Algae
Algae (singular alga) are a large and diverse grouping of photosynthetic, eukaryotic, plant-like organisms that use chlorophyll in capturing light energy, but lack characteristic plant structures such as leaves, roots, flowers, vascular tissue, and seeds. Although they have historically been regarded as simple plants, they are generally classified in the kingdom Protista, rather than Plantae. They are distinguished from the other main protists, the protozoa, in that they are photoautotrophic, although this is not a hard and fast distinction as some groups contain members that are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some scientists include as algae the prokaryotic cyanobacteria, which are aquatic and photosynthetic and are commonly known as "blue-green algae." However, in general, the designation of algae is limited to eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms. The name alga (plural algae) comes from the Latin word for seaweed.
Algae range from single-celled organisms to multi-cellular organisms, some with fairly complex differentiated form and (if marine) called seaweeds. Some of the single-celled organisms may be as small as 1 micrometer, and some algae consist of a row of cells, appearing as a filament. On the other hand, the multicellular giant kelp reaches 60 meters in length. Seaweeds themselves have many forms, including those looking like terrestrial plants, as if they had leaves and stems, appearing like moss, mushrooms, leaf lettuce, or even a palm tree.
Algae are usually found in damp places or bodies of water and thus are common in aquatic environments, but are also found in terrestrial locales. However, terrestrial algae are usually rather inconspicuous and far more common in moist, tropical regions than dry ones, because algae lack vascular tissues and other adaptions to live on land. Algae can endure dryness and other conditions in symbiosis with a fungus as lichen. The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column—called phytoplankton—provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (so-called algal blooms) they may discolor the water and outcompete or poison other life forms. The seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters. Some are used as human food or are harvested for useful substances such as agar or fertilizer. The study of algae is called phycology or algology.
All algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from the cyanobacteria, and so produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike the non-cyanobacterial photosynthetic bacteria. It is believed that more than three-quarters of the oxygen in the atmosphere comes from algae and cyanobacteria, rather than from plants. Although all algae utilize chlophyll, at times other pigments mask the green color, resulting in organisms with red and brown colors.
Algae are also key as the base of the aquatic food chain, and the original source of petroleum is probably largely derived from algae.
Relationships among algal groups
Prokaryotic algae
Sometimes the prokaryotic cyanobacteria, given their aquatic and photosynthetic characteristic, have been included among the algae, and have been referred to as the cyanophytes or Blue-green Algae. Recent treatises on algae often exclude them, and consider algae only eukaryotic Cyanobacteria are some of the oldest organisms to appear in the fossil record, dating back about 3.8 billion years (Precambrian). Ancient cyanobacteria likely produced much of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere.
Cyanobacteria can be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous. They have a prokaryotic cell structure typical of bacteria and conduct photosynthesis directly within the cytoplasm, rather than in specialized organelles. Some filamentous blue-green algae have specialized cells, termed heterocysts, in which nitrogen fixation occurs.
Eukaryotic algae
As commonly defined, algae are eukaryotes and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound structures (organelles) called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain DNA and are similar in structure to cyanobacteria, presumably representing reduced cyanobacterial endosymbionts. The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of algae, possibly reflecting different endosymbiotic events.
There are three groups that have primary chloroplasts:
- Green algae (together with higher plant]]s)
- Red algae
- Glaucophytes
In these groups, the chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes. The chloroplasts of red algae have a more or less typical cyanobacterial pigmentation, while the green algae and higher plants have chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b, the latter found in some cyanobacteria but not most. There is support for the view that these three groups originated from a common pigmented ancestor; i.e., chloroplasts developed in a single endosymbiotic event. Red and green algae have an "alternation of generations" life cycle. This is the same life cycle as the mosses, suggesting that green algae were ancestral to mosses.
Two other groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophyll b:
- euglenids and
- chlorarachniophytes.
These are surrounded by three and four membranes, respectively, and it is speculated that they were retained from an ingested green alga. Those of the chlorarchniophytes contain a small nucleomorph, which is the remnant of the alga's nucleus. It has been suggested that the euglenid chloroplasts only have three membranes because they were acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis.
The remaining algae all have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with the red algae suggest a relationship there. These groups include:
- Heterokonts (e.g., golden algae, diatoms, brown algae)
- Haptophytes (e.g., coccolithophores)
- Cryptomonads
- Dinoflagellates
In the first three of these groups (put together in the supergroup Chromista, along with various colorless forms), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads, and it is speculated that they share a common pigmented ancestor. The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts among the group. The Apicomplexa, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids, though not actual chloroplasts, which share similarities with that of the dinoflagellates.
Note many of these groups contain some members that are not photosynthetic, but are considered to have once been photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others are considered to have lost them entirely.
Forms of algae
Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the life cycle of a species, are:
- Colonial - small, regular groups of motile cells
- Capsoid - individual non-motile cells embedded in [[mucilage (thick, gluey, sugary substance)
- Coccoid - individual non-motile cells with cell walls
- Palmelloid - non-motile cells embedded in mucilage
- Filamentous - a string of non-motile cells connected together, sometimes branching
- Parenchymatous - cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues
In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, leading to organisms with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae—some of which may reach 60 meters in length (kelps)—the red algae, and the green algae. The most complex forms are found among the green algae, in a lineage that is considered to eventually led to the higher land plants. The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other algal groups.
Algae and symbioses
Algae frequently form part of a symbiosis with other organisms. In a symbiotic relationship, the alga photosynthesises and supplies photosynthates to its host. The host organism is then capable of deriving some or all of its energy requirements from the alga. Examples include:
- lichens - a fungus is the host, usually with a green alga or a cyanobacterium as the symbiont. Both fungi and algae found in lichens are capable of living independently.
- corals - several algae form symbioses (zooxanthellae) with corals. Notable among these is the dinoflagellate Symbiodinium, found in many hard corals. The loss of Symbiodinium, or other zooxanthellae, from the host leads to coral bleaching.
Uses of algae
Algae is currently used in many wastewater treatment facilities, reducing the need for more dangerous chemicals.
Algae can be used to capture the runoff fertilizers that enter lakes and streams from nearby farms.
Algae is used by some powerplants to reduce CO2 emissions[1]. The CO2 is pumped into a pond, or some kind of tank, on which the algae feed.
Algae is commercially cultivated as a nutritional supplement. One of the most popular microalgal species is Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis), which is a Cyanobacteria (known as blue-green algae), and has been hailed by some as a superfood. [2]Other algal species cultivated for their nutritional value include; Chlorella (a green algae), and Dunaliella (Dunaliella salina), which is high in beta-carotene and is used in vitamin C supplements.
Algae can be used to produce biodiesel, and by estimates can produce vastly superior amounts of oil, compared to land-based crops. Because algae grown to produce biodiesel does not need to meet the requirements of a food crop, it is much cheaper to produce. Also it does not need fresh water or fertilizer (both of which are quite expensive).
Algae can be grown to produce hydrogen.
The natural pigments produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical dyes and coloring agents. [3]
Algae is sometimes also used as a food, as in the Chinese "vegetable" known as fat choy (which is actually a cyanobacterium).
Algal cultivation
Algae can be grown in tanks [4]
Algae can be grown in raceway-type ponds and lakes
[5]
Due to the fact that these systems are "open" to the elements, sometimes called "open-pond" systems, they are much more vulnerable to being invaded by other algal species and bacteria. The number of species that have been successfully cultivated for a given purposes,(ie: as a food source, for oil production, or for pigments.), in an outdoor system, are relatively small. In open systems you do not have control over water temperature, and you have little control over lighting conditions. Depending on where you live the growing season is limited to the warmer months. Some of the benefits of this type of system are that it is one of the cheaper ones to produce - at the most basic you only need to dig a trench or pond. It also has one of the largest production capacities compared to other systems, and depending on how large it's made.
A variation on the basic "open-pond" system is to close it off, to cover your pond or pool with a greenhouse. While this usually results in a smaller system, (for economic reasons), it does take care of many of the problems associated with an open system. It allows more species to be able to be grown, it allows the species that you are trying to grow to stay dominant, and it extends the growing season, only slightly if unheated, and if heated it can produce year round.
Algae can be grown in polyethylene sleeves.
Algae can be grown in a photobioreactor. A photobioreactor is basically a bioreactor which incorporates some type of light source. Because these for the most part are closed systems, when used to cultivate algae, everything that the algae need to grow,(carbon dioxide, nutrient-rich water and light), all must be introduced into the system.
www.ornl.govOak Ridge National Laboratory, photobioreactor system using glow plates.
[6]Greenfuels photobioreactor at M.I.T.
www.aquasearch.comMethods of microalgae cultivation, photobioreactor.
www.bgu.ac.il Use of polyethylene sleeves for outdoor cultivation, Glass-tube bioreactor.
www.fao.org Algal production.
www.dabney.com Closed-pond system.
Biodiesel production from algae
www.eere.energy.govDepartment of Energy Aquatic Species Program; Biodiesel Production from Algae. (pdf file)
Currently most research into efficient algal-oil production is being done in the private sector, but if predictions from small scale production experiments bear out then using algae to produce biodiesel may be the only viable method by which to produce enough automotive fuel to replace current world gasoline usage. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is at least 15 times greater than the next best crop, palm oil. Algal-oil processes into biodiesel as easily as oil derived from land-based crops. The difficulties in efficient biodiesel production from algae lie not in the extraction of the oil, which can be done using methods common to the food-industry such as hexane extraction, but in finding an algal strain with a high lipid content and fast growth rate that isn't to difficult to harvest, and a cost-effective cultivation system(ie, type of photobioreactor) that is best suited to that strain. Open-pond sytems for the most part have been given up for the cultivation of algae with high-oil content. The energy that a high-oil strain invests into the production of oil is energy that is not invested into the production of proteins or carbohydrates, usually resulting in the species being less hearty, or having a slower growth rate. Algal species with a lower oil content, not having to divert their energies away from growth, have an easier time in the harsher conditions of an open system. Research into algae for the mass-production of oil is mainly focused on microalgae,(which is generally referred to as organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 2mm in diameter), as opposed to macroalgae,(ie. seaweed). This preference towards microalgae is due largely to its less complex structure, fast growth rate, and high oil content-(for some species).
www.bio.utexas.edu/ algal cultures available for purchase
biodieselnow.com biodiesel production-biodiesel from algae
europa.eu.int Biofuels production from microalgae after heterotrophic growth.(pdf file)
[see discussion: Algal cultivation for the production of biodiesel]
Harvesting algae
Algae can be harvested using microscreens, by centrifugation, or by flocculation.
Nutritional value of algae
Extracting oil from algae
When algae is dried it retains its oil content, which then can be "pressed" out with an oil press. Algal oil can be extracted using chemicals. Benzene and Ether have been used, oil can also be separated by Hexane extraction, which is widely used in the food industry and is relatively inexpensive. [7]. Another method is supercritical fluid/CO2 extraction, CO2 is liquefied under pressure and heated to the point that it has the properties of both a liquid and a gas, this liquified fluid then acts as the solvent in extracting the oil from algae. [8]
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