Moksha

Moksha (Sanskrit for “liberation” or “self-realization”) is the highest goal of life in the Hindu religion. Also known as mukti (release), moksha refers to the sumum bonum of Hindu thought when one’s soul is freed from the karmic suffering of the samsaric world. Moksha/mukti then are Hindu words for the escape from the cycle of death and rebirth and all limitations entailed in embodied worldly existence. In higher Hindu philosophy, it is seen as a transcendence of phenomenal being, of any sense of consciousness of time, space, and causation (karma). It signifies a dissolution of the sense of self as an egoistic personality - the undoing of conditioned mentality-materiality or nama-rupa (lit. name-form).

Hinduism provides a number of spiritual paths and disciplines for a practicioner to attain moksha, allowing such diversity for different types of people. However, it is said that the attainment of moksha is very rare and countless incarnations are required for a person to reach this state of spiritual perfection. During moksha, one allegedly gains self-realization and complete awareness of ultimate reality. As Hinduism's ultimate goal, moksha could be described as the general equivalent for what is called “salvation” in the Abrahamic religions; however, Hindu concepts of salvation are based on very different underlying presuppositions than the Abrahamic faiths and may not be commensurate.

History

Vedic Hinduism was primarily concerned with maintaining the order of this world by making sacrificial offerings to the gods. A shift away from this tradition occurred around the time of the Upanishads (ca. 600) with more focus placed upon the individual goal of attaining personal liberation. The ascendency of the doctrines of karma and samsara within Indian thought facilitated the rise of the concept of moksha, and these ideas eventually became inextricably linked. The prospect of an endless chain of births, deaths and rebirths inspired Hindu religious thinkers to formulate some means by which to escape this cycle. The solution which Upanishadic thinkers most often prescribed was the acheivement of liberation through knowledge (jnana) that the essence of the self is ultimately unchanging (i.e., that the atman is equivalent to the supreme spirit Brahman). When this idea is fully comprehended, the atman is emancipated from samsara and the activity of karma. Moksha, then, served to connote this emancipation.

The concept of moksha became particularly prominent in the Upanishadic era; essentially, when one is liberated from all desire, the true self will be released. This is in contrast to early Vedism, which prescribed goals that were in relation to the Gods; it offered no permanent changes of a metaphysical or psychological nature such as the ultimate goal of moksha (Herman, 29). The early Vedas were primarily focused on worldly-affairs although they also spoke of a "svarga" (heaven) for warriors after death. The Upanishads became more abstract and its defining characteristic was its ability to lead its adherents to advanced states of consciousness, and in particular to liberation, or moksha. It is necessary for all attachments and desires to be abandoned. This ideal is something of a paradox, as one must cease the desire for moksha itself, while still attempting to attain it. There is also great important placed upon knowledge as a path to ultimate liberation during this period. This is different from the common practices of the Vedic period that focused on outwardly directed displays of ritual (in particular on sacrifice); instead the focus is on the attainments of the permanent state of liberation, and a greater inward focus on the Self (Herman, 100). This goal of moksha continued on after the Upanishadic period, throughout later Hindu tradition. Here it is established that moksha is the ultimate goal of religious activity, an idea which would influence nearly all forms of post-Upanishadic Hinduism. It became widely acknowledged as one of the four Vedic aims of life, or parusarthas, which include dharma (right conduct), artha (wealth), kama (pleasure), and moksha.

Hindu Aims of Life

In classical Hinduism, there are four aims of life (purusarthas) that Hindus are encouraged to follow. These four aims of life are known as, artha (wealth), kama (pleasure), dharma (right conduct), and moksha (liberation). These aims were usually understood in hierarcial fashion with the practicioner working upward from the lower more self-centered goals towards the higher spiritual goals of life. The first and second aims allow for pursuits such as material wealth and are most commonly associated with what is known as the householder stage of life. However, higher still is the goal of dharma (right conduct) that is considered to be a precursor to the pursuit of spiritual liberation. Finally, a Hindu can seek the highest goal of moksha (liberation) if one so wishes. The Hindu texts instruct that one should pursue this goal when one has retired, or when one becomes a sanyassin (renunciate), one who is wholly devoted to attaining liberation (Thompson, 35).

Different Paths towards Moksha

Unlike other world religions which teach that the path to salvation is narrow, Hinduism allows for a plurality of ways to attain moksha depending on the personalities, tastes, and temperments of its different devotees. In general, four different spiritual paths are widely accepted in Hinduism. They are the ways of selfless work (Karma Yoga), of self-dissolving love (Bhakti Yoga), of absolute discernment (Jnana Yoga), and of 'royal' meditative immersion (Raja Yoga). Different schools of Hinduism place varying emphasis on one path or other, some of the most famous being the tantric and yogic practices developed in Hinduism.

• Karma marga is a path that allows someone who is seeking liberation to remain within society instead of becoming a renunciate, while also cultivating qualities important in the achievement of salvation. One can therefore act for the good of society while pursuing spiritual progress and adhering to standards of correct action.
• Jnana marga is known as the path of wisdom, and places much emphasis on study and pursuit of knowledge. Often this includes the study of philosophy, and more specifically philosophies that address Brahman and one’s connection to the Supreme. Typically this includes the identification of ones soul, or atman, with the universal divinity (Thompson, 36). In Hinduism, self-realization (atma siddhi) is the key to obtaining Moksha.
• Bhakti marga, or devotional Hinduism, is the most common path in Hinduism today. Bhakti involves cultivating a very personal connection to the divine through a conduit, found in the form of a deity (Thompson, 37). This path was popularized in part by Ramanuja of the Vishishtadvaita Vedanta philosophical school that advocated a more personal relationship with the divine. Bhakti typically includes devotional worship of a chosen deity, and the expression of single-minded love (Fisher, 102). Some of the most popular deities in Hinduism include Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Ganesha, or Devi (the Mother Goddess). It is often siad that by worshipping various deities, devotees are really giving praise to one of the many forms of Brahman, the supreme underlying divinity in all things. Hindu deities are but one manifestation or expression of this universal and all-encompassing force.

Philosophical Perspectives

The main philosophical schools of India all have different approaches to attaining moksha, and therefore teach different philosophies about the concept. The actual state of salvation is seen differently depending on one's beliefs.

• In Advaita philosophy, the ultimate truth is not a singular Godhead, per se, but rather is oneness without form or being, something that essentially is without manifestation. Moksha is recognition and union with this oneness. Liberation occurs when the individual soul (human mind/spirit) or atman recognizes its identity with the Ground of all being - the Source of all phenomenal existence known as Brahman. It is technically incorrect, nonetheless, to view them - both often spoken of as Self - as a monist being of sorts, something possessing substances, qualities or attributes. In actuality, Hindu scripture like the Upanishads, Ipanashad and Bhagavad Gita, and especially the non-dual Hindu school of Advaita Vedanta, say that the Self or Super-Soul is beyond being and non-being, beyond any sense of tangibility and comprehension. Moksha is seen as a final release from one's worldly conception of self, the loosening of the shackle of experiential duality and a re-establishment in one's own fundamental nature, though the nature is seen as ineffable and beyond sensation

• In dualist and qualified advaitic Hinduism, Moksha means union or close association with God.

Samkya school is dualistic and describes reality as consisting of the material world and spiritual world in tension. Essentially, our spirits are entangled with matter, and to achieve liberation, we must be able to discern between the two and separate our spirit (purusa) from the material realm (prakrti).

Raja Yoga is another philosophical school that is often misunderstood in the West. The word "Yoga" derives from the Sanskrit root yuj meaning "to harness, or control". The goal of yoga thus is to harness or control one's thoughts and mental fluctualtions so that one can discriminate between the true self (Pursha) and matter (prakriti). The eighth limb (stage) of Raja Yoga is that of samadhi, which is attaining absorption into the divine. At this stage one is unaware of any sense of individuality or self, having sunk so deeply into meditative contemplation. When the state of moksha is attained, all karmic forces are halted, and the purusa is left alone, free of prakrti. The one who has attained liberation may then continue with their life and assist others in achieving spiritual goals, but will do so with an enlightened frame of mind that is unencumbered by the entanglements of prakrti, and therefore has realization of their true identity. Unique to the Yoga school is the acceptance of this state of liberation while still alive and possessing a physical body; it is this tenet of the Yoga philosophical school which critics have declared contradictory to the idea of moksha as complete detachment from all matter (Fowler, 234). Yet, this concept of moksha as a state attained in life and not after death may be perceived by some as a more favourable or positive prospect.

The sixth school of thought, Vedanta, has many different schools and interpretations within it, but most are strongly influenced by scripture of the Vedic period, especially the Upanishads. In the Advaita Vedanta school, founded by Shankara, a non-dualistic approach is advocated. The divine inhabits all things, and there is only one reality. A phrase that illustrates this sentiment, is ‘tat tvam asi’, or that you are which expresses the unity between Atman (one's soul), Brahman (the Supreme). In fact, Brahman, the divine, is so all encompassing as to be ineffable. To attempt to express it would be to limit it within conceptual framework. Shankara does however distinguish between two different kinds of Brahman; saguna Brahman is the lower form, which can posses attributes, and nirguna Brahman which cannot be conceptualized in any way due to its all encompassing nature. The reason we don’t easily recognize Brahman for what it is, is because our world is essentially an illusion; in order to attain moksha, one must achieve self-realization through self-effort. Liberation in the Advaita Vedanta school is essentially being, knowing, and experiencing ones true self as well as the defeat of all ones misconceptions about the world and reality (Fowler, 277). In achieving moksha, the Atman remains as it always was, except that it now is perceived in its true form.

Ramanuja's influential Vishishtadvaita Vedanta school can be described as promoting qualified non-dualism. While Brahman is still the ultimate underlying force residing in all things, it is qualified by three attributes or components: the cit (soul), acit (matter), and Isvara (God) (Hiriyanna, 398). By acknowledging Isvara as being a legitimate part of Brahman, it makes it much easier for people to connect with the divine on a personal level, and attain liberation. This devotional theism is the defining characteristic of Vishishtadvaita school and its development helped popularize the practice of bhakti, or devotional Hinduism. The concept of moksha in Vishishtadvaita school is one that reflects a highly theistic approach, as the liberated soul maintains a personal relationship with God after having attained moksha instead of experiencing a separation from all other things. In contrast to Shankaras Vedanta school, moksha can be attained only by the grace of god alone, not purely by self-effort; hence devotion to God is very important in Ramanujas school (Fowler, 336). Additionally, Ramanuja also taught that anyone could attain moksha, salvation was not limited purely to male members of the priestly caste (Hiriyanna, 412).

Another Vedanta school was Dvaita Vedanta, founded by Madhva. A different philosophy is subscribed to yet again; in this case, reality is dualistic, and there is a difference between the world with all the souls residing within it, and the ultimate divinity. The material world is completely separate from God, and therefore moksha is attained by achieving awareness of the distinction between self and divine, not the unity between the two. Brahman reveals itself to beings through the means of a personal form of God; therefore Dvaita school is theistic in nature. Like in the Vishishtadvaita school, continuous devotion is essential to attaining moksha. This state of moksha is characterized as blissful and complete devotional surrender to God, as well as the retention of ones individual nature (Fowler, 376).

Theological Controversies around Moksha

1) jivan mukti above the law? transcend it?

2) merging into the divine lose one'd identity all duality vanishes, or unite with divine but retain a distinct identy.

3) role in world foresake it or stay engaged to help other social service politics like Mahatma Gandhi.

In conclusion, the concept of moksha as liberation from rebirth is a constant and widely accepted goal in nearly all Indian systems of belief. It is also a concept heavily entwined with philosophical matters and questions about the nature of reality, the divine, and salvation, and our own relation to each of these. While many philosophical schools of thought may have different ideas on how moksha may be achieved, they all strive to attain such a goal and prescribe a method of accomplishing that goal.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Fisher, Mary Pat. Living Religions. Laurence King Publishing. London, 2002. ISBN 0-13-099228-3
• Fowler, Jeaneane. Perspective of Reality. Sussex Academic Press. Great Britain, 2002. ISBN 1-898723-93-1
• Goplan, S. Hindu Social Philosophy. Wiley Eastern Limited. New Delhi, 1979. ISBN 0-85226-323-6
• Herman, A.L. An Introduction to Indian Thought. Prentice Hall, Inc. New Jersey, 1976. ISBN 0-13-484477-7
• Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. George Allen & Unwin LTD. London, 1958.
• Koller, John, M. Asian Philosophies. Pearson Education, Inc. New Jersey, 2002. ISBN 0-13-092385-0
• Thompson, Mel. Eastern Philosophy. Hodder Headline LTD. London, 2003. ISBN 0-07-142131-9
• Yocum, G.E. "Moksha." In The Perennial Dictionary of World Religions, Keith Crim, ed. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1989. 488-489. ISBN 0-06-061613-X

External links

• Vipassana Literature on Moksha
• Buddha & Moksha
• Buddhist Literature on Moksha
• Moksha English Dictionary from Webster's Online Dictionary
• MOKSHA French rock band
• Site discusses theistic view of moksha.

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