Difference between revisions of "Tammuz" - New World Encyclopedia

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Though the Babylonian / Assyrian god ''Dumuzi'' was known by a variety of names throughout the Middle East (including the Hebrew תַּמּוּז, '''Tammuz'''; the Arabic '''تمّوز''', '''Tammūz'''; the Akkadian '''Duʾzu'''; and the Sumerian '''Dumuzid''' (DUMU.ZID)), all are transliterations of a single divine moniker (likely, the Babylonian '''Du'uzu''').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Tammuz Online Etymology Dictionary], retrieved December 21, 2007.</ref> As the names of Babylonian gods often offer insight into the character of the deities in question,<ref>As Jacobsen (1985) notes, "since the names of ancient Mesopotamian deities usually offer valuable clues to the nature and function of these deities, understanding what the name Dumuzi means might help toward a better understanding of the god himself" (41).</ref> determining an accurate etymology is more than a simple academic concern. After an extensive analysis of extant literary materials, Thorkild Jacobsen offers the following analysis:
 
Though the Babylonian / Assyrian god ''Dumuzi'' was known by a variety of names throughout the Middle East (including the Hebrew תַּמּוּז, '''Tammuz'''; the Arabic '''تمّوز''', '''Tammūz'''; the Akkadian '''Duʾzu'''; and the Sumerian '''Dumuzid''' (DUMU.ZID)), all are transliterations of a single divine moniker (likely, the Babylonian '''Du'uzu''').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Tammuz Online Etymology Dictionary], retrieved December 21, 2007.</ref> As the names of Babylonian gods often offer insight into the character of the deities in question,<ref>As Jacobsen (1985) notes, "since the names of ancient Mesopotamian deities usually offer valuable clues to the nature and function of these deities, understanding what the name Dumuzi means might help toward a better understanding of the god himself" (41).</ref> determining an accurate etymology is more than a simple academic concern. After an extensive analysis of extant literary materials, Thorkild Jacobsen offers the following analysis:
 
:[W]e can now interpret the divine name Dumu-zi(d) as "the good young one," and see the god as a power manifesting itself in the normal nondefective newborn lambs or kids.... Dumuzi was a shepherd's god, his full name and title was Dumuzi sipad, "Dumuzi the Shepherd," and it is easy to understand that shepherds might worship a power that guarded the health of newborn animals and kept them from being born defective. The increase and thriving of their herds depended on that.<ref>Jacobsen (1985), 45.</ref>
 
:[W]e can now interpret the divine name Dumu-zi(d) as "the good young one," and see the god as a power manifesting itself in the normal nondefective newborn lambs or kids.... Dumuzi was a shepherd's god, his full name and title was Dumuzi sipad, "Dumuzi the Shepherd," and it is easy to understand that shepherds might worship a power that guarded the health of newborn animals and kept them from being born defective. The increase and thriving of their herds depended on that.<ref>Jacobsen (1985), 45.</ref>
 +
 +
Though lacking the direct linguistic continuity evidenced by the names listed above, the Helleno-Syrian [[Adonis]] ("lord") was another counterpart of Tammuz.<ref>Campbell (1962): "the dead and resurrected god Tammuz (Sumerian Dumuzi), prototype of the Classical Adonis, who was the consort as well as son by virgin birth, of the goddess-mother of many names: Inanna, Ninhursag, Ishtar, Astarte, Artemis, Demeter, Aphrodite, Venus" (39-40).</ref>
  
 
==Mythological Accounts==
 
==Mythological Accounts==
 
In the various mythological accounts depicting Tammuz/Dumuzi, he plays a variety of roles &mdash; from lowly shepherd to divine ruler. One relatively common element, however, is his association with various powerful [[Goddess]]es, in particular, the regal [[Ishtar]]/Inanna. As his mythical/religious import is particularly dependent upon these relationships, it follows that an exploration of these various accounts is the best way to gain insight into the god's character.
 
In the various mythological accounts depicting Tammuz/Dumuzi, he plays a variety of roles &mdash; from lowly shepherd to divine ruler. One relatively common element, however, is his association with various powerful [[Goddess]]es, in particular, the regal [[Ishtar]]/Inanna. As his mythical/religious import is particularly dependent upon these relationships, it follows that an exploration of these various accounts is the best way to gain insight into the god's character.
  
−
===Dumuzid and Inanna===
+
===Dumuzi and Inanna===
−
A number of pastoral poems and songs relate the love affair of [[Inanna]] and [[Dumuzi]]d the shepherd. A text recovered in 1963 recounts "The Courtship of Inanna and [[Dumuzi]]" in terms that are tender and frankly erotic.
+
The multifaceted relationship between Inanna and Dumuzi, which was characterized equally by sensuous, erotic love and bitter recriminations, provides fodder for a considerable body of Sumerian and Babylonian mythology.
 +
 
 +
In the first case, the amorous component of their relationship is baldly attested to in a large corpus of pastoral poems and songs, which relate the early stages of the love affair between [[Inanna]] (the goddess of fertility) and Dumuzi (either a human shepherd or the god of shepherds). This romantic connection is described in great detail in ''The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi'', a poem that is notable for both its tenderness and its graphic depictions of sexuality:
 +
:Inanna sang:
 +
:"Make your milk sweet and thick, my bridegroom.
 +
:My shepherd, I will drink your fresh milk.
 +
:Wild bull Dumuzi, make your milk sweet and thick.
 +
:I will drink your fresh milk.
 +
:Let the milk of the goat flow in my sheepfold.
 +
:Fill my holy churn with honey cheese.
 +
:Lord Dumuzi, I will drink your fresh milk.
 +
:My husband, I will guard my sheepfold for you.
 +
:I will watch over your house of life, the storehouse,
 +
:The shining quivering place which delights Sumer –
 +
:The house which decides the fates of the land,
 +
:The house which gives the breath of life to the people.
 +
:I, the queen of the palace, will watch over your house."<ref>"The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi," as cited on the website of the [academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/jvsickle/mpinacrt.pdf Brooklyn College Classics Department]. Retrieved December 21, 2007.</ref>
  
 
According to the myth of Inanna's [[descent to the underworld]], represented in parallel Sumerian and Akkadian<ref>Two editions, one ca 1000 B.C.E. found at [[Ashur]], the other mid seventh century B.C.E. from the [[library of Ashurbanipal]] at [[Nineveh]].</ref> tablets, Inanna (Ishtar in the Akkadian texts) set off for the netherworld, or Kur, which was ruled by her sister [[Ereshkigal]], perhaps to take it as her own. She passed through seven gates and at each one was required to leave a garment or an ornament so that when she had passed through the seventh gate she was entirely naked. Despite warnings about her presumption, she did not turn back but dared to sit herself down on Ereshkigal's throne. Immediately the [[Anunnaki]] of the [[underworld]] judged her, gazed at her with the eyes of death, and she became a corpse, hung up on a nail.
 
According to the myth of Inanna's [[descent to the underworld]], represented in parallel Sumerian and Akkadian<ref>Two editions, one ca 1000 B.C.E. found at [[Ashur]], the other mid seventh century B.C.E. from the [[library of Ashurbanipal]] at [[Nineveh]].</ref> tablets, Inanna (Ishtar in the Akkadian texts) set off for the netherworld, or Kur, which was ruled by her sister [[Ereshkigal]], perhaps to take it as her own. She passed through seven gates and at each one was required to leave a garment or an ornament so that when she had passed through the seventh gate she was entirely naked. Despite warnings about her presumption, she did not turn back but dared to sit herself down on Ereshkigal's throne. Immediately the [[Anunnaki]] of the [[underworld]] judged her, gazed at her with the eyes of death, and she became a corpse, hung up on a nail.
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==Cultic Practice==
 
==Cultic Practice==
−
In Babylonia, the month Tammuz was established in honor of the eponymous god Tammuz, who originated as a Sumerian shepherd-god, Dumuzid or Dumuzi, the consort of [[Inanna]] and, in his Akkadian form, the parallel consort of [[Ishtar]]. The Syrian [[Adonis]] ("lord"), who was drawn into the Greek pantheon, is another counterpart of Tammuz,<ref>Campbell (1962): "the dead and resurrected god Tammuz (Sumerian Dumuzi), prototype of the Classical Adonis, who was the consort as well as son by virgin birth, of the goddess-mother of many names: Inanna, Ninhursag, Ishtar, Astarte, Artemis, Demeter, Aphrodite, Venus" (39-40).</ref> son and consort. The Aramaic name "Tammuz" seems to have been derived from the Akkadian form ''Tammuzi'', based on early Sumerian ''Damu-zid''. The later standard Sumerian form, ''Dumu-zid'', in turn became ''Dumuzi'' in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]].  
+
In Babylonia, the month Tammuz was established in honor of the eponymous god Tammuz, who originated as a Sumerian shepherd-god, Dumuzid or Dumuzi, the consort of Inanna (the Akkadian [[Ishtar]]).  
  
 
Beginning with the [[summer solstice]] came a time of mourning in the Ancient Near East as in the Aegean: the Babylonians marked the decline in daylight hours and the onset of killing summer heat and drought with a six-day "funeral" for the god. Readers in four-season temperate cultures may doubt the god as a [[vegetation god]], through misconstruing this seasonal timing, or wishfully see in him a [[life-death-rebirth deity]]. "He was no dying and resurrecting vegetation [[Daemon|demon]], as [[James George Frazer]] wanted him to be (for one thing no vegetation demon dies in the spring, in April)," Miroslav Marcovich observed.<ref>Marcovich, 49.</ref> More to the point, tablets discovered in 1963 show that Dumuzi was in fact consigned to the Underworld himself, in order to secure Inanna's release.<ref>Yamauchi, 283-290.</ref>  
 
Beginning with the [[summer solstice]] came a time of mourning in the Ancient Near East as in the Aegean: the Babylonians marked the decline in daylight hours and the onset of killing summer heat and drought with a six-day "funeral" for the god. Readers in four-season temperate cultures may doubt the god as a [[vegetation god]], through misconstruing this seasonal timing, or wishfully see in him a [[life-death-rebirth deity]]. "He was no dying and resurrecting vegetation [[Daemon|demon]], as [[James George Frazer]] wanted him to be (for one thing no vegetation demon dies in the spring, in April)," Miroslav Marcovich observed.<ref>Marcovich, 49.</ref> More to the point, tablets discovered in 1963 show that Dumuzi was in fact consigned to the Underworld himself, in order to secure Inanna's release.<ref>Yamauchi, 283-290.</ref>  

Revision as of 05:59, 22 December 2007


Tammuz / Dumuzi was the name of an Ancient Near Eastern deity.

Etymology and Characterization

Though the Babylonian / Assyrian god Dumuzi was known by a variety of names throughout the Middle East (including the Hebrew תַּמּוּז, Tammuz; the Arabic تمّوز, Tammūz; the Akkadian Duʾzu; and the Sumerian Dumuzid (DUMU.ZID)), all are transliterations of a single divine moniker (likely, the Babylonian Du'uzu).[1] As the names of Babylonian gods often offer insight into the character of the deities in question,[2] determining an accurate etymology is more than a simple academic concern. After an extensive analysis of extant literary materials, Thorkild Jacobsen offers the following analysis:

[W]e can now interpret the divine name Dumu-zi(d) as "the good young one," and see the god as a power manifesting itself in the normal nondefective newborn lambs or kids.... Dumuzi was a shepherd's god, his full name and title was Dumuzi sipad, "Dumuzi the Shepherd," and it is easy to understand that shepherds might worship a power that guarded the health of newborn animals and kept them from being born defective. The increase and thriving of their herds depended on that.[3]

Though lacking the direct linguistic continuity evidenced by the names listed above, the Helleno-Syrian Adonis ("lord") was another counterpart of Tammuz.[4]

Mythological Accounts

In the various mythological accounts depicting Tammuz/Dumuzi, he plays a variety of roles — from lowly shepherd to divine ruler. One relatively common element, however, is his association with various powerful Goddesses, in particular, the regal Ishtar/Inanna. As his mythical/religious import is particularly dependent upon these relationships, it follows that an exploration of these various accounts is the best way to gain insight into the god's character.

Dumuzi and Inanna

The multifaceted relationship between Inanna and Dumuzi, which was characterized equally by sensuous, erotic love and bitter recriminations, provides fodder for a considerable body of Sumerian and Babylonian mythology.

In the first case, the amorous component of their relationship is baldly attested to in a large corpus of pastoral poems and songs, which relate the early stages of the love affair between Inanna (the goddess of fertility) and Dumuzi (either a human shepherd or the god of shepherds). This romantic connection is described in great detail in The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi, a poem that is notable for both its tenderness and its graphic depictions of sexuality:

Inanna sang:
"Make your milk sweet and thick, my bridegroom.
My shepherd, I will drink your fresh milk.
Wild bull Dumuzi, make your milk sweet and thick.
I will drink your fresh milk.
Let the milk of the goat flow in my sheepfold.
Fill my holy churn with honey cheese.
Lord Dumuzi, I will drink your fresh milk.
My husband, I will guard my sheepfold for you.
I will watch over your house of life, the storehouse,
The shining quivering place which delights Sumer –
The house which decides the fates of the land,
The house which gives the breath of life to the people.
I, the queen of the palace, will watch over your house."[5]

According to the myth of Inanna's descent to the underworld, represented in parallel Sumerian and Akkadian[6] tablets, Inanna (Ishtar in the Akkadian texts) set off for the netherworld, or Kur, which was ruled by her sister Ereshkigal, perhaps to take it as her own. She passed through seven gates and at each one was required to leave a garment or an ornament so that when she had passed through the seventh gate she was entirely naked. Despite warnings about her presumption, she did not turn back but dared to sit herself down on Ereshkigal's throne. Immediately the Anunnaki of the underworld judged her, gazed at her with the eyes of death, and she became a corpse, hung up on a nail.

Inanna's faithful servant attempted to get help from the other gods but only wise Enki/Ea responded. The details of Enki/Ea's plan differ slightly in the two surviving accounts, but in the end, Inanna/Ishtar was resurrected. However, a "conservation of souls" law required her to find a replacement for herself in Kur. She went from one god to another, but each one pleaded with her and she had not the heart to go through with it until she found Dumuzid/Tammuz richly dressed and on her throne. Inanna/Ishtar immediately set her accompanying demons on Dumuzid/Tammuz. At this point the Akkadian text fails as Tammuz' sister Belili, introduced for the first time, strips herself of her jewelry in mourning but claims that Tammuz and the dead will come back.

There is some confusion here. The name Belili occurs in one of the Sumerian texts also, but it is not the name of Dumuzid's sister who is there named Geshtinana, but is the name of an old woman whom another text calls Bilulu.

In any case, the Sumerian texts relate how Dumuzid fled to his sister Geshtinana who attempted to hide him but who could not in the end stand up to the demons. Dumuzid has two close calls until the demons finally catch up with him under the supposed protection of this old woman called Bilulu or Belili and then they take him. However Inanna repents.

Inanna seeks vengeance on Bilulu, on Bilulu's murderous son G̃irg̃ire and on G̃irg̃ire's consort Shirru "of the haunted desert, no-one's child and no-one's friend". Inanna changes Bilulu into a waterskin and G̃irg̃ire into a protective god of the desert while Shirru is assigned to watch always that the proper rites are performed for protection against the hazards of the desert.

Finally, Inanna relents and changes her decree thereby restoring her husband Dumuzi to life; an arrangement is made by which Geshtinana will take Dumuzid's place in Kur for 6 months of the year.

Dumuzid/Tammuz being the god of the vegetation cycle, this corresponds to the changing of the seasons as the abundance of the earth diminishes in his absence. He is a life-death-rebirth deity.

The "resurrected" Tammuz: an older interpretation

Based on the texts first found, it was assumed that Ishtar/Inanna's descent into Kur occurred after the death of Tammuz/Dumuzid rather than before and that her purpose was to rescue Tammuz/Dumuzid. This is the familiar form of the myth as it appeared in M. Jastrow's "Descent of the Goddess Ishtar into the Lower World", 1915, widely available on the Internet. Though new texts uncovered in 1963 filled in the story in quite another fashion,[7] the old interpretation still lingers on, especially among those who seek parallels to the resurrected Christ: in this vein Paul Carus "The ancient Tammuz is one of the most important prototypes of Christ. He is a god-man, an incarnation of the deity who is born as a human being, dies in the course of time and eakes to life again."[8]

Aside from the extended epic "The Descent of Inanna," a previously unknown "Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi," was first translated into English and annotated by Sumerian scholar Noah Kramer and folklorist Diane Wolkstein working in tandem, and published in 1983 (Kramer and Wolkstein 1983). Inanna's lover, the shepherd-king Dumuzi, brought a wedding gift of milk in pails, yoked across his shoulders.

The myth of Inanna and Dumuzi formed the subject of a Lindisfarne Symposium, published as The Story of Inanna and Dumuzi: From Folk-Tale to Civilized Literature: A Lindisfarne Symposium, (William Irwin Thompson, editor, 1995).

Historical Antecedents: Dumuzid in the Sumerian king list

In the Sumerian king list two kings named Dumuzi appear:

  • Dumuzid of Bad-Tibira, the shepherd (reigning 36000 years), the fifth King before the Flood
  • Dumuzid of Kua, the fisherman (reigning 100 years), the third King of the first dynasty or Uruk, reigning between Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh the son of Lugalbanda

Other Sumerian texts showed that kings were to be married to Inanna in a mystical marriage, for example a hymn that describes the mystical marriage of King Iddid-Dagan (ca 1900 B.C.E.).[9]

Tammuz in Tamil culture

The name of Dumuzi/Tammuz was carried by Tammuzh, a Tamil Pandyan king in the Dravidian cultural realm of ancient South India, who held his capital at Kuadam. The language and cultural term Tamil is an anglicised form of the native name Tamizhi தமிழ் (IPA /t̪ɐmɨɻ/).See also Legendary early Chola kings which shows similarity between early Chola kings and Ur kingslist.The Pandyans had trading contacts with Ptolemaic Egypt and, through Egypt, with Rome by the first century CE. The 1st century Greek historian Nicolaus of Damascus met at Damascus the embassy sent by an Indian king "named Pandion or, according to others, Porus" to Caesar Augustus around 13 C.E. The names of king and his kingdom have likely been conflated in Nicolaus' account.

Cultic Practice

In Babylonia, the month Tammuz was established in honor of the eponymous god Tammuz, who originated as a Sumerian shepherd-god, Dumuzid or Dumuzi, the consort of Inanna (the Akkadian Ishtar).

Beginning with the summer solstice came a time of mourning in the Ancient Near East as in the Aegean: the Babylonians marked the decline in daylight hours and the onset of killing summer heat and drought with a six-day "funeral" for the god. Readers in four-season temperate cultures may doubt the god as a vegetation god, through misconstruing this seasonal timing, or wishfully see in him a life-death-rebirth deity. "He was no dying and resurrecting vegetation demon, as James George Frazer wanted him to be (for one thing no vegetation demon dies in the spring, in April)," Miroslav Marcovich observed.[10] More to the point, tablets discovered in 1963 show that Dumuzi was in fact consigned to the Underworld himself, in order to secure Inanna's release.[11]

In cult practice, the dead Tammuz was widely mourned in the Ancient Near East. A Sumerian tablet (Ni 4486 from Nippur reads [1]

She can make the lament for you, my Dumuzid, the lament for you, the lament, the lamentation, reach the desert — she can make it reach the house Arali; she can make it reach Bad-tibira; she can make it reach Dul-šuba; she can make it reach the shepherding country, the sheepfold of Dumuzid
"O Dumuzid of the fair-spoken mouth, of the ever kind eyes," she sobs tearfully, "O you of the fair-spoken mouth, of the ever kind eyes," she sobs tearfully. "Lad, husband, lord, sweet as the date, [...] O Dumuzid!" she sobs, she sobs tearfully.[12]

These ceremonies were observed even at the very door of the Temple in Jerusalem, to the horror of the Jewish prophet Ezekiel:

"Then he brought me to the door of the gate of the Lord's house which was toward the north; and, behold, there sat women weeping for Tammuz. Then said he unto to me, 'Hast thou seen this, O son of man? turn thee yet again, and thou shalt see greater abominations than these." — Ezekiel 8.14-15

Ezekiel's testimony is the only direct mention of Tammuz in the Hebrew Bible.

Notes

  1. ↑ Online Etymology Dictionary, retrieved December 21, 2007.
  2. ↑ As Jacobsen (1985) notes, "since the names of ancient Mesopotamian deities usually offer valuable clues to the nature and function of these deities, understanding what the name Dumuzi means might help toward a better understanding of the god himself" (41).
  3. ↑ Jacobsen (1985), 45.
  4. ↑ Campbell (1962): "the dead and resurrected god Tammuz (Sumerian Dumuzi), prototype of the Classical Adonis, who was the consort as well as son by virgin birth, of the goddess-mother of many names: Inanna, Ninhursag, Ishtar, Astarte, Artemis, Demeter, Aphrodite, Venus" (39-40).
  5. ↑ "The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi," as cited on the website of the [academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/jvsickle/mpinacrt.pdf Brooklyn College Classics Department]. Retrieved December 21, 2007.
  6. ↑ Two editions, one ca 1000 B.C.E. found at Ashur, the other mid seventh century B.C.E. from the library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh.
  7. ↑ Yamauchi, 283-290.
  8. ↑ Cited by Yamauchi, 284.
  9. ↑ Kramer (1963), 485-527.
  10. ↑ Marcovich, 49.
  11. ↑ Yamauchi, 283-290.
  12. ↑ "Inana and Bilulu: an ulila to Inana," at the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, (Oxford)(English version); (Sumerian version).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Barton, George A. "Tammuz and Osiris." Journal of the American Oriental Society 35 (1915). 213-223.
  • Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Robson, E., and Zólyomi, G. (editors and translators). "Inana and Bilulu: an ulila to Inana." The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. Oxford University, 2003-2006. Retrieved December 21, 2007. [2]
  • Campbell, Joseph. Occidental Mythology: The Masks of God. New York: Viking Penguin, 1964. ISBN 0140194428
  • Campbell, Joseph. Oriental Mythology: The Masks of God. New York: Viking Penguin, 1962. ISBN 0285636073
  • Jacobsen, Thorkild. "The Name Dumuzi." The Jewish Quarterly Review (New Series) 76:1, Essays in Memory of Moshe Held, (July 1985). 41-45.
  • Jacobsen, Thorkild. "Toward the Image of Tammuz." History of Religions 1:2 (Winter 1962). 189-213.
  • Kramer, Samuel Noah. "Cuneiform Studies and the History of Literature: The Sumerian Sacred Marriage Texts." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 107 (1963). 485-527.
  • Kramer, Samuel Noah. "The Death of Dumuzi: A New Sumerian Version." Anatolian Studies 30, Special Number in Honour of the Seventieth Birthday of Professor O. R. Gurney, (1980). 5-13.
  • Kramer, Samuel Noah. "Dumuzi's Annual Resurrection: An Important Correction to 'Inanna's Descent.'" Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 183 (October 1966). 31.
  • Kramer, Samuel Noah and Wolkstein, Diane. Inanna : Queen of Heaven and Earth. New York: Harper & Row, 1983. ISBN 0-06-090854-8
  • Lambert, W. G. "A Neo-Babylonian Tammuz Lament." Journal of the American Oriental Society 103:1, Studies in Literature from the Ancient Near East, by Members of the American Oriental Society, Dedicated to Samuel Noah Kramer (January - March 1983). 211-215.
  • Marcovich, Miroslav. "From Ishtar to Aphrodite." Journal of Aesthetic Education 30:2, Special Issue: Distinguished Humanities Lectures II, (Summer 1996). 43-59.
  • Meek, Theophile James. "Canticles and the Tammuz Cult." The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 39:1 (October 1922). 1-14.
  • Powell, Barry B. Classical Myth (Second Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998. ISBN 0137167148.
  • Prince, J. Dyneley. "A Hymn to Tammuz." The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 27:1 (October 1910). 84-89.
  • Prince, J. Dyneley. "A Tammuz Fragment." Journal of the American Oriental Society 33 (1913). 345-348.
  • Wright, G. R. H. "Dumuzi at the Court of David." Numen 28: Fascicle 1 (June 1981). 54-63.
  • Yamauchi, Edwin M. "Tammuz and the Bible." Journal of Biblical Literature 84:3 (September 1965). 283-290.

External links

All links retrieved December 21, 2007

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