Aeschylus
Aeschylus (525 B.C.E.—456 B.C.E.; Greek: Αἰσχύλος) was a playwright of ancient Greece, who was the earliest of the three greatest Greek tragedians, the others being Sophocles and Euripides. As a result, Aeschylus is, along with his fellow tragedians, one of the seminal figures in the development of drama in the Western world.
If Sophocles is an author whose primary theme was Fate, Aeschylus' was the relation of the Gods to the lives of mortal men. Aeschylus was, moreso than the other tragedians, a deeply ethical writer, in that the central concern in all of his narratives is the role of the divine, the path to moral rectitude, and the nature of justice. This is not surprising when one considers Aeschylus' own turbulent and morally confusing times — the Athenian republic had just begun its experiment in democracy, and was constantly in danger of being usurped by local tyrants and foreign invaders. Aeschylus himself participated in this early chaos; he was wounded protecting Greece at the Battle of Marathon, and would later consider his achievements as a soldier, rather than a playwright, to be his greatest contribution to history.
Although he was the eldest of the major tragedians, Aeschylus was also one of the inventive in terms of his technique. He was the first playwright of ancient Greece to include scenes containing multiple actors. (Prior to him, all Greek plays consisted of a single actor and a chorus that served as a sort of narrator.) In this way, Aeschylus presaged the shift towards character and individual actors which would become the hallmark of modern theatre. His plays, moreso than those any of the other tragedians of his era, are striking specifically because they so closely resemble the modern conception of a play. Aeschylus, hence, is not only the "Father of Tragedy", as he has been called by many a critic; he is also the father of character-driven drama as a whole.
Biography
Born at Eleusis in western Attica, he wrote his first plays in 498 B.C.E., but his earliest surviving play is probably The Persians, performed in 472 B.C.E. In 490 B.C.E., he participated in the Battle of Marathon, and in 480 B.C.E. he fought at the Battle of Salamis. Salamis was the subject of The Persians, written eight years later; it is now generally accepted that The Suppliants, once thought to be Aeschylus's earliest surviving tragedy, and so the earliest complete Attic tragedy to survive, was written in the last decade of his life, making The Persians his earliest.
Aeschylus frequently travelled to Sicily, where the tyrant of Gela was a patron. In 458 B.C.E. he travelled there for the last time. According to traditional legend, Aeschylus was killed in 456 B.C.E. when an eagle (or more likely a Lammergeier), mistaking the playwright's bald crown for a stone, dropped a tortoise on his head (though some accounts differ, claiming it was a stone dropped by an eagle or vulture that likely mistook his bald head for the egg of a flightless bird).
The inscription on his gravestone may have been written by himself, but makes no mention of his theatrical renown, commemorating only his military achievements. It read:
- This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide,
- Euphorion's son and fruitful Gela's pride
- How tried his valor, Marathon may tell
- And long-haired Medes, who knew it all too well
In Greek:
Αἰσχύλον Εὐφορίωνος Ἀθηναῖον τόδε κεύθει
- μνῆμα καταφθίμενον πυροφόροιο Γέλας·
ἀλκὴν δ’ εὐδόκιμον Μαραθώνιον ἄλσος ἂν εἴποι
- καὶ βαρυχαιτήεις Μῆδος ἐπιστάμενος.}
(Anthologiae Graecae Appendix, vol. 3, Epigramma sepulcrale 17)
Works
Aeschylus' work has a strong moral and religious emphasis, concentrating on man's position in the cosmos in relation to the gods, divine law and divine punishment in the Oresteia trilogy. Besides the literary merit of his work, Aeschylus' greatest contribution to the theater was the addition of a second actor to his scenes. Previously, the action took place between a single actor and the Greek chorus]]. This invention was attributed to him by Aristotle.
Aeschylus is known to have written about 76 plays, only 6 of which remain extant:
- The Persians (472 B.C.E.) (Persai)
- Seven Against Thebes (467 B.C.E.) (Hepta epi Thebas)
- The Suppliants (463 B.C.E.?) (Hiketides)
- Oresteia (458 B.C.E.)
- Agamemnon
- The Libation Bearers (Choephoroi)
- The Eumenides
In addition, the existing canon of Aeschylus' plays includes a seventh, Prometheus Bound. Attributed to Aeschylus in antiquity, it is generally considered by modern scholars to be the work of an unknown playwright. One theory is that it was written by Euphorion, one of Aeschylus' sons, and produced as his father's work. Its language is much simpler than that which Aeschylus usually utilises, without nearly as much complex metaphor and imagery, and is closer to Sophocles' style (though it is not at all suggested that Sophocles is its author); its hostility to the figure of Zeus is completely at odds with the religious views of the other six plays. Although still occasionally a point of debate, most scholars of Greek literature now agree that the attribution of the play to Aeschylus is tenuous at best.
The Oresteia
The Oresteia is a trilogy of plays dealing with the curse of the House of Atreus, a common myth in Aeschylus time that was closely linked to the Trojan epic tradition of Homer. The trilogy is the only surviving trilogy of ancient Greek tragedies in existence, and considering the profound arc of its story and the powerful drama of its characters it is easy to understand why. The Oresteia is one of the most important text of all Greek literature, because it, perhaps more than any other work, was written as an example of how Greek society had evolved above primitive culture into a newfound world of justice and democracy. The trilogy is easily Aeschylus' crowning achievement, and is often ranked to be the finest of all the ancient Greek tragedies ever composed.
Agamemnon
| Agamemnon | |
|---|---|
| |
| Written by | {{{writer}}} |
| Chorus | Elders of Argos |
| Characters | watchman Clytaemnestra herald Agamemnon messenger Cassandra Aegisthus soldiers servants |
| Mute | {{{mute}}} |
| Setting | Argos, before the royal palace |
Introduction
Agamemnon details the return of Agamemnon, King of Argos, from the Trojan War to his death. Waiting at home for him is his wife, Clytemnestra, who has been planning his death as revenge for the sacrifice of their daughter, Iphigenia. Furthermore, in the ten years of Agamemnon's absence, Clytemnestra has entered into an adulterous relationship with Aegisthus, Agamemnon's cousin and the scion of a dispossessed branch of the family, who is determined to regain the throne he believes should rightfully belong to him.
Storyline
The play opens to Clytemnestra awaiting the return of her husband, having been told that the mountaintop beacons have given the sign that Troy had fallen. Though she pretends to love her husband, she is furious that he sacrificed their daughter, Iphigenia. This is not made clear here, but it would have been familiar to the audience. A servant stands on top of the roof, reporting that he has been crouching there "like a dog" (kunothen) for years, "under the instruction of a man-hearted woman." He laments the fortunes of the house, but promises to keep silent: "A huge ox has stepped onto my tongue." However, when Agamemnon arrives in his chariot, he has on board the prophetess Cassandra as a slave and concubine. This, of course, serves to anger Clytemnestra further.
The main action of the play is the agon, or struggle, between Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. She attempts to persuade Agamemnon to step on a purple (sometimes red) tapestry or carpet to walk into their home. The problem is that this would indicate hubris on Agamemnon's part, and he does not wish to do this. He would prefer it if he could return home without flourish, in the manner befitting a noble Greek warrior. Eventually, for reasons that are still heavily debated, Clytemnestra does convince Agamemnon to enter the house, where she kills him in the bath: she ensnares him in a robe and as he struggles to free himself she hacks him with three strokes of a pelekos, or ceremonial axe. Agamemnon is murdered in much the same way as an animal killed for sacrifice with three blows, the last strike accompanied by a prayer to a god.
Whilst Clytemnestra and Agamemnon are offstage, Cassandra discusses with the chorus whether or not she ought to enter the palace, knowing that she too will be murdered. Cassandra is a daughter of King Priam of Troy. Apollo has cursed her, giving her the gift of clairvoyance, but on the condition that no one who heard her prophesies would believe them. In Cassandra's speech, she runs through many gruesome images of the history of the House of Atreus, and eventually chooses to enter the house knowing that she cannot avoid her fate. The chorus, in this play a group of the elders of Athens, hear the death screams of Agamemnon, and frantically debate on a course of action.
A platform is soon rolled out displaying the gruesome dead bodies of Agamemnon and Cassandra, along with Clytemnestra, who attempts to explain her action. Later, Aegisthus struts out and delivers an arrogant speech to the chorus, who nearly enter into a brawl with Aegisthus and his henchmen. However, Clytemnestra halts the dispute, saying that "There is pain enough already. Let us not be bloody now." The play closes with the chorus reminding the usurpers of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, who will surely return to exact vengeance.
The Libation Bearers
| The Libation Bearers | |
|---|---|
| Electra by Sir William Blake Richmond | |
| Written by | {{{writer}}} |
| Chorus | Trojan slave women |
| Characters | Orestes Electra servant Clytaemnestra Pylades Cilissa Aegisthus attendants |
| Mute | {{{mute}}} |
| Setting | Argos, at the tomb of Agamemnon |
Introduction
The Libation Bearers (also known as Choephoroe) is the second play of the Oresteia. It deals with the reunion of Agamemnon's children, Electra and Orestes, and their revenge.
Storyline
In the palace of Argos, Clytemnestra, who now shares her bed and the throne with her lover Aegisthus, is roused from slumber by a nightmare: she dreamt that she gave birth to a snake, and the snake now feeds from her bosom and draws blood instead of milk. Alarmed by this, a possible sign of the gods' wrath, she orders her daughter, the princess Electra, whom in the meantime Clytemnestra has reduced to the virtual status of a slavegirl, to pour libations on Agamemnon's grave. A group of women (the libation bearers of the title) are to assist her.
Electra arrives at the grave of her father and comes upon a man by the tombstone, who has just placed a lock of his hair on the stone. As they start to speak, it gradually and rather agonizingly becomes apparent that the man is her brother Orestes (who had been sent away to the royal court of Phocis since infancy for safety reasons), and who has, in her thoughts, been her only hope of revenge. Together they plan to avenge their father by killing their mother Clytemnestra and her new husband, Aegisthus.
Orestes wavers about killing his own mother, but is guided by Apollo and his close friend Pylades, the son of the king of Phocis, that it is the correct course of action. Orestes and Pylades pretend to be ordinary travellers from Phocis, and ask for hospitality at the palace. They even tell the Queen that Orestes is dead. Delighted by the news, Clytemnestra sends a servant to summon Aegisthus. Orestes kills the usurper first, and then his mother. As soon as he exits the palace, the Furies appear and, being only visible to him, they begin to haunt and torture him for his crime. He flees in agony.
The Eumenides
| The Eumenides | |
|---|---|
_-_The_Remorse_of_Orestes_(1862).jpg)
| |
| Written by | {{{writer}}} |
| Chorus | The Furies |
| Characters | Priestess Apollo Orestes Ghost of Clytemnestra Athena Atheniancitizens |
| Mute | {{{mute}}} |
| Setting | before the temple of Apollo at Delphi |
Introduction
The Eumenides (also known as The Furies) is the final play of the Oresteia, in which Orestes and the Furies go before a jury of Athenians, the Areiopagos (Rock of Ares, a flat rocky hill by the Athenian forum where the supreme criminal court of Athens held its sessions), to decide whether Orestes' murder of his mother, Clytemnestra, makes him worthy of the torment they have inflicted upon him.
Storyline
Orestes is tormented by the Furies, underworld demigods that avenge patricide and matricide. He, at the instigation of his sister Electra, has killed their mother Clytemnestra, who had in her turn killed their father, King Agamemnon, who had in turn killed his daughter Iphigenia. Orestes finds a refuge and a solace at the new temple of Apollo in Delphi, and the god, unable to deliver him from the Furies' tormenting wrath, sends him along to Athens under the protection of Hermes, while he casts a drowsy spell upon the pursuing Furies in order to delay them.
Clytemnestra's ghost appears from the woods and rouses the sleeping Furies, urging them to continue hunting Orestes. The Furies' first appearance on stage is haunting: they hum a tune in unison as they wake up, and seek to find the scent of blood that will lead them to Orestes' tracks. Ancient tradition says that on the play's premiere this struck so much fear and anguish in the audience, that a pregnant woman named Neaira miscarried on the spot.
The Furies' tracking down of Orestes in Athens is equally haunting: Orestes has clasped Athena's small statue in supplication, and the Furies close in on him by smelling the blood of his slain mother in the air. Once they do see him, they can also see rivulets of blood soaking the earth beneath his footsteps.
As they surround him, Athena intervenes and brings in a jury of twelve Athenians to judge her supplicant. Apollo acts as attorney for Orestes, while the Furies act as spokespersons for the dead Clytemnestra. The trial results in a hung jury and Athena breaks the tie by voting in favour of Orestes, and then must persuade the Furies to accept her decision. They eventually submit. (However, in Euripides' Iphigeneia in Tauris, the Furies continue to haunt Orestes even after the trial.) Athena then renames them Eumenides (Ladies of Good Will). The Furies will now be honored by the citizens of Athens and ensure their prosperity. Athena also declares that henceforth hung juries should result in the defendant being acquitted, as mercy should always take precedence over harshness.
Analysis
That the trilogy ends on a happy note may surprise modern readers, to whom the word tragedy denotes a drama ending in misfortune. The word did not carry this meaning in ancient Athens, and many of the extant Greek tragedies end happily.
Worth noting here is the allegorical aspect of the plays. The change from an archaic method of justice by personal revenge to attribution of justice by trial is highly symbolic of the passage from a primitive society governed by instincts, to a modern society governed by reason: justice is decided by a jury of peers, representing the citizen body and its societal values, and the gods themselves sanction this transition by taking part in the judicial procedure, arguing and voting on an equal footing with the mortals. This theme of the polis self-governed by consent through lawful institutions, as opposed to the tribalism and superstition that had predominated Athens before the founding of the republic is a recurring one in Athenian art and thought.
The dramatization of societal transformation in this myth (the transition to governance by laws) is both a boast and justification of the then relatively new judicial system. The concept of objective intervention by an impartial entity against which no vengeance could be taken (the state) marked the end of continuous cycles of bloodshed, a transition in Greek society reflected by the transition in their mythology—the Furies, who symbolized this sort of vengeful, violent justice, are a much greater part of older Greek myths than comparatively more recent ones. The reflection of societal struggles and social norms in mythology makes plays like these of special interest today, offering poignant cultural and historical insights.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Buckham, Philip Wentworth, Theatre of the Greeks, 1827.
- Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones (Tusculan Disputations).
- Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace
- Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy , 1927.
- The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, 1946.
- The Dramatic Festivals of Athens, 1953.
- Schlegel, August Wilhelm, Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature, 1809. [1]
- Sommerstein, Alan H., Greek Drama and Dramatists, Routledge, 2002
- Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, Tragedy and Athenian Religion, Oxford University Press, 2003.
- Wiles, David, The Masked Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance, 1991.
External links
- Selected Poems of Aeschylus
- Works by Aeschylus. Project Gutenberg
- Available by .pdf file at Textkit:
- IMDB list of films based on Aeschylus
- Ethical Canons and War: Agamemnon in Contemporary Framework
Fragments
Prometheus Bound
Credits
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