Music

Music is an auditory art that has the power to move people emotionally and is the skill or dexterity for creating meaningful arrangments of sounds with relation to pitch, rhythm, and tonality. Music is sometimes more specifically referred to as a natural intuitive phenomenon operating in the three worlds of time, pitch, energy, and under three distinct and interrelated organization structures of rhythm, harmony, and melody. It is thought that since music is natural and intuitive, humans can also virtually perform and hear music in their mind, without even learning or understanding it. Generally, in this society, music is known and accepted as an intellectual perception or apprehension of specific arrangements of sounds that give an emotional reaction. In that sense one could say that, all human emotions can be transmitted through the power of music.

Traditionally, one of the major difficulties in defining music has been to use words to try to describe all activities and things related to music and/or sound. For example, scores only become music through performance(s), or when (recorded) performances are replayed.

If music were regarded as an intuitive phenomenon, composing, improvising and performing it are art forms, listening to it can be a source of entertainment, while learning and comprehension are disciplines.

What is music?

Music is often defined by contrast with noise (environmental)|noise or speech. Some definitions of music place it explicitly within a cultural context by defining music as to what people accept as musical.

Broadly, here are some groups of definitions:

• Those that define music as an external, physical fact, for example "organized sound", or as a specific type of perception
• Those that label it, according to context, as a social construction or subjective experience
• Those that label it as an artistic process or product, with the related psychological phenomena
• Those that seek a platonism|platonic or quasi-platonic ideal of music which is not rooted in specifically physical or mental terms, but in a higher truth.

The definition of music as sound with particular characteristics is taken as a given by psychoacoustics, and is a common one in musicology and performance. In this view, there are observable patterns to what is broadly labeled music, and while there are understandable cultural variations, the properties of music are the properties of sound as perceived and processed by people.

Traditional philosophies define music as tones ordered horizontally (as melodies) and vertically (as harmonies). Music theory, within this realm, is studied with the presupposition that music is orderly and often pleasant to hear.

John Cage is the most famous advocate of the idea that anything can be music, saying, for example, "There is no noise, only sound." According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez :

"The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be."

In support of the view that music is a label for a totality of different aspects which are culturally constructed. Often a definition of music lists the aspects or elements that make up music. Molino (1975: 43) argues that, in addition to a lack of consensus, "any element belonging to the total musical fact can be isolated, or taken as a strategic variable of musical production." . Nattiez gives as examples Mauricio Kagel's Con Voce [with voice], where a masked trio silently mimes playing instruments. In this example sound, a common element, is excluded, while gesture, a less common element, is given primacy.

The platonic ideal of music is currently the least fashionable in the philosophy of criticism and music, because it is crowded on one side by the physical view - what is the metasubstance of music made of, if not sound? - and on the other hand by the constructed view of music - how can one tell the difference between any meta-narrative of music and one which is merely inter-subjective? However, its appeal, finding unexpected mathematical relationships in music, and finding analogies between music and physics, for example string theory, means that this view continues to find adherents, including such critics and performers as Charles Rosen* and Edward Rothstein*.

As to mathmatics, it is found that music of the Baroque period (including Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) has a measurable rythym that enhances the learning process of the brain so that schools are known to use this as a method of study.

Aspects of music

The traditional or classical European aspects of music often listed are those elements given primacy in European-influenced classical music: melody, harmony, rhythm, tone/timbre, and Musical form. A more comprehensive list is given by stating the aspects of sound: Pitch, timbre, sound intensity, and duration. These aspects combine to create secondary aspects including structure, texture and style. Other commonly included aspects include the spatial location or the movement in space of sounds, gesture, and dance. Silence is also often considered an aspect of music, if it is considered to exist.

As mentioned above, not only do the aspects included as music vary, their importance varies. For instance, melody and harmony are often considered to be given more importance in classical music at the expense of rhythm and timbre. John Cage considered duration the primary aspect of music because it is the only aspect common to both "sound" and "silence."

It is often debated whether there are aspects of music that are universal. The debate often hinges on definitions, for instance the fairly common assertion that "tonality" is a universal of all music may necessarily require an expansive definition of tonality. A pulse (music)|pulse is sometimes taken as a universal, yet there exist solo vocal and instrumental genres with free, improvisational rhythms with no regular pulse. One example is the alap section of a Hindustani music performance. According to Frank Zappa,

"We must ask whether a cross-cultural musical universal is to be found in the music itself (either its structure or function) or the way in which music is made. By 'music-making,' I intend not only actual performance but also how music is heard, understood, even learned."

Common terms

Common terms used to discuss particular pieces include notes, which is an abstraction that refers to either a specific pitch and/or rhythm or the written symbol; melody, which is a succession of notes heard as some sort of unit; chord (music)|chord, which is a simultaneity of notes heard as some sort of unit; chord progression which is a succession of chords (simultaneity succession); harmony, which is the relationship between two or more pitches; counterpoint, which is the simultaneity and organization of different melodies; and rhythm which is the organization of the durational aspects of music.

Production

The music industry is that which creates, performs, and promotes music. A great deal of music is produced by amateurs.

Performance

Someone who performs, composes, or conducts music is a musician. Performance is a method for musicians to share music with others.

Solo and ensemble

Many cultures include strong traditions of solo (music)|solo or soloistic performance, such as in Indian classical music, while other cultures, such as in Bali, Indonesia include strong traditions of musical ensemble|group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing for one's enjoyment to highly planned and organized performance rituals such as the modern classical concert or religion|religious processions. What is called chamber music is often seen as more intimate than symphonic works. A performer is called a musician, a group being a musical ensemble such as a rock band or symphony orchestra.

Oral tradition and notation

Music is often preserved in memory and performance only, handed down by oral history|orally, or aurally ("by ear"). Such music, especially that which has no known individual composer, is often classified as "traditional". Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those which demand the art of improvisation. If the music is written down, it is generally in some manner which attempts to capture both what should be heard by listeners, and what the musician should do to perform the music. This is referred to as musical notation, and the study of how to read notation involves music theory. Written notation varies with style and period of music, and includes scores, lead sheets, guitar tablature, among the more common notations. Generally music which is to be performed is produced as sheet music. To perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the musical style and performance practice expected or acceptable.

Improvisation, interpretation, composition

Most cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving musical material, or musical composition|composition, as held in western classical music. Many, but fewer, cultures also include the related concept of interpretation, performing material conceived by others, to the contrasting concepts of improvisation and free improvisation, which is material that is spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being performed, not preconceived. However, many cultures and people do not have this distinction at all, using a broader concept which incorporates both without discrimination. Improvised music virtually always follows some rules or conventions and even "fully composed" includes some freely chosen material. This is found in Jazz, notably with Miles Davis (Trumpet soloist) improvising against the orchestrations of Gil Evans. Also artists' improvisations in Jazz, have been orchestrated (Thelonious Monk) and solos even vocalised (called vocalese) a tradition including, Eddie Jefferson, King Pleasure, Lambert, Hendricks and Ross. See, (precompositional). Composition does not always mean the use of notation, or the known sole authorship of one individual.

Mimicry is also used in music, where various instruments or voice are used to imitate nature or even urban sounds such as trains, cars, machinery etc. or even bizarre, as in 'Ball and Chain.' a blues piece.

Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may create musical sounds, examples of this range from wind chimes, through computer programs which select sounds. Music which contains elements selected by chance is called Aleatoric music, and is most famously associated with John Cage and Witold Lutosławski. See: (precompositional), form (music), modulation (music)|modulation, twelve tone technique, serialism, and process music.

Compositions

Musical composition is a term that describes the makeup of a piece of music. Methods of composition vary widely, however in analyzing music all forms — spontaneous, trained, or untrained — are built from elements comprising a musical piece. Music can be composed for repeated performance or it can be improvised, or composed on the spot. The music can be performed entirely from memory, from a written system of musical notation, or some combination of both. Study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African drummers. What is important in understanding the composition of a piece is singling out its elements. An understanding of music's formal elements can be helpful in deciphering exactly how a piece is made. A universal element of music is time or more generally rhythm. When a piece appears to have no time, it is considered 'rubato'. The Italian term, meaning "free time," does not mean "without rhythm," but rather that the 'tempo' or time of the piece changes dynamically. Even random placement of random sounds, often occurring in musical montage, occurs within some kind of time, and thus employs time as a musical element. Any musical event comprised of elements can be considered a "composition."

Reception and audition

The field of music cognition involves the study of many aspects of music including how it is processed by listeners.

Music is experienced by individuals in a huge variety of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large concert. Concerts take many different forms and may include people dressing in formal wear and sitting quietly in the rows of auditoriums, drinking and dancing in a bar, or loudly cheering and booing in an auditorium.

Deaf or aurally challenged people can experience music by feeling the vibrations in their body; the most famous example of a deaf musician is the composer Ludwig van Beethoven, who composed many famous works even after he had completely lost his hearing. In more modern times, Evelyn Glennie, who has been deaf since the age of twelve, is a highly acclaimed percussionist. Also, Chris Buck, a violinist virtuoso and New Zealander, has recently lost his hearing. See: Baschet Brothers. See: psychoacoustics.

Media

The music that composers create can be heard through several media; the most traditional way is to hear it live, in the presence, or as one of, the musicians. Live music can also be broadcast over the radio, television or the internet. Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance, while others focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never played "live". Recording, even of styles which are essentially live often uses the ability to edit and splice to produce recordings which are considered "better" than the actual performance.

In many cultures there is less distinction between performing and listening to music, as virtually everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity, often communal. In industrialized countries, listening to music through a recorded form, such as a sound recording or watching a music video, became more common than experiencing live performance, roughly in the middle of the 20th century. Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds; for example, a disc jockey or DJ uses gramophone record|disc records for scratching. People often exercise to videos, radios, tapes or downloaded music on ipods, finding the music and/or rhythm enhances the workout. Audiences can also become performers by using Karaoke, invented by the Japanese, which uses music video and tracks without voice, so the performer can add his voice to the piece.

Education

Training

Many people, including entire cultures, compose, perform, and improvise music with no training and feel no need for training. The 'look see' method seems to poular too. Other cultures have traditions of rigorous formal training that may take years and serious dedication. Sometimes this training takes the form of apprenticeship. For example, Music of India|Indian training traditionally take more years than a college education and involves spiritual discipline and reverence for one's guru or teacher. In the music of Indonesia|Bali, everyone learns and practices together. It is also common for people to take music lessons, short private study sessions with an individual teacher, when they want to learn to play or compose music, usually for a fee. A famous private composition teacher is Nadia Boulanger.

The Suzuki method is a way of teaching, or educational philosophy, most often used in learning to play music. The name is also sometimes used to refer solely to the sheet music books and/or audio recordings which have been published as part of the method. It was invented in the mid-20th century by Dr. Shin'ichi Suzuki. Dr. Suzuki noticed that all children pick up their native language very quickly, and even dialects which adults consider "difficult" to learn are spoken with ease by people of 5 or 6 years. He reasoned that if a person has the skill to acquire their mother tongue, then they have the necessary ability to become proficient on a musical instrument. He modeled his method, which he called "Talent Education" (jap. 才能教育 sainō kyōiku), after the process of natural language acquisition. Dr. Suzuki believed that every child, if properly taught, was capable of a high level of musical achievement. He also made it clear that the goal of such musical education was to create generations of children with "noble hearts" (as opposed to creating famous musical prodigies).

The Suzuki method was first developed for the study of the violin but has been adapted for flute, recorder, piano, guitar, cello, viola, bass, organ, harp and voice. In addition, there are a few "Suzuki Preschools" which have adapted Dr. Suzuki's philosophy to use in non-musical disciplines. Contents Dr. Suzuki incorporated the suzuki method in which a child is taught to learn an instrument through the parent prior to being schooled in primary education.

Secondary education

The incorporation of music performance and theory into a general liberal arts curriculum, from preschool to postsecondary education, is relatively common. Western style secondary schooling is increasingly common around the world, such as STSI in Bali. Meanwhile, western schools are increasingly including the study of the music of other cultures such as the Balinese gamelan, of which there are currently more than 200 in America.

Study

Many people also study about music in the field of musicology. The earliest definitions of musicology defined three sub-disciplines: systematic musicology, and comparative musicology. In contemporary scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division of the discipline into music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of psychoacoustics. The study of music of non-western cultures, and the cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology.

In Medieval times, the study of music was one of the 'Quadrivium' of the seven liberal Arts and considered vital to higher learning. Within the quantitative Quadrivium, music, or more accurately harmonics, was the study of rational proportions.

Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked, "do animals have music?" François-Bernard Mâche's Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of Ruwet's Language, musique, poésie (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that birdsongs are organized according to a repetition-transformation principle. In the opinion of Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), "in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organized and conceptualized (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human."

Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music, usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the common practice period, or tonal music. Theory, even that which studies music of the common practice period, may take many other forms. Musical set theory is the application of mathematical set theory to music, first applied to atonal music. Speculative music theory, contrasted with analytic music theory, is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example musical tuning|tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition. See "Common Terms" above.

Musiconomy is a discipline which utilizes the a tool developed in the 20th Centruy, the computer. A simliar comparison can be made to astrology and astronomny. When Galileo Galilei introduced the telescope, astrology developed into astronomy. A computer allows the user, simliar to a microscope to focus inward. The observer of a telescope would view outwards into the cosmos. This study also relates to cognitive science.

History

The history of music in relation to human beings predates the written word and is tied to the development and unique expression of various human cultures. Popular styles of music varied widely from culture to culture, and from period to period. Different cultures emphasized different musical instrument|instruments, or techniques. Music history itself is the distinct subfield of musicology and history, which studies the history of music theory.

The Greek philosopher Pythagoras first described these natural harmonies as being fundamentally pleasing more than 2,500 years ago. An octave, the notes of the scale, and certain harmonics such as the so-called "golden 5th," where the "so" and "do" notes are sounded together, are examples of these consonant sounds. The consonant tones, sounds generally associated with the words "in tune" and prevalent in Western music ranging as far afield as Beethoven and Motown, were able to readily attract the attention of infants being held by the pirparents. At the same time, children hardly responded to more dissonant combinations — for example, C and F sharp played together. These out-of-tune sounding notes are often used by atonal composers such as Schoenberg and Berg, not to mention rap groups such as Public Enemy.

The Middle Ages

Around 500 C.E., western civilization began to emerge from the period known as "The Dark Ages," For the next ten centuries, the newly emerging Christian Church would dominate Europe, dictating the destiny of music, art and literature. During this time, Pope Gregory I is generally believed to have collected and codified the music known as Gregorian Chant, the approved music of the Church. Much later, the University at Notre Dame in Paris saw the creation of a new kind of music called organum. Secular music was sung all over Europe by the troubadours and trouvères of France.

The Renaissance

Generally considered to be from ca.1420 to 1600, the Renaissance (which literally means "rebirth") was a time of great cultural awakening and a flowering of the arts and sciences throughout Europe. With the rise of humanism, sacred music began for the first time to break free of the confines of the Church. Composers trained in the Netherlands mastered the art of polyphony in their settings of sacred music. These polyphonic traditions reached their culmination in the unsurpassed works of Giovanni da Palestrina. Of course, secular music thrived during this period, and instrumental and dance music was performed if not always written down. The late Renaissance also saw in England the flourishing of the English madrigal, the best known of which were composed by such masters as John Dowland, William Byrd, Thomas Morley and others.

The Baroque

Named after the ornate architectural style of the time, the Baroque period (ca.1600 to 1750) saw composers rebel against the styles of the High Renaissance. Many monarchs employed composers at their courts, where they were servants expected to churn out music for any occasion. The greatest composer of the period, Johann Sebastian Bach, served in such a capacity. Yet the best composers of the time were able create an entirely new style of music. During the early part of the seventeenth century the genre of opera was first produced by a group of composers in Florence, Italy, the earliest operatic masterpieces composed by Claudio Monteverdi. The instrumental concerto became a staple of the Baroque era, and was found in the works of the Venetian composer Antonio Vivaldi. Harpsichord music also achieved new heights, due to the works of Domenico Scarlatti and others. Vocal and choral music still reigned supreme during this age, and culminated in the operas and oratorios of German-born composer George Frideric Handel.

The Classical Period

From roughly 1750 to 1820, artists, and musicians moved away from the ornamental styles of the Baroque and the Rococo, and instead embraced the clean, uncluttered style of Classical Greece. The new aristocracies were replacing monarchs and the church as patrons of the arts, and were demanding an impersonal, but tuneful and elegant music. Dances such as the minuet and the gavotte were provided in the forms of entertaining serenades and divertimenti.

At this time the Austrian capital of Vienna became the musical center of Europe. Composers came from all over Europe to train in and around Vienna, and gradually they developed and formalized the standard musical forms of the European musical culture for the next several decades. A reform of the extravagance of Baroque opera was undertaken by Christoph von Gluck. Johann Stamitz contributed greatly to the growth of the orchestra and developed the idea of the orchestral symphony. The Classical period reached its heights with the masterful symphonies, sonatas, and string quartets by the three great composers of the Viennese school: Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven. During the same period, the first voice of the burgeoning Romantic musical ethic can be found in the music of Viennese composer Franz Schubert.

The Romantic Era

As the many socio-political revolutions of the late eighteenth-century established new social orders and new ways of life and thought, so composers of the period broke new musical ground by adding a new emotional depth to the prevailing classical forms. Throughout the remainder of the nineteenth-century (from ca. 1820 to 1900), artists of all kinds became intent in expressing their subjective, personal emotions. "Romanticism" derives its name from the romances of medieval times — long poems telling stories of heroes and chivalry, of distant lands and far away places, and often of unattainable love. The romantic artists are the first in history to give to themselves the name by which they are identified.

The earliest Romantic composers were all born within a few years of each other in the early years of the nineteenth century. These include the great German masters Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann ; the Polish poet of the piano Frédéric Chopin; the French genius Hector Berlioz ; and the greatest pianistic showman in history, the Hungarian composer Franz Liszt.

During the early nineteenth century, opera composers such as Carl Maria von Weber turned to German folk stories for the stories of their operas, while the Italians looked to the literature of the time and created what is known as Bel canto opera (literally "beautiful singing"). Later in the century, the field of Italian opera was dominated by Giuseppe Verdi, while German opera was virtually monopolized by Richard Wagner. Orchestra of the Opera by Edward Degas

During the nineteenth century, composers from non-Germanic countries began looking for ways in which they might express the musical soul of their homelands. Many of these Nationalist composers turned to indigenous history and legends as plots for their operas, and to the popular folk melodies and dance rhythms of their homelands as inspiration for their symphonies and instrumental music. Others developed a highly personal harmonic language and melodic style which distinguishes their music from that of the Austro-Germanic traditions.

The continued modification and enhancement of existing instruments, plus the invention of new ones, led to the further expansion of the symphony orchestra throughout the century. Taking advantage of these new sounds and new instrumental combinations, the late Romantic composers of the second half of the nineteenth-century created richer and ever larger symphonies, ballets, and concertos. Two of the giants of this period are the German-born Johannes Brahms and the great Russian melodist Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Improvisation 28 second revision by Vasily Kandinsky

The Twentieth-Century

By the turn of the century and for the next few decades, artists of all nationalities were searching for exciting and different modes of expression. Composers such as Arnold Schoenberg explored unusual and unorthodox harmonies and tonal schemes. French composer Claude Debussy was fascinated by Eastern music and the whole-tone scale, and created a style of music named after the movement in French painting called Impressionism. Hungarian composer Béla Bartók continued in the traditions of the still strong Nationalist movement and fused the music of Hungarian peasants with twentieth century forms. Avant-garde composers such as Edgard Varèse explored the manipulation of rhythms rather than the usual melodic/harmonic schemes. The tried-and-true genre of the symphony, albeit somewhat modified by this time, attracted such masters as Gustav Mahler and Dmitri Shostakovich, while Igor Stravinsky gave full rein to his manipulation of kaleidoscopic rhythms and instrumental colors throughout his extremely long and varied career.

While many composers throughout the twentieth-century experimented in new ways with traditional instruments (such as the "prepared piano" used by American composer John Cage), many of the twentieth-century's greatest composers, such as Italian opera composer Giacomo Puccini and the Russian pianist/composer Sergei Rachmaninoff, remained true to the traditional forms of music history. In addition to new and eclectic styles of musical trends, the twentieth century boasts numerous composers whose harmonic and melodic styles an average listener can still easily appreciate and enjoy.

Genres

As there are many definitions for music there are many divisions and groupings of music, many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music. Among the larger genres are European classical music|classical music, popular music or commercial music (including rock and roll), country music and folk music. Opera, with the libretto set to music has been called the most complete art in that it incorporates all the arts, auditory, visual and dramatics. Variations of this of course include, operetta or light opera (the Merry Widow, Gilbert & Sullivan etc.) vaudeville, and the modern musical (perhaps the most original American art-form along with the Blues).

There is often disagreement over what constitutes "real" music: Mozart, Stravinsky, serialism, jazz, hip hop, punk rock, and electronica have all been considered non-music at various times and places. Of course Classical music is generally played strictly according to written scores but improvisation is known, for instance, with Beethoven, who would often do so freely and Gabriela Montera the modern Argentine-born pianist who plays Classical concerts and improvises in clubs. 'Cross-over artists,' are those that have embraced more than one musical genre. For instance; Keith Jarett, pianist, the Marsalis brothers, Wynton (trumpet) and Branford (soprano saxaphone) Jazz artists are equally at home in the Classical genre. Divas such as, Dame Kiri Te Kanawa and Kathleen Battle have been known to sing Popular Standards, Gospel and even Lullabys in different languages.

Genres of music are as often determined by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. While most classical music is acoustic and meant to be performed by individuals or groups, many works described as "classical" include samples or tape, or are mechanical. Some works, like George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, are claimed by both jazz and classical music. The idea of 'free music' as in 'free jazz' is an example of music trying to stretch itself within the boundaries of that genre. In Folk-Rock or Classical-Rock, forms show the unity of different genres trying to exist together as with many 'new waves', New Flamenco, New Age, composites of traditional forms with computer generated sounds and on and on.

As world cultures have been globalization|in greater contact, their indigenous musical styles have often merged into new styles. For example, the US-American bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and some African-American instrumental and vocal traditions, and could only have been a product of the 20th Century.

Many current music festivals celebrate a particular musical genre.

See: List of genres of music.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Chocholle, R. (1973). Le Bruit. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Harwood, Dane (1976). "Universals in Music: A Perspective from Cognitive Psychology", Ethnomusicology 20, no. 3:521-33.
• Johnson, Julian, Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value. Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0195146816.
• Molino, Jean (1975). "Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique", Musique en Jeu, no. 17:37-62.
• Nattiez, Jean-Jacques, Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990). ISBN 0691027145.
• Owen, Harold. Music Theory Resource Book. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0195115392.

See also

Music Portal

External links

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School of Music

Wikisource has an original article from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica about:

Music

• MusicNovatory: the science of music encyclopedia
• The Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Distionary, with definitions, pronunciations, examples, quizzes and simulations
• Music City a collaborative music database

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