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| − | {{homicide}} | + | {{Paid}}{{Approved}}{{Submitted}}{{images OK}}{{copyedited}} |
| − | {{redirect2|Assassin|Assassins}} | + | [[Image:200449.jpg|thumb|right|Artistic Rendering of [[Hassan-i-Sabbah]], founder of the sect of Assassins.]] |
| | + | The '''Assassins''' (originally called '''Hashashim,''' '''Hashishin,''' or ''' Hashashiyyin''') were a [[Religion|religious]] [[sect]] of [[Ismaili]] [[Shi'a]] [[Muslims]] (from the [[Nizaris|Nizari]] lineage) originating in Persia, during the eleventh century C.E. This secret society was known to specialize in [[terrorism|terrorizing]] the Crusaders, against whom they fearlessly executed political assassinations.<ref>Dictionary.com, [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/assassin Assassin.] Retrieved February 1, 2008.</ref> Their militant views were put into practice for various political or religious purposes. However, historian [[Bernard Lewis]] argues that their efforts were not primarily directed at Crusaders, but also against Muslim rulers whom they saw as impious usurpers.<ref>Bernard Lewis, ''The Assassins'' (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolsön, 1967), p 145.</ref> The modern word "assassin" is derived from this group, which was thought to have been active from 1090 to 1272. |
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| | + | ==Etymology of the word "assassin"== |
| | + | The term assassin, which appeared in European languages in a variety of forms (e.g., assassini, assissini, and heyssisini), was evidently based on variants of the Arabic word hashishi (pl. hashishiyya, hashishin). The latter was applied by other Muslims to Nizaris in the pejorative sense of “low-class rabble” or “people of lax morality,” without any derivative explanation reflecting any special connection between the Nizaris and hashish, a product of [[hemp]]. This term of abuse was picked up locally in [[Syria]] by the Crusaders and European travelers, and adopted as the designation of the Nizari Ismailis. Subsequently, after the etymology of the term had been forgotten, it came to be used in Europe as a noun meaning “murderer.” Thus, a misnomer rooted in abuse eventually resulted in a new word, assassin, in European language |
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| − | '''Assassination''' is the [[murder]] of an individual; usually a political or famous figure.<ref>[http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=assassin Assassin] (from [[Wordnet]], [[Princeton University]])</ref> An added distinction between assassination and other forms of killing is that an assassin usually has an [[ideology|ideological]] or [[politics|political]] [[motivation]], though many assassins (especially those who are not part of an organised movement) also show elements of [[insanity]]. Other motivations may be [[money]] (as in the case of a [[contract killing]]), [[revenge]], or as a [[military operation]]. | + | The name "assassin" is commonly believed to be a mutation of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''hashshshin'' (حشّاشين), which allegedly derives from the drug [[hashish]] that was said to be used by the group before going into battle. However, there are those who dispute this etymology, arguing that it originates from [[Marco Polo]]'s account of his visit to Alamut in 1273, in which he describes a drug whose effects are more like those of [[ethanol|alcohol]] than of hashish. However, alcohol is not likely to have been the drug described, being totally prohibited by the Muslim faith. It is suggested by some writers that ''assassin'' simply means "followers of Al-Hassan" (or Hassan-i-Sabah, the [[Sheikh]] of Alamut)). Others suggest that since hashish-eaters were generally ostracized in the Middle Ages, the word "Hashshashin" had become a common synonym for "outlaws." So the attribution of Hassan's Ismaili sect with this term is not necessarily a clue for drug use. Some common accounts of their connection with hashish are that these "assassins" would take hashish before missions in order to calm themselves; others say that it helped to boost their strength, and turned them into madmen in battle. Yet other accounts state it was used in their initiation rites in order to show the neophyte the sensual pleasures awaiting him in the afterlife. The connection between their mysticism and that drug is not something subject to reliable or consistent historical accounts; this is not surprising given their secrecy and infamy. |
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| − | The [[Euphemism#Doublespeak|euphemism]] '''targeted killing''' (also called '''extrajudicial execution''') is also sometimes used for sanctioned assassinations of opponents, especially where undertaken by governments.<ref name="ARIEL">''[http://www.washingtontimes.com/commentary/20040325-091452-7923r.htm Commentary: Targeted killing...]'' - [[Ariel Cohen|Cohen, Ariel]], ''[[Washington Post]]'', Thursday 25 March 2004</ref> 'Assassination' itself, along with terms such as '[[terrorism|terrorist]]' and '[[freedom fighter]]', may in this context be considered a [[loaded (language)|loaded term]], as it implies an act where the proponents of such killings may consider them justified or even necessary.<ref name="ARIEL"/> | + | The word Hashish (of probable Arabic origin) refers to resin collected from cannabis flowers. This could be the true drug of the Assassins as described by Marco Polo. |
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| − | ==Etymology==
| + | The most acceptable etymology of the word assassin is the simple one. It comes from Hassan (Hasan ibn al-Sabbah) and his followers. The noise around the hashish version was invented in 1809, in Paris, by the French orientalist Sylvestre de Sacy, whom on July 7 of that year, presented a lecture at the Academy of Inscriptions and Fine Letters (Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres)—part of the Institute of France—in which he retook the Marco Polo chronicle concerning drugs and this sect of murderers, and associated it with the word. Curiously, his theory had great success and apparently still has (Jacques Boudet, Les mots de l’histoire, Ed. Larousse-Bordas, Paris, 1998). |
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| − | {{Main|Hashshashin}}
| + | <blockquote>Many scholars have argued, and demonstrated convincingly, that the attribution of the epithet "hashish eaters" or "hashish takers" is a misnomer derived from enemies of the Isma'ilis and was never used by Muslim chroniclers or sources. It was therefore used in a pejorative sense of "enemies" or "disreputable people." This sense of the term survived into modern times with the common Egyptian usage of the term Hashasheen in the 1930s to mean simply "noisy or riotous." It is unlikely that the austere Hasan-i Sabbah indulged personally in drug taking. |
| − | The term 'Assassin' is generally assumed to be derived from its connections to the [[Hashshashin]], a militant religious sect of [[Ismaili]] Muslims, thought to be active in the Middle East in the 8th to 14th centuries. This mystic [[secret society]] killed members of the [[Abbasid]] elite for political or religious reasons.<ref>Secret Societies Handbook, Michael Bradley, Cassell Illustrated, 2005. ISBN 978-1844034161</ref>
| + | …There is no mention of that drug [hashish] in connection with the Persian Assassins—especially in the library of Alamut ("the secret archives").<ref>Edward Burman, ''The Assassins: Holy Killers of Islam.''</ref> |
| | + | </blockquote> |
| | + | According to texts that have come down from Alamut, Hassan liked to call his disciples Assassiyun, meaning people who are faithful to the Assass, the "foundation" of the faith. This may be the word, misunderstood by foreign travelers, that seemed similar to "hashish." |
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| − | Stories claim that these early assassins were drugged during their murders, often with materials such as [[hashish]] and [[opium]]. The name ''assassin'' is derived from either ''hasishin'' for the supposed influence of the drugs, and disregard for their own lives in the process, or ''hassansin'' for their leader, [[Hassan-i-Sabah]].
| + | Their own name for the [[sect]] was ''al-da'wa al-jadīda'' (Arabic:الدعوة الجديدة) which means, "the new doctrine." They called themselves fedayeen from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''fidā'ī,'' which means "one who is ready to sacrifice their life for a cause." |
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| − | Today it is known that ''hashishinnya'' was an offensive term used to depict this cult by its Muslim and Mongolian detractors; the extreme zeal and cold preparation to murder makes it unlikely they ever used drugs.
| + | ==Description== |
| | + | The group inspired terror out of all proportion to their scant numbers and territory. The members were organized into rigid classes, based upon their initiation into the secrets of the order. The devotees constituted a class that sought martyrdom and followed orders with unquestioned devotion, orders which included assassination. |
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| − | The earliest known use of the derived term "Assassination" is found in William Shakespeare's theatrical play Macbeth, first published in the year 1605.<ref>"Assassination". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, second edition, 1989</ref><ref>Inventing English: A Portable History of the Language, Seth Lerer, 2007</ref> | + | The group transformed the act of murder into a system directed largely against [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuk]] Muslim rulers who had been persecuting their sect. They were meticulous in killing the targeted individual, seeking to do so without any additional casualties and innocent loss of life, although they were careful to cultivate their terrifying reputation by slaying their victims in public, often in [[mosque]]s. Typically they approached using a disguise; and they rejected poison, bows, and other weapons that allowed the attacker to escape, their [[weapon]] of choice being a dagger. For unarmed combat, the Hashshashin practiced a fighting style called [[Janna]], which incorporates striking techniques, grappling, and low kicks. However, under no circumstances did they commit [[suicide]], preferring to be killed by their captors. |
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| − | ==Definition problem== | + | ==History of the Hashshashin== |
| − | The formal definition of the term 'Assassination' varies between sources. For example, according to ''The [[American Heritage Dictionary]]'', to assassinate is:
| + | [[Image:Crusaderstates.jpeg|thumb|Map of the [[crusader states]], showing the area controlled by the Assassins around Masyaf, slightly above the center.]] |
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| − | :''"...to [[murder]] (a prominent person) by surprise attack, as for political reasons."''<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=assassination Assassination] (from the [[American Heritage Dictionary]])</ref>
| + | Although apparently known as early as the eighth century, the foundation of the ''Assassins'' is usually marked as 1090 C.E. when Hasan-i Sabbah established his stronghold in the Daylam mountains south of the [[Caspian Sea]] at Alamut. Hasan set the aim of the Assassins to destroy the power of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] by murdering its most powerful members. Much of the current western lore surrounding the Assassins stems from [[Marco Polo]]'s supposed visit to Alamut in 1273 C.E., which is widely considered fictional (especially as the stronghold had reportedly been destroyed by the Mongols in 1256). |
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| − | However, the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] defines assassination as:
| + | Benjamin of Tudela, who traveled one hundred years before [[Marco Polo]] mentions the Al-Hashshashin and their leader as "the Old Man." He notes their principal city to be Qadmous. |
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| − | :''"The action of assassinating; the taking the life of any one by treacherous violence, esp. by a hired emissary, or one who has taken upon him to execute the deed."<ref>Cited from - "Assassination". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, second edition, 1989.</ref>
| + | Notable victims included Nizam al-Mulk (1092; although some historical sources contradict this claim), the Fatimad vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah (1122), ibn al-Khashshab of Aleppo (1124), il-Bursuqi of Mosul (1126), [[Raymond II of Tripoli]] (1152), [[Conrad of Montferrat]] (1192), and [[Prince Edward]], later [[Edward I of England]], was wounded by a poisoned assassin dagger in 1271. |
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| | + | It is believed that [[Saladin]], incensed by several almost successful attempts on his life, besieged their chief Syrian stronghold of [[Masyaf]] during his reconquest of Outremer in 1176, but quickly lifted the siege after parley, and thereafter attempted to maintain good relations with the sect. |
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| − | There is also the problem regarding motivation: should the term include killings where the primary motivation is to attract attention to a cause, took place for purely personal reasons with the target itself being of secondary importance, or should the use of this term be restricted to murders where the victim is a political leader or public figure hostile to the agenda of the killer? One can take various positions on this definitional problem (note that this consideration is of necessity based upon language, not law), stating that an assassination is:
| + | The Hashshashin were often motivated by outsiders. The murder of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, for example, was instigated by the Hospitallers. It is rumored the assassins of Conrad of Montferrat may have even been hired by [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]]. In most cases they were aimed at retaining the balance of the Hashshashin's enemies. |
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| − | *the killing of someone ''by treacherous violence'' (no matter the motivation or target)
| + | The power of the Hashshashin was destroyed by the [[Mongol]] warlord [[Hulagu Khan]]. During the Mongol assault of Alamut on December 15, 1256, the library of the sect was destroyed, along with much of their power base, and thus much of the sect's own records were lost; most accounts of them stem from the highly reputable Arab historians of the period. The Syrian branch of the Hashshashin was destroyed in 1273, by Mamluk Saltan Baibars. The Hashshashin, in 1275, captured and held Alamut for a few months but their political power was lost and they were eventually absorbed into other Isma'ilite groups. They continued being used under the Mamluks, Ibn Battuta recording in the fourteenth century their fixed rate of pay per murder. |
| − | *the killing of someone ''in the public view'' (i.e. a politician or celebrity, no matter the motivation)
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| − | *the killing of someone ''for political, moral, or ideological reasons'' (usually requiring a specific, connected target)
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| − | For the purposes of this article, the third definition predominates, even though it is likely that the second is most popular, and the first would often be found in colloquial use.
| + | ==Legends== |
| | + | Legends abound as to the tactics used to induct members into what became a quasi-religious political organization. One such legend is that future assassins were subjected to rites similar to those of other mystery cults in which the subject was made to believe that he was in imminent danger of death. But the twist of the assassins was that they drugged the person to simulate a "dying" to later have them awaken in a garden flowing with wine and served a sumptuous feast by virgins. The supplicant was then convinced he was in Heaven and that the cult's leader, Hassan-i-Sabah, was a representative of the divinity and that all of his orders should be followed, even unto death. This legend derives from [[Marco Polo]], who visited [[Alamut]] after it fell to the Mongols in the thirteenth century. |
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| − | Another less known definition of an assassin, is 'the murderer of someone who is know, either by their celebrity or infamy, by the communications expert [[Lee McNamara]]'. This has been been widely disputed as a definition and is yet to be supported by any internationally recognised institution.<ref name="ARIEL"/>
| + | Other accounts of the cult's indoctrination claim that the future assassins were brought to Alamut at a young age and, while they matured, inhabited the aforementioned paradisaic gardens and were kept drugged with [[hashish]]; as in the previous version, Hassan-i-Sabah occupied this garden as a divine emissary. At a certain point (when their initiation could be said to have begun) the drug was withdrawn from them, and they were removed from the gardens and flung into a dungeon. There they were informed that, if they wished to return to the paradise they had so recently enjoyed it would be at Sabbah's discretion, and that they must therefore follow his directions exactly, up to and including murder and self-sacrifice. |
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| − | == Use in history ==
| + | Medieval Europeans—and especially the Crusaders—who remained ignorant of Islam as a religion and of its internal divisions were also responsible for fabricating and disseminating (in the Latin Orient as well as in Europe) a number of interconnected legends about the secret practices of the Nizaris, the so-called “assassin legends.” In particular, the legends sought to provide a rational explanation for the seemingly irrational self-sacrificing behavior of the Nizari fida’is; as such, they revolved around the recruitment and training of the youthful devotees. The legends developed in stages from the time of Sinan and throughout the thirteenth century. Soon, the seemingly blind obedience of the fida’is to their leader was attributed, by their occidental observers, to the influence of an intoxicating drug like hashish. There is no evidence that suggests that hashish or any other drug was used in any systematic fashion to motivate the fida’is. |
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| − | {{Main|History of assassination}}
| + | The assassin legends culminated in a synthesized version that was popularised by Marco Polo, who combined the hashish legend with a number of other legends and also added his own contribution in the form of a secret “garden of paradise,” where the fida’is supposedly received part of their training. By the fourteenth century, the assassin legends had acquired wide currency in Europe and the Latin Orient, and they were accepted as reliable descriptions of the secret practices of the Nizari Ismailis, who were generally portrayed in European sources as a sinister order of drugged assassins. Subsequently, Westerners retained the name assassins as a general reference to the Nizari Ismailis, although the term had now become a new common noun in European languages meaning “murderer.” It was A.L. Silvestre de Sacy (1758—1838 C.E.) who succeeded in solving the mystery of the name and its etymology, although he and the other orientalists continued to endorse various aspects of the assassin legends.<ref>A.L. Silvestre de Sacy, “Memoir sur La Dyanastie des Assassins, et sur L’Etymologie de leur Nom.” Memoires de sins, et sur l’Institut Royal de France 4(1818): 1-84.</ref> Modern scholarship in Ismaili studies, which is based on authentic Ismaili sources, has now begun to deconstruct the Assassin legends that surround the Nizari Ismailis and their fida’is—legends rooted in hostility and imaginative ignorance. |
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| − | === Ancient history ===
| + | There are also, possibly apocryphal, stories that they used their well-known deadliness for political goals without necessarily killing. For example, a victim, usually high-placed, might one morning find a Hashshashin dagger lying on their pillow upon awakening. This was a plain hint to the targeted individual that he was safe nowhere, that maybe even his inner group of servants had been infiltrated by the cult, and that whatever course of action had brought him into conflict with them would have to be stopped if he wanted to live. |
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| − | Assassination is one of the oldest tools of [[power politics]], dating back at least as far as recorded history. [[Philip II of Macedon]], the father of [[Alexander the Great]], and [[Julius Caesar]] can be noted as famous examples. [[Emperors of Rome]] often met their end in this way, as did many of the [[Shia Imam]]s. The practice was also well-known in [[History of China|ancient China]] like [[Jing Ke]]'s failed assassination of [[Qin Shi Huang]]. The [[History of India|ancient Indian]] military advisor [[Chanakya]] wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise ''[[Arthashastra]]''.
| + | ==Notes== |
| − | | + | <references/> |
| − | In the [[Middle Ages]], [[regicide]] was rare, but with the [[Renaissance]], [[tyrannicide]] - or assassination for personal or political reasons - became more common again. Rulers like [[Henry III of France|Henry III]] and [[Henry IV of France]] as well as [[William the Silent]] of the [[Netherlands]] fell to it.
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| − | === Modern history ===
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| − | As the world moved into the present day and the stakes in political clashes of will continued to grow to a global scale, the number of assassinations concurrently multiplied. In [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] alone, four emperors were assassinated within less than 200 years - [[Ivan VI of Russia|Ivan VI]], [[Peter III of Russia|Peter III]], [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]], and [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] .
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| − | In the [[United States of America|USA]], Presidents [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[James Garfield]], [[William McKinley]], and [[John F. Kennedy]] died at the hands of assassins, while many other presidents survived attempts on their life. Most of these assassinations however turned out to have no more than nebulous political backgrounds, adding a new threat - the mentally deranged assassin.
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| − | In [[Europe]] the [[assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] by Serb nationalist insurgents finally triggered [[World War I]] after a period of building conflicts, while [[World War II]] saw the first known use of specifically trained assassination operatives since the original ''Assassins''{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. [[Reinhard Heydrich]] was killed by British-backed killers, and knowledge from decoded transmissions allowed the US to carry out a targeted attack, killing Japanese Admiral [[Isoroku Yamamoto]] while he was en-route in an airplane. Adolf Hitler meanwhile was almost [[July 20 Plot|killed by his own officers]], and survived numerous attempts by other individuals and organizations.
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| − | === Cold War and beyond=== | + | ==References== |
| − | | + | * Burman, Edward. ''The Assassins: Holy Killers of Islam.'' Wellingborough: Crucible, 1987. ISBN 1-85274-027-2 |
| − | During the [[Cold War]], there was a dramatic increase in the number of political assassinations, likely because of the [[ideology|ideological]] polarization of most of the [[first world|First]] and [[Second world]]s, whose adherents were often more than willing to both justify and finance such killings.
| + | * Daftary, Farhad. ''The Assassin Legends: Myths of the Isma'ilis.'' London: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, 1994. |
| − | | + | * Lewis, Bernard. ''The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam'' New York: Basic Books, 2002. ISBN 0-465-00498-9 |
| − | Nawabzadah Liaquat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister of Pakistan was assassinated by Saad Akbar a lone assassin in 1951. Conspiracy theorists believe his conflict with certain members of the Pakistan military (Rawalpindi conspiracy) or suppression of Communists and antagonism towards the Soviet Union, were potential reasons for his assassination.
| + | * Maalouf, Amin. ''The Crusades Through Arab Eyes.'' Schocken, 1989. ISBN 978-0805208986 |
| − | | + | * Meri, Josef W., ed. ''Medieval Islamic Civilization, An Encyclopaedia.'' New York: Routledge, 2006. |
| − | During the Kennedy era, Cuban President [[Fidel Castro]] narrowly escaped death on several occasions at the hands of the CIA. At the same time, the [[KGB]] made creative use of assassination to deal with high-profile defectors and [[Israel]]'s [[Mossad]] used them to eliminate [[Palestinian]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]] and Palestinian political leaders.
| + | * Silvestre de Sacy, A.L. “Memoir sur La Dyanastie des Assassins, et sur L’Etymologie de leur Nom.” Memoires de sins, et sur l’Institut Royal de France 4(1818): 1-84. (English translation in F. Daftary, The Assassin Legends, 136-188.) |
| − | | + | * Stark, Freya. ''The Valleys of the Assassins and other Persian Travels.'' New York: Modern Library, 2001. ISBN 0-375-75753-8 |
| − | Most major powers were not long in repudiating Cold War assassination tactics, though many allege that this was merely a smoke screen for political benefit and that covert and illegal training of assassins continues today, with Russia, Israel and other nations accused of still regularly engaging in such operations. In 1986, U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] ordered the [[Operation El Dorado Canyon]] air raid on Libya where one of the primary targets was the home residence of Libyan ruler [[Muammar al-Gaddafi|Muammar Gaddafi]]. Gaddafi escaped unharmed, however his adopted daughter [[Bombing of Libya (April 1986)#Casualties|Hanna]] was one of the civilian casualties.
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| − | On [[August 17]], [[1988]] President of [[Pakistan]] Gen. M. Zia ul Haq died along with his staff and the American Ambassador to Pakistan when his C- 130 transport plane exploded in mid-air because of an on flight bomb. The CIA, KGB and Indian secret service RAW all have been implicated by various conspiracy theorists.
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| − | During the [[Gulf War|1991 Gulf War]], the United States also struck many of Iraq’s most important command bunkers with [[bunker buster|bunker-busting bombs]] in hopes of killing Iraqi President [[Saddam Hussein]].
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| − | Various dictators around the world, such as [[Saddam Hussein]], have also used assassination to remove individual opponents, or to terrorize troublesome population groups.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} In return, in post-Saddam [[Iraq]], the Shiite-dominated government has used death squads to perform countless extrajudicial executions of [[Sunni]] Iraqis, with some alleging that the death squads were trained by the U.S.<ref>''[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6802629/site/newsweek "The Salvador Option" - The Pentagon may put Special-Forces-led assassination or kidnapping teams in Iraq]'' - ''[[Newsweek]]'', Friday 14 January 2005</ref><ref>''[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/04/eveningnews/main2064668.shtml CBS: Death Squads In Iraqi Hospitals]'' - ''[[CBS|CBS Evening News]]'', Wednesday 4 October 2006</ref><ref>''[http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=05/12/01/1526201 Is the U.S. Training Iraqi Death Squads to Fight the Insurgency?]'' - ''[[Democracy Now]]'', Thursday, December 1st, 2005</ref>
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| − | Since the rise of [[al-Qaeda]] and similar organizations, who themselves often engage in assassination tactics, both the US administrations of [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] and [[George W. Bush|Bush]] have backed assassinations, mostly directed against terrorist leaders like [[Osama bin Laden]], but also against elected political leaders and opponents like [[Mohammed Omar|Mullah Omar]]. Most of these attempts were undertaken with remote-controlled missiles and similar tactics, often using remote surveillance for the decision where and when to strike as well. One of the most well-known examples of recent assassinations carried out by the United States was the killing of [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]] and [[Sheik Abd-Al-Rahman]], both killed as a result of two guided bombs on a safe house outside of Baghdad.
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| − | {{See also|War on Terrorism}}
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| − | Outside of the larger-scale conflicts of Cold War and the War on Terrorism, assassinations stemming from internal or historical conflicts did not cease either. For example, in [[India]], two Prime ministers, [[Indira Gandhi]] and her son [[Rajiv Gandhi]], were both assassinated for political reasons in the 1980s.
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| − | ==Further reasons==
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| − | ===As military doctrine===
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| − | Assassination for military purposes has long been espoused - [[Sun Tzu]], writing around the time 500 B.C.E. argued in favor of using assassination in his book ''[[The Art of War]]''. Nearly 2000 years later [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]] also argued assassination could be useful in his book ''[[The Prince]]''. In medieval times, an army and even a nation might be based upon and around a particularly strong, canny or charismatic leader, whose loss could paralyze the ability of both to make war. However, in modern warfare a soldier's mindset is generally considered to surround ideals far more than specific leaders, while command structures are more flexible in replacing officer losses. While the death of a popular or successful leader often has a detrimental effect on morale, the organisational system and the belief in a specific cause is usually strong enough to enable continued warfare.
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| − | There is also the risk that the target could be replaced by an even more competent leader or that such a killing (or a failed attempt) will "[[martyr]]" a leader and support his cause (by showing the moral ruthlessness of the assassins). Faced with particularly brilliant leaders, this possibility has in various instances been risked, such as in the attempts to kill the Athenian [[Alcibiades]] during the [[Peloponnesian War]]. There are a number of additional examples from [[World War II]], the last major [[total war]], which show how assassination was used as a military tool at both tactical and strategic levels:
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| − | *The American interception of [[Isoroku Yamamoto|Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto]] airplane during World War II, after his travel route had been decrypted. | |
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| − | *The American perception that [[Otto Skorzeny|Skorzeny's]] [[commando]]s were planning to assassinate [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] during the [[Battle of the Bulge]] played havoc with Eisenhower's personal plans for some time, though it did not affect the battle itself. Skorzeny later denied in an interview with the ''New York Times''{{Fact|date=February 2007}} that he had ever intended to assassinate Eisenhower during [[Operation Greif]] and he said that he could prove it.<ref name="Skor">''Commando Extraordinary'' - Foley, Charles; Legion for the Survival of Freedom, 1992, page 155</ref>
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| − | *There was a planned British commando raid to capture or kill the German General [[Erwin Rommel]] (also known as "The Desert Fox").<ref name="Skor"/>
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| − | Use of assassination has continued in more recent conflicts:
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| − | *During the [[Vietnam War]], partly in response to [[Viet Cong]] assassinations of government leaders, the [[United States of America|USA]] engaged in the [[Phoenix Program]] to assassinate Viet Cong leaders and symphatizers, and killed between 6,000 and 41,000 individuals, with official 'targets' of 1,800 per month.<ref>''[http://www.serendipity.li/cia/operation_phoenix.htm CIA and Operation Phoenix in Vietnam]'' - McGehee, Ralph; from a [[usenet]] discussion citing numerous references, 19 February 1996</ref>
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| − | *Israel uses targeted killings of Palestinian political leaders to paralyze the activities of [[Hamas]] and other militant groups.
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| − | *From 1991 till 2006, Russia targeted the top commanders of the separatist groups they were fighting in [[Chechenya]], killing several of them (including [[Aslan Maskhadov]] and [[Shamil Basayev]]) | |
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| − | ===As tool of insurgents===
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| − | Insurgent groups have often employed assassination as a tool to further their causes. Assassinations provide several functions for such groups, namely the removal of specific enemies and as propaganda tools to focus the attention of media and politics on their cause.
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| − | | |
| − | The [[Irish Republican Army]] guerrillas of 1919-1921 assassinated many [[Royal Irish Constabulary|RIC]] Police Intelligence officers during the [[Irish War of Independence]]. [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] set up a special unit - [[The Squad (IRA unit)|the Squad]] - for this purpose, which had the effect of intimidating many policemen into resigning from the force. The Squad's activities peaked with the assassination of 14 British agents in [[Dublin]] on [[Bloody Sunday (1920)|Bloody Sunday]] in 1920.
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| − | This tactic was used again by the [[Provisional IRA]] during [[the Troubles]] in [[Northern Ireland]] (1969-present). Assassination of [[Royal Ulster Constabulary|RUC]] officers and politicians was one of a number of methods used in the [[Provisional IRA campaign 1969-1997]]. The IRA also attempted to assassinate British [[Prime Minister]] [[Margaret Thatcher]] by bombing the Conservative Party Conference in a [[Brighton]] hotel. [[Ulster loyalism|Loyalist paramilitaries]] retaliated by killing Catholics at random and assassinating [[Irish nationalist]] politicians.
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| − | [[Basque people|Basque]] separatists [[ETA]] in [[Spain]] have assassinated many security and political figures since the late 1960s, notably [[Luis Carrero Blanco]] in 1973. Since the early 1990s, they have also targeted academics, journalists and local politicians who publicly disagreed with them, meaning that many needed armed police bodyguards.
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| − | | |
| − | The [[Red Brigades]] in [[Italy]] carried out assassinations of political figures, as to a lesser extent, did the [[Red Army Faction]] in [[Germany]] in the 1970s and 1980s.
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| − | | |
| − | [[Middle East]]ern groups, such as the [[PLO]] and [[Hezbollah]], have all engaged in assassinations, though the higher intensity of armed conflict in the region compared to western Europe means that many of their actions are either better characterized as [[guerrilla]] operations or as random attacks on civilians - especially the technique of [[suicide bomb]]s.
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| − | | |
| − | In the [[Vietnam War]], assassinations were routinely carried out by communist insurgents against government officials and private individuals deemed to offend or rival the revolutionary movement. Such attacks, along with widespread military activity by insurgent bands, almost brought the [[Diem]] regime to collapse, prior to the US intervention.<ref>''Viet Cong'' - Pike, Douglas, The MIT Press; New Ed edition, Wednesday 16 December 1970</ref>
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| − | ===For money or gain===
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| − | | |
| − | Individually, too, people have often found reasons to arrange the deaths of others through paid intermediaries. One who kills with no political motive or group loyalty who kills ''only'' for money is known as a hitman or contract killer. Note that by the definition accepted above, while such a killer is not, strictly speaking, an assassin, if the killing is ordered and financed towards a political end, then that killing must rightly be termed an assassination, and the hitman an assassin by extension.
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| − | | |
| − | Entire organizations have sometimes specialized in assassination as one of their services, to be gained for the right price. Besides the original [[hashshashin]], the [[ninja]] clans of [[Japan]] were rumored to perform assassinations - though it can be pointed out that most of what was ever known about the ninja was [[rumor]] and [[hearsay]].
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| − | | |
| − | In the [[United States]], [[Murder, Inc.]], an organization partnered to the [[Mafia]], was formed for the sole purpose of performing assassinations for organized crime. In [[Russia]], the ''vory'' (thieves), their version of the Mafia, are often known to provide assassinations for the right price, as well as engaging in it themselves for their own purposes. A professional hitman is called "cleaner" in Russia; he is used to clean away the target. The Finnish as well as the Swedish underworld uses the word "[[torpedo]]" for a contract killer.
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| − | ==Psychology==
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| − | | |
| − | {{section-stub}}
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| − | | |
| − | A major study about assassination attempts in the US in the second half of the 20th century came to the conclusion that most prospective assassins spend copious amounts of time planning and preparing for their attempts. Assassinations are thus rarely a case of 'impulsive' action.<ref name="SS"/>
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| − | | |
| − | However, about 25% of the actual attackers were found to be [[delusion]]al, a figure that rose to 60% with 'near-lethal approachers' (people apprehended before reaching their target). This incidentally shows that while mental instability plays a role in many modern-age assassinations, the more delusional attackers are less likely to succeed in their attempt. The report also found that around 2/3rds of the attackers had previously been arrested for (not necessarily related) offenses, that around 44% had a history of serious [[depression (mood)|depression]], and that 39% had a history of substance abuse.<ref name="SS"/>
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| − | | |
| − | ==Techniques==
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| − | ===Ancient methods===
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| − | | |
| − | It seems likely that the first assassinations would have been direct and simple: [[stabbing]], [[strangle|strangling]] or [[bludgeon]]ing. Substantial planning or coordination would rarely have been involved, as tribal groups were too small, and the connection to the leaders too close. As [[civilization]] took root, however, leaders began to have greater importance, and become more detached from the groups they ruled. This would have brought planning, [[subterfuge]] and weapons into successful assassination plans.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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| − | The key technique was likely [[infiltration]], with the actual assassination via stabbing, smothering or strangulation. [[Poison]]s also started to be used in many forms. [[Death cap]] mushrooms and similar plants became a traditional choice of assassins especially if they could not be perceived as poisonous by taste, and the symptoms of the poisoning did not show until after some time.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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| − | ===Modern methods===
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| − | | |
| − | With the advent of effective [[ranged weaponry]], and later [[firearm]]s, the position of an assassination target was more precarious. Bodyguards were no longer enough to hold back determined killers, who no longer needed to directly engage or even subvert the guard to kill the leader in question. Additionally the engagement of targets at greater distance dramatically increased the chances for survival of an assassin. It is considered that [[William the Silent]] of the [[Netherlands]] was the first leader assassinated by fireams.
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| − | <!— Deleted image removed: [[Image:Sadat6.jpg|thumb|right|[[Egypt]]ian president [[Anwar Al Sadat]], assassinated by a group using [[assault rifle]]s and [[hand grenade|grenades]] in 1981.]] -->
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| − | | |
| − | [[Gunpowder]] and other explosives also allowed the use of bombs or even greater concentrations of explosives for deeds requiring a larger touch; for an example, the [[Gunpowder Plot]] could have 'assassinated' almost a thousand people.
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| − | Explosives, especially the [[car bomb]], become far more common in modern history, with [[grenade]]s and remote-triggered [[land mine|landmines]] also used, especially in the [[Middle East]] and Balkans (the initial attempt on [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Archduke Franz Ferdinand]]'s life was with a grenade). With heavy weapons, the [[rocket propelled grenade]] (RPG) has became a useful tool given the popularity of armored cars (discussed below), while Israeli forces have pioneered the use of aircraft-mounted missiles for assassination,<ref>''[http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/04/17/mideast.violence/index.html Hamas leader killed in Israeli airstrike]'' - [[CNN]], Saturday 17 April 2004</ref> as well as the innovative use of explosive devices.
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| − | | |
| − | A [[sniper]] with a precision rifle is often used in fictional assassinations. However, there are certain difficulties associated with long-range shooting, including finding a hidden shooting position with a clear line-of-sight, detailed advance knowledge of the intended victim's travel plans, the ability to identify the target at long range, and the ability to score a first-round lethal hit at long range, usually measured in hundreds of meters. A dedicated [[sniper rifle]] is also expensive and relatively rare, often costing thousands of dollars because of the high level of precision machining and hand-finishing required to achieve extreme accuracy.<ref name="Austria">''[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/02/13/wiran13.xml Iraqi insurgents using Austrian rifles from Iran]'' - [[The Daily Telegraph]], Tuesday 13 February 2007</ref>
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| − | However, many hunting rifles are accurate enough in the hands of an experienced marksman to fatally hit a target at up to 300 meters (330 yards) or more, such as the [[Savage Arms]] Model 111 rifle that was recently tested as having a calculated [[Sniper rifle#Capabilities|effective range on a human torso]] of over 500 yards (450 m).<ref>''Packages: [[Remington Arms|Remington]], [[Savage Arms|Savage]] Square Off in Value Showdown'' - ''Gun Tests'', February 2006, Vol. XVIII No. 2, pp. 11-15</ref> Modern hunting cartridges also have a flat enough [[trajectory]] to not require the shooter to compensate for bullet drop for targets up to about 250 meters (275 yards) and are powerful enough to penetrate most types of [[Body armor#Performance standards|body armor]] with relative ease. The difficulty for an assassin lies thus more in gaining the required marksman skills, than in procuring a suitable weapon.
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| − | Despite their comparative disadvantages, easy-to-acquire and hard-to-trace [[handgun]]s are much more commonly used. Of 74 principal incidents evaluated in a major study about assassination attempts in the US in the second half of the 20th century, 51% were undertaken by a handgun, 30% with a rifle or shotgun, while 15% of the attempts used knives and 8% explosives (usage of multiple weapons/methods was reported in 16% of all cases).<ref name="SS"/>
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| − | | |
| − | A 2006 case in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] concerned the [[Alexander Litvinenko poisoning|assassination of Alexander Litvinenko]] who was given a lethal dose of radioactive [[polonium]]-210, possibly passed to him in aerosol form sprayed directly onto his food. Litvinenko, a former [[KGB]] agent, had been granted asylum in the UK in 2000 after citing persecution in [[Russia]]. Shortly before his death he issued a statement accusing [[Vladimir Putin]], the [[Russian president]], of involvement in his assassination. President Putin denies he had any part in Litvinenko's death.<ref>''[http://news.sky.com/skynews/article/0,,30000-1241951,00.html Putin 'Deplores' Spy Death]'' - [[Sky News]] Friday 24 November 2006</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | ==Counter-measures==
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| − | ===Early forms===
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| − | | |
| − | One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins is without doubt the [[bodyguard]]. He acts as a shield for the potential target, keeps lookout for potential attackers (sometimes in advance, for example on a planned tour), and is literally supposed to put himself 'in harm's way' - both by his simple presence, forming a barrier in front of the target<ref name="SS">''[http://www.secretservice.gov/ntac/ntac_jfs.pdf Assassination in the United States: An Operational Study]'' - Fein, Robert A. & Vossekuil, Brian, ''[[Journal of Forensic Sciences]]'', Volume 44, Number 2, March 1999</ref><ref>[http://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/appendix7.html Lincoln] - Appendix 7, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, 1964</ref> and by shielding the target during any attack. He is also, if possible, to neutralize an attacker as fast as possible, and thus often carries weapons (where legal or possible).
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| − | This bodyguard function was often executed by the leader's most loyal warriors, and was extremely effective throughout most of early human history, leading to attempts via [[subterfuge]], such as poison (which was answered by the [[food taster]]).
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| − | | |
| − | Notable examples of bodyguards would include the Roman [[Praetorian Guard]] or the Ottoman [[Janissary|janissaries]] - although, in both cases, it should be noted that the protectors often became assassins themselves, exploiting their power to make the [[head of state]] a virtual hostage at their whim or eliminating threatening leaders altogether. The fidelity of individual bodyguards is an important question as well, especially for leaders who oversee states with strong ethnic or religious divisions. Failure to realize such divided loyalties leads to assassinations such as that of [[Prime Minister of India|Indian Prime Minister]] [[Indira Gandhi]], assassinated by two [[Sikh]] bodyguards in 1984.
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| − | ===Modern strategies===
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| − | | |
| − | With the advent of gunpowder, ranged assassination (via bombs or firearms) became possible. One of the first reactions was to simply increase the guard, creating what at times might seem a [[brigade|small army]] trailing every leader; another was to begin clearing large areas whenever a leader was present, to the point where entire sections of a city might be shut down.
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| − | As the 20th century dawned, the prevalence of assassins and their capabilities skyrocketed, and so did measures to protect against them. For the first time, [[armored car]]s or [[armored limousine]]s were put into service for safer transport, with modern versions rendering them virtually invulnerable to [[small arms]] fire and smaller bombs and [[Land mine|mines]].<ref>''[http://www.alpha-armouring.com/bulletproof/cars.php How to choose the appropriate bulletproof cars]'' (from Alpha-armouring.com website, includes examples of protection levels available)</ref> [[Bulletproof vest]]s also began to be used, though they were of limited utility, restricting movement and leaving the head unprotected - as such they tended to be worn only during high-profile public events if at all.
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| − | Access to famous persons, too, became more and more restrictive;<ref name="Report">[http://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/appendix7.html The Need For Protection Further Demonstrated] - Appendix 7, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, 1964</ref> potential visitors would be forced through numerous different checks before being granted access to the official in question, and as [[communication]] became better and [[information technology]] more prevalent, it has become next-to-impossible for a would-be killer to get close enough to the personage at work or in private life to effect an attempt on his or her life, especially given the common use of [[metal detector|metal]] and [[Bomb disposal|bomb detector]]s.
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| − | | |
| − | Most modern assassinations have been committed either during a public performance or during [[transport]], both because of weaker security and security lapses, such as with US [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]] or as part of [[Coup d'état|coups d'état]] where security is either overwhelmed or completely removed, such as with [[Patrice Lumumba]] and likely [[Salvador Allende]].<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554059/Allende_Gossens_Salvador.html Salvador Allende Gossens] (biography from the [[Encarta]] website)</ref>
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| − | The methods used for protection by famous people have sometimes evoked negative reactions by the public, with some resenting the separation from their officials or major figures. One example might be traveling in a car protected by a bubble of clear [[bulletproof glass]], such as the [[Popemobile]] of [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (built following an extremist's attempt at his life). Politicians themselves often resent this need for separation - which has at times caused tragedy when they sent their bodyguards from their side for personal or publicity reasons, as U.S. President [[William McKinley]] did during the public reception at which he was assassinated.<ref name="Report"/> | |
| − | | |
| − | Other potential targets go into seclusion, and are rarely heard from or seen in public, such as [[writer]] [[Salman Rushdie]]. A related form of protection is the use of [[political decoy|body doubles]], a person built similar to the person he is expected to impersonate. These persons are then [[makeup|made up]], as well as in some cases [[surgery|altered]] to look like the target, with the body double then taking the place of the person in high risk situations. Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein are known to have used body doubles.<ref name="FOX">''[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,41210,00.html It's Bin Laden ... or Is It?]'' - [[Fox News]], Thursday 20 December 2001</ref> According to Joe R. Reeder, a former under secretary for the U.S. Army from 1993-1997 writing in [[Fox News]], [[Fidel Castro]] had also used body doubles, though no details were specified.<ref name="FOX"/>
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| − | | |
| − | In the final analysis, counter-measures can never be fully effective. If the assassin is committed beyond reason (i.e. [[insanity|insane]]) or without concern for his own for self-preservation ([[suicide attack]]er), then the task of protecting a person will be made much more difficult.
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| − | | |
| − | ==Notable assassinations and attempts==
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| − | | |
| − | {{See also|List of assassins}}
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| − | | |
| − | The following is a list of some of the ''most notable'' assassinations and assassination attempts. It is ''not intended'' to be exhaustive. | |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | ! Assassin !! Year (AD format) !! Target !! Target !! Comments
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Jing Ke]]||210 B.C.E.||Chinese Emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]]||Survived||One of the earliest documented attempts.
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Marcus Junius Brutus]], [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]], and others||44 B.C.E.||Roman Dictator [[Julius Caesar]]||Killed||
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Hassan-i-Sabah]]||1100||Various targets (assassinated by [[Proxy murder|proxy]])||''N.A.''||Founder of the [[Hashshashin]] sect.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Balthasar Gérard]]||1584||Dutch Stadtholder [[William the Silent]]||Killed||The first assassination carried out with a firearm.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Guy Fawkes]]||1605||King [[James I of England]], Parliament of England||Survived||See the [[Gunpowder Plot]].
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[François Ravaillac]]||1610||King [[Henri IV of France]]||Killed||Religious murder.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Charlotte Corday]]||1791||French revolutionary [[Jean-Paul Marat]]||Killed||Later often seen as a [[patriotism|patriotic act]].
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[John Wilkes Booth]]||1865||US President [[Abraham Lincoln]]||Killed||
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Charles J. Guiteau]]||1881||US President [[James Garfield]]||Killed||Died 80 days following the shooting.
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Ignacy Hryniewiecki]]||1881||Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia]]||Killed||Assassination plot concluded with bombs.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Frederick Russell Burnham]]||1896||Mlimo, the [[Ndebele]] religious leader||Killed|| Effectively ended the [[Second Matabele War]].<ref name="nyt25jun1896">{{cite journal| author =| date=June 25, 1896| year=1896| month=June | title=Killed the Matabele God: Burnham, the American scout, may end uprising| journal=[[New York Times]]| volume=| issue=| issn=0093-1179}}</ref>
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Leon Czolgosz]]||1901||US President [[William McKinley]]||Killed||
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Gavrilo Princip]]||1914||Austrian Archduke [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]]||Killed||Considered the start of [[World War I]].
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Raoul Vilain]]||1914||French socialist leader [[Jean Jaurès]]||Killed||The assassin was tried and acquitted in 1919.
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Fritz Joubert Duquesne]]||1916||[[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]], British Field Marshal and Secretary of State for War||Killed|| Killed on the [[HMS Hampshire (1903)|HMS ''Hampshire'']] by an act of sabotage.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Vlado Chernozemski]]||1934||[[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]]||Killed|| Killed in [[Marseille]] during a state visit.
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Claus von Stauffenberg]]||1944||German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]]||Survived||See the [[July 20 plot]].
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Nathuram Godse]]||1948||Political and Spiritual Leader [[Mahatma Gandhi]]||Killed||
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Lee Harvey Oswald]]||1963||US President [[John F. Kennedy]]||Killed||Official reports have concluded that Oswald acted alone, however significant doubts remain for many.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Jack Ruby]]||1963||[[Lee Harvey Oswald]]||Killed||
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[James Earl Ray]] /<br>[[Loyd Jowers]]||1968||Political activist [[Martin Luther King]]||Killed||Ray was convicted on a [[guilty plea]] but later recanted, while a 1999 civil trial convicted Jowers and 'unknown others', while also noting that 'governmental agencies were parties' to the plot.<ref>[http://www.thekingcenter.org/news/trial.html Complete Transcript of the Martin Luther King, Jr. Assassination Conspiracy Trial] (from [[The King Center]] website)</ref>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Sirhan Sirhan]]||1968||US Senator [[Robert F. Kennedy]]||Killed||
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Faisal bin Musa'id|Prince Faisal bin Musa'id]]||1975||Saudi King [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|Faisal]]||Killed||
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Dan White]]||1978||San Francisco Mayor [[George Moscone]] and Supervisor [[Harvey Milk]]||Killed||Killed over not reappointing Dan White supervisor
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Kim Jae-kyu]]||1979||South-Korean President [[Park Chung-hee]]||Killed||See [[Park Chung Hee assassination]]
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Mark David Chapman]]||1980||[[John Lennon]] ||Killed||An act to become famous.
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| − | |-
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| − | |[[John Hinckley, Jr.]]||1981||[[Ronald Reagan]] ||Survived||To impress actress [[Jodie Foster]].
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Khalid Islambouli]]||1981||Egyptian President [[Anwar Al Sadat]]||Killed||Rare attack carried out by a group.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Mehmet Ali Ağca]]||1981||Catholic Pope [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]]||Survived||
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Satwant Singh]] and [[Beant Singh]]||1984||Indian Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]]||Killed||Assassinated by personal bodyguards.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Unknown assassin||1986||Swedish Prime Minister [[Olof Palme]]||Killed||Killed by a handgun on his way home from a cinema on a street in central Stockholm.
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| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Thenmuli Rajaratnam]]||1991||Former Indian Prime Minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]]||Killed||Killed in an explosion triggered by a [[LTTE]] suicide bomber.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Janusz Walus]]||1993||[[South African Communist Party]] leader [[Chris Hani]]||Killed||Anti-Communist killing
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Yigal Amir]]||1995||Israeli Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]]||Killed||Attack carried out by Israeli opposed to Oslo Accords.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Maxime Brunerie]]||2002||French President [[Jacques Chirac]]||Survived||Attempted to shoot the [[President of France|President]] during the [[Bastille Day Military Parade]].
| |
| − | |}
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| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | ==Notes==
| |
| − | <div class="references-small"><references/></div>
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| | | | |
| − | ==External links==
| |
| − | * [http://www.assassinology.org Assassinology.org] a website dedicated to the study of assassination, with particular reference to post-2000 assassinations created by Kris Hollington, author of How to Kill: The Definitive History of the Assassin [http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1846051045].
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| − | * [[CNN]] [http://www.cnn.com/2002/LAW/11/04/us.assassination.policy A short article on the U.S. policy banning political assassination since 1976] from CNN.com/Law CENTER, [[November 4]], [[2002]]. See also [[Gerald Ford|Ford's]] 1976 [http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/speeches/760110e.htm#assassination executive order]. However, [[Executive Order 12333]] which prohibited the CIA from assassinations was relaxed by the [[George W. Bush administration]].
| |
| − | *David, Steven R. ''[http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/david.pdf Fatal Choices: Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing]'' (PDF) at [[Johns Hopkins University]]. A paper prepared for the BESA Center Conference on Democracy and Limited War, 4-[[6 June]] [[2002]]; revised July 2002.
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| − | *Follendore III, Roy D. ''[http://www.noisetoknowledge.com/targeted_killing.htm Targeted Killing]''. [[November 5]] [[2002]]
| |
| − | *Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri ''[http://www.yale.edu/yup/books/074743.htm Cloak and Dollar (A History of American Secret Intelligence)]''
| |
| − | * Kretzmer, David ''[http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol16/No2/art1.pdf Targeted Killing of Suspected Terrorists: Extra-Judicial Executions or Legitimate Means of Defence?]'' (PDF)
| |
| − | * Lee, Robert.[http://www.historyguy.com/biofiles/domestic_terrorists_and_assassins.html The History Guy: Biofiles: American Domestic Terrorists and Assassins], [[April 16]], [[2005]]
| |
| − | *Tinetti, John ''[http://www.stormingmedia.us/58/5872/A587224.html Lawful Targeted Killing or Assassination: A Roadmap for Operators in the Global War on Terror]''; Joint Military Operations Dept., Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island.
| |
| − | *Luft, Gal ''[http://www.meforum.org/article/515 The Logic of Israel's Targeted Killing]'' [[Middle East Quarterly]] Winter 2003 • Volume X: Number 1
| |
| − | * McDonnell, Thomas Michael ''[http://library.law.pace.edu/blogs/jib/2005/12/ Assassination/Targeted Killing of Suspected Terrorists — A Violation of International Law?]'' in [[Jus in Bello]] An International Criminal Law Weblog from [[Pace Law School]] [[1 December]] [[2005]]
| |
| − | *Snow, Jonathan L. ''[http://www.defenddemocracy.org/publications/publications_show.htm?doc_id=218872 The Targeted Killing of Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]''. [[March 26]] [[2004]]
| |
| − | *Sofaer, Abraham D. ''[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2004/03/26/EDGK65QPC41.DTL Responses to Terrorism. Targeted killing is a necessary option]''. [[March 26]] [[2004]]
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| − | *Statman, Daniel ''[http://www.bepress.com/til/default/vol5/iss1/art7/ Targeted Killing]'' Vol. 5, Theoretical Inquiries in Law (Online Edition): No. 1, Article 7, 2004.
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| | [[Category: Religion]] | | [[Category: Religion]] |
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| − | {{Credit|164185184}} | + | {{Credit|165986853}} |
Artistic Rendering of Hassan-i-Sabbah, founder of the sect of Assassins.
The Assassins (originally called Hashashim, Hashishin, or Hashashiyyin) were a religious sect of Ismaili Shi'a Muslims (from the Nizari lineage) originating in Persia, during the eleventh century C.E. This secret society was known to specialize in terrorizing the Crusaders, against whom they fearlessly executed political assassinations.[1] Their militant views were put into practice for various political or religious purposes. However, historian Bernard Lewis argues that their efforts were not primarily directed at Crusaders, but also against Muslim rulers whom they saw as impious usurpers.[2] The modern word "assassin" is derived from this group, which was thought to have been active from 1090 to 1272.
Etymology of the word "assassin"
The term assassin, which appeared in European languages in a variety of forms (e.g., assassini, assissini, and heyssisini), was evidently based on variants of the Arabic word hashishi (pl. hashishiyya, hashishin). The latter was applied by other Muslims to Nizaris in the pejorative sense of “low-class rabble” or “people of lax morality,” without any derivative explanation reflecting any special connection between the Nizaris and hashish, a product of hemp. This term of abuse was picked up locally in Syria by the Crusaders and European travelers, and adopted as the designation of the Nizari Ismailis. Subsequently, after the etymology of the term had been forgotten, it came to be used in Europe as a noun meaning “murderer.” Thus, a misnomer rooted in abuse eventually resulted in a new word, assassin, in European language
The name "assassin" is commonly believed to be a mutation of the Arabic hashshshin (حشّاشين), which allegedly derives from the drug hashish that was said to be used by the group before going into battle. However, there are those who dispute this etymology, arguing that it originates from Marco Polo's account of his visit to Alamut in 1273, in which he describes a drug whose effects are more like those of alcohol than of hashish. However, alcohol is not likely to have been the drug described, being totally prohibited by the Muslim faith. It is suggested by some writers that assassin simply means "followers of Al-Hassan" (or Hassan-i-Sabah, the Sheikh of Alamut)). Others suggest that since hashish-eaters were generally ostracized in the Middle Ages, the word "Hashshashin" had become a common synonym for "outlaws." So the attribution of Hassan's Ismaili sect with this term is not necessarily a clue for drug use. Some common accounts of their connection with hashish are that these "assassins" would take hashish before missions in order to calm themselves; others say that it helped to boost their strength, and turned them into madmen in battle. Yet other accounts state it was used in their initiation rites in order to show the neophyte the sensual pleasures awaiting him in the afterlife. The connection between their mysticism and that drug is not something subject to reliable or consistent historical accounts; this is not surprising given their secrecy and infamy.
The word Hashish (of probable Arabic origin) refers to resin collected from cannabis flowers. This could be the true drug of the Assassins as described by Marco Polo.
The most acceptable etymology of the word assassin is the simple one. It comes from Hassan (Hasan ibn al-Sabbah) and his followers. The noise around the hashish version was invented in 1809, in Paris, by the French orientalist Sylvestre de Sacy, whom on July 7 of that year, presented a lecture at the Academy of Inscriptions and Fine Letters (Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres)—part of the Institute of France—in which he retook the Marco Polo chronicle concerning drugs and this sect of murderers, and associated it with the word. Curiously, his theory had great success and apparently still has (Jacques Boudet, Les mots de l’histoire, Ed. Larousse-Bordas, Paris, 1998).
Many scholars have argued, and demonstrated convincingly, that the attribution of the epithet "hashish eaters" or "hashish takers" is a misnomer derived from enemies of the Isma'ilis and was never used by Muslim chroniclers or sources. It was therefore used in a pejorative sense of "enemies" or "disreputable people." This sense of the term survived into modern times with the common Egyptian usage of the term Hashasheen in the 1930s to mean simply "noisy or riotous." It is unlikely that the austere Hasan-i Sabbah indulged personally in drug taking.
…There is no mention of that drug [hashish] in connection with the Persian Assassins—especially in the library of Alamut ("the secret archives").[3]
According to texts that have come down from Alamut, Hassan liked to call his disciples Assassiyun, meaning people who are faithful to the Assass, the "foundation" of the faith. This may be the word, misunderstood by foreign travelers, that seemed similar to "hashish."
Their own name for the sect was al-da'wa al-jadīda (Arabic:الدعوة الجديدة) which means, "the new doctrine." They called themselves fedayeen from the Arabic fidā'ī, which means "one who is ready to sacrifice their life for a cause."
Description
The group inspired terror out of all proportion to their scant numbers and territory. The members were organized into rigid classes, based upon their initiation into the secrets of the order. The devotees constituted a class that sought martyrdom and followed orders with unquestioned devotion, orders which included assassination.
The group transformed the act of murder into a system directed largely against Seljuk Muslim rulers who had been persecuting their sect. They were meticulous in killing the targeted individual, seeking to do so without any additional casualties and innocent loss of life, although they were careful to cultivate their terrifying reputation by slaying their victims in public, often in mosques. Typically they approached using a disguise; and they rejected poison, bows, and other weapons that allowed the attacker to escape, their weapon of choice being a dagger. For unarmed combat, the Hashshashin practiced a fighting style called Janna, which incorporates striking techniques, grappling, and low kicks. However, under no circumstances did they commit suicide, preferring to be killed by their captors.
History of the Hashshashin
Map of the crusader states, showing the area controlled by the Assassins around Masyaf, slightly above the center.
Although apparently known as early as the eighth century, the foundation of the Assassins is usually marked as 1090 C.E. when Hasan-i Sabbah established his stronghold in the Daylam mountains south of the Caspian Sea at Alamut. Hasan set the aim of the Assassins to destroy the power of the Abbasid Caliphate by murdering its most powerful members. Much of the current western lore surrounding the Assassins stems from Marco Polo's supposed visit to Alamut in 1273 C.E., which is widely considered fictional (especially as the stronghold had reportedly been destroyed by the Mongols in 1256).
Benjamin of Tudela, who traveled one hundred years before Marco Polo mentions the Al-Hashshashin and their leader as "the Old Man." He notes their principal city to be Qadmous.
Notable victims included Nizam al-Mulk (1092; although some historical sources contradict this claim), the Fatimad vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah (1122), ibn al-Khashshab of Aleppo (1124), il-Bursuqi of Mosul (1126), Raymond II of Tripoli (1152), Conrad of Montferrat (1192), and Prince Edward, later Edward I of England, was wounded by a poisoned assassin dagger in 1271.
It is believed that Saladin, incensed by several almost successful attempts on his life, besieged their chief Syrian stronghold of Masyaf during his reconquest of Outremer in 1176, but quickly lifted the siege after parley, and thereafter attempted to maintain good relations with the sect.
The Hashshashin were often motivated by outsiders. The murder of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, for example, was instigated by the Hospitallers. It is rumored the assassins of Conrad of Montferrat may have even been hired by Richard the Lionheart. In most cases they were aimed at retaining the balance of the Hashshashin's enemies.
The power of the Hashshashin was destroyed by the Mongol warlord Hulagu Khan. During the Mongol assault of Alamut on December 15, 1256, the library of the sect was destroyed, along with much of their power base, and thus much of the sect's own records were lost; most accounts of them stem from the highly reputable Arab historians of the period. The Syrian branch of the Hashshashin was destroyed in 1273, by Mamluk Saltan Baibars. The Hashshashin, in 1275, captured and held Alamut for a few months but their political power was lost and they were eventually absorbed into other Isma'ilite groups. They continued being used under the Mamluks, Ibn Battuta recording in the fourteenth century their fixed rate of pay per murder.
Legends
Legends abound as to the tactics used to induct members into what became a quasi-religious political organization. One such legend is that future assassins were subjected to rites similar to those of other mystery cults in which the subject was made to believe that he was in imminent danger of death. But the twist of the assassins was that they drugged the person to simulate a "dying" to later have them awaken in a garden flowing with wine and served a sumptuous feast by virgins. The supplicant was then convinced he was in Heaven and that the cult's leader, Hassan-i-Sabah, was a representative of the divinity and that all of his orders should be followed, even unto death. This legend derives from Marco Polo, who visited Alamut after it fell to the Mongols in the thirteenth century.
Other accounts of the cult's indoctrination claim that the future assassins were brought to Alamut at a young age and, while they matured, inhabited the aforementioned paradisaic gardens and were kept drugged with hashish; as in the previous version, Hassan-i-Sabah occupied this garden as a divine emissary. At a certain point (when their initiation could be said to have begun) the drug was withdrawn from them, and they were removed from the gardens and flung into a dungeon. There they were informed that, if they wished to return to the paradise they had so recently enjoyed it would be at Sabbah's discretion, and that they must therefore follow his directions exactly, up to and including murder and self-sacrifice.
Medieval Europeans—and especially the Crusaders—who remained ignorant of Islam as a religion and of its internal divisions were also responsible for fabricating and disseminating (in the Latin Orient as well as in Europe) a number of interconnected legends about the secret practices of the Nizaris, the so-called “assassin legends.” In particular, the legends sought to provide a rational explanation for the seemingly irrational self-sacrificing behavior of the Nizari fida’is; as such, they revolved around the recruitment and training of the youthful devotees. The legends developed in stages from the time of Sinan and throughout the thirteenth century. Soon, the seemingly blind obedience of the fida’is to their leader was attributed, by their occidental observers, to the influence of an intoxicating drug like hashish. There is no evidence that suggests that hashish or any other drug was used in any systematic fashion to motivate the fida’is.
The assassin legends culminated in a synthesized version that was popularised by Marco Polo, who combined the hashish legend with a number of other legends and also added his own contribution in the form of a secret “garden of paradise,” where the fida’is supposedly received part of their training. By the fourteenth century, the assassin legends had acquired wide currency in Europe and the Latin Orient, and they were accepted as reliable descriptions of the secret practices of the Nizari Ismailis, who were generally portrayed in European sources as a sinister order of drugged assassins. Subsequently, Westerners retained the name assassins as a general reference to the Nizari Ismailis, although the term had now become a new common noun in European languages meaning “murderer.” It was A.L. Silvestre de Sacy (1758—1838 C.E.) who succeeded in solving the mystery of the name and its etymology, although he and the other orientalists continued to endorse various aspects of the assassin legends.[4] Modern scholarship in Ismaili studies, which is based on authentic Ismaili sources, has now begun to deconstruct the Assassin legends that surround the Nizari Ismailis and their fida’is—legends rooted in hostility and imaginative ignorance.
There are also, possibly apocryphal, stories that they used their well-known deadliness for political goals without necessarily killing. For example, a victim, usually high-placed, might one morning find a Hashshashin dagger lying on their pillow upon awakening. This was a plain hint to the targeted individual that he was safe nowhere, that maybe even his inner group of servants had been infiltrated by the cult, and that whatever course of action had brought him into conflict with them would have to be stopped if he wanted to live.
Notes
- ↑ Dictionary.com, Assassin. Retrieved February 1, 2008.
- ↑ Bernard Lewis, The Assassins (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolsön, 1967), p 145.
- ↑ Edward Burman, The Assassins: Holy Killers of Islam.
- ↑ A.L. Silvestre de Sacy, “Memoir sur La Dyanastie des Assassins, et sur L’Etymologie de leur Nom.” Memoires de sins, et sur l’Institut Royal de France 4(1818): 1-84.
References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Burman, Edward. The Assassins: Holy Killers of Islam. Wellingborough: Crucible, 1987. ISBN 1-85274-027-2
- Daftary, Farhad. The Assassin Legends: Myths of the Isma'ilis. London: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, 1994.
- Lewis, Bernard. The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam New York: Basic Books, 2002. ISBN 0-465-00498-9
- Maalouf, Amin. The Crusades Through Arab Eyes. Schocken, 1989. ISBN 978-0805208986
- Meri, Josef W., ed. Medieval Islamic Civilization, An Encyclopaedia. New York: Routledge, 2006.
- Silvestre de Sacy, A.L. “Memoir sur La Dyanastie des Assassins, et sur L’Etymologie de leur Nom.” Memoires de sins, et sur l’Institut Royal de France 4(1818): 1-84. (English translation in F. Daftary, The Assassin Legends, 136-188.)
- Stark, Freya. The Valleys of the Assassins and other Persian Travels. New York: Modern Library, 2001. ISBN 0-375-75753-8
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