Difference between revisions of "Aerodynamics" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | '''Aerodynamics''' (shaping of objects that affect the flow of air, liquid or gas) is a branch of [[fluid dynamics]] concerned with the study of | + | '''Aerodynamics''' (shaping of objects that affect the flow of air, liquid or gas) is a branch of [[fluid dynamics]] concerned with the study of [[force]]s generated on a body in a flow. The solution of an aerodynamic problem normally involves calculating for various properties of the flow, such as [[velocity]], [[pressure]], [[density]], and [[temperature]], as a function of space and time. Understanding the flow pattern makes it possible to calculate or approximate the [[force]]s and [[moment (physics)|moments]] acting on bodies in the flow. This mathematical analysis and empirical approximation form the scientific basis for [[heavier than air flight|heavier-than-air flight]]. |
| − | [[Image:Aerody1.jpg|thumb|right| | + | [[Image:Aerody1.jpg|thumb|right|A profile of an aircraft wing.]] |
| − | Aerodynamic problems can be classified in a number of ways. | + | Aerodynamic problems can be classified in a number of ways. The flow environment defines the first classification criterion. ''External'' aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the [[lift (force)|lift]] and [[drag (physics)|drag]] on an [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplane]], the [[shock wave]]s that form in front of the nose of a [[rocket]] or the flow of air over a hard drive head are examples of external aerodynamics. ''Internal'' aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a [[jet engine]] or through an [[air conditioning]] pipe. |
| − | The ratio of the problem's characteristic flow speed to the [[speed of sound]] comprises a second classification of aerodynamic problems. | + | The ratio of the problem's characteristic flow speed to the [[speed of sound]] comprises a second classification of aerodynamic problems. A problem is called [[subsonic]] if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, [[transonic]] if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), [[supersonic]] when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and [[hypersonic]] when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; minimum [[Mach number]]s for hypersonic flow range from three to 12. Most aerodynamicists use numbers between five and eight. |
| − | The influence of [[viscosity]] in the flow dictates a third classification. | + | The influence of [[viscosity]] in the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems involve only negligible viscous effects on the solution, in which case viscosity can be considered to be nonexistent. The approximations to these problems are called [[inviscid flow]]s. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called [[viscous flow]]s. |
==Aerodynamics in other fields== | ==Aerodynamics in other fields== | ||
| − | Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than aerospace engineering. | + | Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than aerospace engineering. |
| − | It is a significant factor in any type of vehicle design, including [[automobile]]s. | + | It is a significant factor in any type of vehicle design, including [[automobile]]s. It is important in the prediction of forces and moments in [[sailing]]. It is used in the design of small components such as [[hard drive]] heads. [[Structural engineering|Structural engineers]] also use aerodynamics, and particularly [[aeroelasticity]], to calculate [[wind]] loads in the design of large buildings and bridges. Urban aerodynamics seeks to help town planners and designers improve comfort in outdoor spaces, create urban micro climates and reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics studies the ways atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affects ecosystems. The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the engine. |
==Continuity assumption== | ==Continuity assumption== | ||
| − | Bernoulli's principle: Gases are composed of [[molecule]]s which collide with one another and solid objects. | + | Bernoulli's principle: Gases are composed of [[molecule]]s which collide with one another and solid objects. If j and velocity are taken to be well-defined at infinitely small points, and are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another, the discrete molecular nature of a gas is ignored. |
| − | The continuity assumption becomes less valid as a gas becomes more rarefied. | + | The continuity assumption becomes less valid as a gas becomes more rarefied. In these cases, [[statistical mechanics]] is a more valid method of solving the problem than aerodynamics. |
==Conservation laws== | ==Conservation laws== | ||
| − | Aerodynamic problems are solved using the conservation laws, or equations derived from the conservation laws. | + | Aerodynamic problems are solved using the conservation laws, or equations derived from the conservation laws. In aerodynamics, three conservation laws are used: |
| − | *Conservation of mass: Matter is not created or destroyed. | + | *Conservation of [[mass]]: Matter is not created or destroyed. If a certain mass of fluid enters a volume, it must either exit the volume or increase the mass inside the volume. |
| − | *Conservation of momentum: Also called [[Newton's second law of motion]] | + | *Conservation of [[momentum]]: Also called [[Newton's second law of motion]]. |
| − | *Conservation of energy: Although it can be converted from one form to another, the total [[energy]] in a given system remains constant. | + | *Conservation of [[energy]]: Although it can be converted from one form to another, the total [[energy]] in a given system remains constant. |
==Boundary layer== | ==Boundary layer== | ||
| − | The concept of [[boundary layer]] is important in most aerodynamic problems. | + | The concept of [[boundary layer]] is important in most aerodynamic problems. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is usually important only in this thin layer. This principle makes aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically and also intuitively. |
==Low-speed aerodynamics== | ==Low-speed aerodynamics== | ||
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|city=New York | |city=New York | ||
|isbn=0070504466 | |isbn=0070504466 | ||
| − | }}</ref> | + | }}</ref> It is a special case of Subsonic aerodynamics. |
| − | In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether or not to incorporate the effects of compressibility. | + | In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether or not to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of [[density]] in the problem. When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the aerodynamicist may choose to assume that density is constant. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the problem is called a compressible problem. In air, compressibility effects can be ignored when the [[Mach number]] in the flow does not exceed 0.3. Above 0.3, the problem should be solved using compressible aerodynamics. |
==Subsonic aerodynamics== | ==Subsonic aerodynamics== | ||
| − | In a subsonic aerodynamic problem, all of the flow speeds are less than the [[speed of sound]]. | + | In a subsonic aerodynamic problem, all of the flow speeds are less than the [[speed of sound]]. This class of problems encompasses nearly all internal aerodynamic problems, as well as external aerodynamics for most un-powered and [[propeller]] driven [[aircraft]], [[model aircraft]], and [[automobile]]s. Notable exceptions are propellers and rotors whose tip speeds can become transonic or even supersonic. |
==Transonic aerodynamics== | ==Transonic aerodynamics== | ||
| − | [[Transonic]] aerodynamic problems are defined as problems in which both supersonic and subsonic flow | + | [[Transonic]] aerodynamic problems are defined as problems in which both supersonic and subsonic flow exists. Normally the term is reserved for problems in which the characteristic [[Mach number]] is very close to one. |
| − | Transonic flows are characterized by [[shock wave]]s and [[Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan|expansion wave]]s. | + | Transonic flows are characterized by [[shock wave]]s and [[Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan|expansion wave]]s. A shock wave or expansion wave is a region of very large changes in the flow properties. In fact, the properties change so quickly they are nearly discontinuous across the waves. |
Transonic problems are arguably the most difficult to solve. Flows behave very differently at subsonic and supersonic speeds, therefore a problem involving both types is more complex than one in which the flow is either purely subsonic or purely supersonic. | Transonic problems are arguably the most difficult to solve. Flows behave very differently at subsonic and supersonic speeds, therefore a problem involving both types is more complex than one in which the flow is either purely subsonic or purely supersonic. | ||
==Supersonic aerodynamics==<!-- This section is linked from [[Supersonic]] —> | ==Supersonic aerodynamics==<!-- This section is linked from [[Supersonic]] —> | ||
| − | [[Supersonic]] aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. | + | [[Supersonic]] aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the [[Concorde]] during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem. |
| − | Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic | + | Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is "told" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since [[sound]] is in fact an infinitesimal pressure difference propagating through a fluid, the [[speed of sound]] in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed that "information" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a [[stagnation pressure]] as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to rest. In Gas traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid "knows" the object is there and is avoiding it. However, in a supersonic flow, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally does strike the object, it is forced to change its properties—[[temperature]], [[density]], [[pressure]], and [[Mach number]]—in an extremely violent and [[reversible process (thermodynamics)|irreversible]] fashion called a [[shock wave]]. The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-velocity (see [[Reynolds number]]) fluids, is the central difference between supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics problems. |
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
| Line 63: | Line 63: | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
| − | *[http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/ Aerodynamics for Students] - University of Sydney Retrieved | + | *[http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/ Aerodynamics for Students] - University of Sydney. Retrieved November 14, 2007. |
| − | *[http://www.240edge.com/performance/tuning-aero.html Aerodynamics and Race Car Tuning] - 240edge Retrieved | + | *[http://www.240edge.com/performance/tuning-aero.html Aerodynamics and Race Car Tuning] - 240edge. Retrieved November 14, 2007. |
| − | *[http://www.aerodyndesign.com Aerodynamic Related Projects] - AeroDyn Design Retrieved | + | *[http://www.aerodyndesign.com Aerodynamic Related Projects] - AeroDyn Design. Retrieved November 14, 2007. |
| − | *[http://selair.selkirk.bc.ca/aerodynamics1/High-Speed/Page5.html Supersonic wing design] - Selkirk College Aviation Intranet Retrieved | + | *[http://selair.selkirk.bc.ca/aerodynamics1/High-Speed/Page5.html Supersonic wing design] - Selkirk College Aviation Intranet. Retrieved November 14, 2007. |
| − | *[http://www.forumula1.net/2006/f1/features/car-design-technology/aerodynamics/ Application of Aerodynamics in Formula One (F1)]- forumula1.net Retrieved | + | *[http://www.forumula1.net/2006/f1/features/car-design-technology/aerodynamics/ Application of Aerodynamics in Formula One (F1)] - forumula1.net. Retrieved November 14, 2007. |
[[Category:Physical sciences]] | [[Category:Physical sciences]] | ||
Revision as of 21:45, 14 November 2007
Aerodynamics (shaping of objects that affect the flow of air, liquid or gas) is a branch of fluid dynamics concerned with the study of forces generated on a body in a flow. The solution of an aerodynamic problem normally involves calculating for various properties of the flow, such as velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, as a function of space and time. Understanding the flow pattern makes it possible to calculate or approximate the forces and moments acting on bodies in the flow. This mathematical analysis and empirical approximation form the scientific basis for heavier-than-air flight.
Aerodynamic problems can be classified in a number of ways. The flow environment defines the first classification criterion. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane, the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket or the flow of air over a hard drive head are examples of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe.
The ratio of the problem's characteristic flow speed to the speed of sound comprises a second classification of aerodynamic problems. A problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; minimum Mach numbers for hypersonic flow range from three to 12. Most aerodynamicists use numbers between five and eight.
The influence of viscosity in the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems involve only negligible viscous effects on the solution, in which case viscosity can be considered to be nonexistent. The approximations to these problems are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous flows.
Aerodynamics in other fields
Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than aerospace engineering.
It is a significant factor in any type of vehicle design, including automobiles. It is important in the prediction of forces and moments in sailing. It is used in the design of small components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers also use aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, to calculate wind loads in the design of large buildings and bridges. Urban aerodynamics seeks to help town planners and designers improve comfort in outdoor spaces, create urban micro climates and reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics studies the ways atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affects ecosystems. The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the engine.
Continuity assumption
Bernoulli's principle: Gases are composed of molecules which collide with one another and solid objects. If j and velocity are taken to be well-defined at infinitely small points, and are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another, the discrete molecular nature of a gas is ignored.
The continuity assumption becomes less valid as a gas becomes more rarefied. In these cases, statistical mechanics is a more valid method of solving the problem than aerodynamics.
Conservation laws
Aerodynamic problems are solved using the conservation laws, or equations derived from the conservation laws. In aerodynamics, three conservation laws are used:
- Conservation of mass: Matter is not created or destroyed. If a certain mass of fluid enters a volume, it must either exit the volume or increase the mass inside the volume.
- Conservation of momentum: Also called Newton's second law of motion.
- Conservation of energy: Although it can be converted from one form to another, the total energy in a given system remains constant.
Boundary layer
The concept of boundary layer is important in most aerodynamic problems. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is usually important only in this thin layer. This principle makes aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically and also intuitively.
Low-speed aerodynamics
Low-speed aerodynamics is the study of inviscid, incompressible and irrotational aerodynamics where the differential equations used are a simplified version of the governing equations of fluid dynamics.[1] It is a special case of Subsonic aerodynamics.
In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether or not to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of density in the problem. When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the aerodynamicist may choose to assume that density is constant. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the problem is called a compressible problem. In air, compressibility effects can be ignored when the Mach number in the flow does not exceed 0.3. Above 0.3, the problem should be solved using compressible aerodynamics.
Subsonic aerodynamics
In a subsonic aerodynamic problem, all of the flow speeds are less than the speed of sound. This class of problems encompasses nearly all internal aerodynamic problems, as well as external aerodynamics for most un-powered and propeller driven aircraft, model aircraft, and automobiles. Notable exceptions are propellers and rotors whose tip speeds can become transonic or even supersonic.
Transonic aerodynamics
Transonic aerodynamic problems are defined as problems in which both supersonic and subsonic flow exists. Normally the term is reserved for problems in which the characteristic Mach number is very close to one.
Transonic flows are characterized by shock waves and expansion waves. A shock wave or expansion wave is a region of very large changes in the flow properties. In fact, the properties change so quickly they are nearly discontinuous across the waves.
Transonic problems are arguably the most difficult to solve. Flows behave very differently at subsonic and supersonic speeds, therefore a problem involving both types is more complex than one in which the flow is either purely subsonic or purely supersonic.
Supersonic aerodynamics
Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem.
Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is "told" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is in fact an infinitesimal pressure difference propagating through a fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed that "information" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to rest. In Gas traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid "knows" the object is there and is avoiding it. However, in a supersonic flow, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally does strike the object, it is forced to change its properties—temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number—in an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-velocity (see Reynolds number) fluids, is the central difference between supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics problems.
Notes
- ↑ Katz, Joseph (1991). Low-speed aerodynamics: from wing theory to panel methods, McGraw-Hill series in aeronautical and aerospace engineering. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070504466.
External links
- Aerodynamics for Students - University of Sydney. Retrieved November 14, 2007.
- Aerodynamics and Race Car Tuning - 240edge. Retrieved November 14, 2007.
- Aerodynamic Related Projects - AeroDyn Design. Retrieved November 14, 2007.
- Supersonic wing design - Selkirk College Aviation Intranet. Retrieved November 14, 2007.
- Application of Aerodynamics in Formula One (F1) - forumula1.net. Retrieved November 14, 2007.
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