (1738-1800), who taught of physical similarity of men and apes.
In 1781 Gall enrolled in the medical school in Vienna, studied under famous Maximilian Stoll (1742-1787). Gall received the degree doctor of medicine in 1785 and opened a successful, private practice in Vienna. In 1790 he married for the first time. He became a well-known physician, often treating wealthy and aristocratic patients. In 1794 he even rejected an offer to become the personal physician to Emperor Franz II.
By the end of the 18th century, Gall developed his theory of “organology" and "Schädellehre" (doctrine of the skull), in which he explained the relationship between brain centers and various personality traits and abilities. With this revolutionary concepts, Gall offended religious leaders and scientists alike. The Catholic Church considered his theory as contrary to religion (that the mind, created by God, should have a physical seat in brain matter, was anathema). Established science also condemned these ideas for lack of scientific proof of his theory. His ideas were not acceptable to the Austrian government, which eventually banned his teachings for leading to materialism and going against morality and religion. Due to this, Gall, who worked and lectured in Vienna, in 1805 decided to leave.
Gall sought a teaching position in Germany, and lectured in Berlin and other major German universities. During the Napoleonic Wars he traveled to more than fifty cities throughout Germany, Denmark, The Netherlands, Switzerland, and France.
Gall eventually settled in Paris. Revolutionary France was most likely the most hospitable place for Gall's theories. However, Napoleon Bonaparte, the ruling emperor, and the scientific establishment, led by the Institute of France, pronounced his science as invalid. Despite all this, Gall was able to secure a comfortable existence on the basis of his specialty. Gall became a celebrity of sorts as he was accepted into Parisian intellectual salons.
Gall became in 1819 a naturalized Frenchman, and eventually tried to obtain admission to the French Academy of Sciences. His efforts, although supported by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, were unsuccessful.
He visited Britain in 1823, with the intention of delivering series of lectures in London universities, but the reception he met there was not warm, and he abandoned his plans. He instead continued lecturing in Paris. After his first wife died in Vienna in 1825, Gall took a second wife, Marie Anne Barbe.
Gall died in 1828. Although twice married he had no descendents. After his death his head was removed and was added to his collection of 300+ human skulls, skull casts, and brain casts.
Work
While in the medical school, Gall noticed the association between external physical appearance and ability. He saw that some of his colleagues, especially those with special language or memory skills, had distinctive shape of their skulls. Gall concluded that it was probably that physical characteristics and talents were connected, and started to investigate further this theory.
Gall collected human and animal skulls and made wax moulds of brain, in order to study the cranial contours of brains of specific species that exhibited characteristic behavior. Through comparing different casts from different brains, he was able to conclude that different regions of the brain corresponded to different personality traits and abilities. Someone with certain ability had more developed particular region in the brain, which reflected in the characteristic bump on the skull.
Gall called his theory “organology" and "Schädellehre" (doctrine of the skull), but later renamed it to simple "the physiology of the brain". He developed the new technique of dissecting the brain, in which he sliced the brain “from below”, unlike other physicians who performed it “from above”. On that way Gall was able to follow the brain stem upwards into the brain, and trace fibers into different parts of the brain. He discovered that brain was not made of a soft substance, but rather that the soft substance was in fact made of bundles of neurons. He claimed that he discovered centers for different body functions, where the grey matter were actual nerves, and the white matter served a conducting function.
In 1796 another respected German anatomist, Samuel Thomas von Soemmerring (1755-1830) published his Über das Organ der Seele ("On the Organ of the Soul"). He claimed that the sensorium commune ("the human soul") rests in the intraventricular cerebral spinal fluid. Gall never paid special attention to the soul, but argued that psychological phenomena start from specific regions in the cerebral cortex. He claimed that the nervous system was composed of numerous independent nervous centers, which he then mapped and described. This was the first scientific attempt of cerebral localization.
Gall attempted to make a definite list of brain centers for each human personality trait and ability. He collected thousands of data on people who showed extremes of talents or possessed some other striking abilities. He visited jails, hospitals, and mortuaries, and measured skulls of famous, gifted, criminals, and mental patients. He developed a method of skull-measurement, which he called the "cranioscopy" («cranium»: skull, «scopos»: vision).
Gall was particularly interested in prison inmates and mental patients. He claimed that that criminal behavior and mental diseases were innate and quantifiable, not the result of moral lapse. He advocated that personality characteristics be taken into account when sentencing, and that punishment alone was not enough to change criminal mind. Rather, he said, it is the complete reform of the criminal that is needed to change his future behavior. He also claimed that mental illness had organic cause, rather than “spiritual”.
In 1822 he outlined the four theses that summarized his theory. He said:
- Moral and intellectual qualities are innate;
- their functioning depends upon organic supports;
- the brain is the organ of all faculties, of all tendencies, of all feelings ("the organ of the soul");
- the brain is composed of as many organs as there are faculties, tendencies and feelings
(Ackerknecht & Vallois, 1956, p. 16).
Gall claimed that brain is divided into 27 regions, which he called “organs”:
- The instinct of reproduction (located in the cerebellum).
- The love of one's offspring.
- Affection; friendship.
- The instinct of self-defense; courage; the tendency to get into fights.
- The carnivorous instinct; the tendency to murder.
- Guile; acuteness; cleverness.
- The feeling of property; the instinct of stocking up on food (in animals); covetousness; the tendency to steal.
- Pride; arrogance; haughtiness; love of authority; loftiness.
- Vanity; ambition; love of glory
- Circumspection; forethought.
- The memory of things; the memory of facts; educability; perfectibility.
- The sense of places; of space proportions.
- The memory of people; the sense of people.
- The memory of words.
- The sense of language and of speech.
- The sense of color.
- The sense of sounds; the gift of music.
- The sense of connection between numbers.
- The sense of mechanics, of construction; the talent for architecture.
- Comparative sagacity.
- The sense of metaphysics.
- The sense of satire; the sense of witticism.
- The poetical talent.
- Kindness; benevolence; gentleness; compassion; sensitivity; moral sense.
- The faculty to imitate; the mimic.
- The organ of religion.
- The firmness of purpose; constancy; perseverance; obstinacy.
Legacy
Gall’s method of “cranioscopy” and his theories were later renamed to phrenology («phrenos»: mind, «logos»: study) by his follower Johann Spurzheim. They were initially ill-received in the general public, especially due to church opposition. However, between 1820 and 1840 numerous phrenological societies appeared across Europe and United States, which popularized phrenology as an esoteric discipline. People started to hire phrenologists, very much like they hired astrologists or tarot-card readers.
Gall's phrenological theories and practices were best accepted in England, where the ruling class used it to justify the "inferiority" of its colonial subjects, including the Irish, and then in the America, where it became very popular from 1820 to 1850. The misuse of Gall's ideas and work to justify discrimination were deliberately furthered by his associates, including J.C. Spurzheim. Later, others tried to improve his theories with systems such as characterology.
However, Gall made significant contributions to neurological science. Emotions were not located in the heart but in the brain and certain parts of the brain controlled certain emotions and actions. At the time these were revolutionary ideas. The opposition to Gall's ideas can be compared to the earlier opposition of Galileo's theory that the earth revolved around the sun. Gall's concept that brain functions were localized proved to be correct.
Publications
- Gall, Franz J. 1791. Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen über Natur und Kunst im gesunden und kranken Zustande des Menschen.
- Gall, Franz J. 1798. Schreiben über seinen bereits geendigten Prodromus über die Verrichtungen des Gehirns der Menschen und der Thiere an Herrn Jos. Fr. von Retzer'. Der neue Teutsche Merkur.
- Gall, Franz J. 1807. Beantwortung der Ackermann'schen Beurtheilung und Wiederlegung der Gall'schen Hirn- Schedel- und Organenlehre, vom Gesichtspuncte der Erfahrung aus. Von einigen Schülern des Dr. Gall und von ihm selbst berichtigt. Halle.
- Gall, Franz J. 1807. Doktor Gall über Irrenanstalten. Allgemeine Zeitung, Ulm. 10, Nro. 21. Beilage, pp. 81-83.
- Gall, Franz J. 1822-25. Sur les fonctions du cerveau et sur celles de chacune de ses parties. avec des observations sur la possibilité de reconnaitre les instincts, les penchans, les talens, ou les dispositions morales et intellectuelles des hommes et des animaux, par la configuration de leur cerveau et de leur tête. (6 vols). Paris: J. B. Baillière
- Gall, Franz J. 1979. Franz Joseph Gall, 1758-1828, Naturforscher und Anthropologe: Ausgewählte Texte. H. Huber. ISBN 3456806922
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Ackerknecht, E. H. & Vallois, H. V. 1956. Franz Joseph Gall, inventory of phrenology and his collection. Madison: University of Wisconsin Medical School.
- Phrenology.com. Franz Joseph Gall. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, <http://www.phrenology.com/franzjosephgall.html>
- Soemmerring, Samuel T. von. Über das Organ der Seele. Königsberg: F. Nicolovius
- Temkin O. 1947. Gall and the Phrenological Movement. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 21, 275-321.
- Wells, Charlotte F. 1896. Some account of the life and labors of Dr. Franz Joseph Gall, founder of phrenology. Fowler & Wells.
- WhoNamedIt.com. Franz Joseph Gall. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, <http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1018.html>
- Wyhe, John van. Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) the originator of what later became phrenology. British Library. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, <http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology/fjgall.html>
- Wyhe, John van. 2004. Phrenology and the Origins of Victorian Scientific Naturalism. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0754634086
- Young, Robert M. 1990. Mind, Brain, and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century: Cerebral Localization and Its Biological Context from Gall to Ferrier. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195063899
External links
- Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) – Extensive biography, list of his works, and lot of resources on Gall
- Franz Joseph Gall – Biography and his work on WhoNameIt.com
- Gall’s Biography – Short biography on Encyclopedia Britannica
- History of phrenology – Website with lots of photos and illustrations on the subject of phrenology
- History of the brain – History of research on human brain
- Phrenology – On phrenology
- Phrenology and the fine art – Some illustrations of the use of phrenology
- Physiological foundations of psychology – Plenty of resources on physiological elements in psychology
- Samuel Thomas von Soemmerring – Biography of Samuel Thomas von Soemmerring
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