Millennialism

Millennialism (or chiliasm), from millennium, which literally means "thousand years", is primarily a belief expressed in some Christian denominations, and literature, that that Christ will establish a Kingdom on earth reigned by the saints for a duration of 1,000 year preceding the commencement of the Last Judgment, as described in the book of Revelation 20:1-6. Millennialism as such is a specific form of Millenarianism that is based on some concept of a one thousand year cycle. In Christianity, this is a thousand year reign before the final return of Christ. Sometimes the two terms are used as synonyms, but this is not entirely accurate since Millennial social movements need not be religious. Various other social and political movements, both religious and secular, have appeared in a variety of cultures which are also rooted in the expectation of a time of peace and abundance on earth.. Millenial movements, however, must have a vision of an apocalypse that can be utopian or distopian.

Among Christians who hold this belief, this is not the "end of the world", but the rather penultimate age of existence, prior to when it is believed that the world will end. Some believe that between the millennium and the final end of the world there will be a brief period to allow a final battle with Satan, or a time of the Anti-Christ, followed by the last judgment.

Origins

Pre-Christian

The notion of the utopian millenium, and much of the imagery used by Early Christians to describe this time period, probably had a Persian influence, as well, namely Zoroastrianism. Millennialism is also a doctrine of Zoroastrianism concerning successive thousand-year periods, each of which will end in a cataclysm of heresy and destruction, until the final destruction of evil and of the spirit of evil by a triumphant king of peace at the end of the final millennial age (supposed by some to be the year 2000). "Then Saoshyant makes the creatures again pure, and the resurrection and future existence occur" (Zand-i Vohuman Yasht 3:62).

Millenialism developed out of a uniquely Christian interpretation of the Jewish millenarianism, which took root in Jewish apocryphal apocalyptic literature such as Daniel, the Book of Esdras, from which Jews developed the conception of a messianic Kingdom on Earth which would deliver them from contemporaneous strife. Although never officially recognized by the Catholic Church, millennialism, which had clearly already existed in Jewish thought, received a new interpretation and fresh impetus with the arrival of Christianity. A millennium is a period of one thousand years, and, in particular, Christ's thousand-year rule on this earth, either directly preceding or immediately following the Second Coming (and the Day of Judgement).

During the intertestimental period, a number of apocalyptic works arose in Jewish literature, many of which are now included in the apocryphal canon. These books include 2 Enoch, the Jubilees, and 4 Ezra. Passages within these texts refer to the establishment of a "millenial kingdom" by a messianic figure, occassionally suggesting that the duration of this Kingdom would be a thousand years. These passages include 1 Enoch 6-36, 91-104 and 2 Enoch 33:1, as well as Pss. Sol. 11:1-8, and Jub. 23:27. 4 Ezra 7:28-9 suggests that the kingdom will last only 400 years.

The millennium reverses the previous period of evil and suffering; it rewards the virtuous for their courage while punishing the evil-doers, with a clear separation of saints and sinners. The vision of a thousand-year period of bliss for the faithful, to be enjoyed here on earth ("heaven on earth"), exerted an irresistible power. Although the picture of life in the millennial era is almost willfully obscure and hardly more appealing than that of, say, the Golden Age, what has made the millennium much more powerful than the Golden Age or Paradise myths are the activities of the sects and movements that it has inspired. Throughout the ages, hundreds of sects were convinced that the millennium was imminent, about to begin in the very near future, with precise dates given on many occasions.

In Christian Scripture

Millenialist thinking is primarily based upon Revelation 20:1-6. This pericope describes how, in St. John's vision, an angel descended from heaven with a large chain and a key to a bottomless pit, proceeding to capture Satan and fetter him for a millenium:

He seized the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the Devil and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years and threw him into the pit and locked and sealed it over him, so that he would deceive the nations no more, until the thousand years were ended. After that, he must be let out for a little while (2-3).

St. John then describes a series of judges who are seated on thrones, as well as his vision of the souls of those beheaded for their testimony in favour of Jesus and their rejection of the mark of the beast. These souls

came to life and reigned with Christ a thousand years. (The rest of the dead did not come to life until the thousand years were ended.) This is the first resurrection. Blessed and holy are those who sharie in the first resurrection. Over these the second death has no power, but they will be priests of God and of Christ, and they will reign with him a thousand years. (4-6).

Thus, St. John characterizes a millenium where Christ and the Father will rule over a theocracy of the righteous. While there are an abundance of biblical references to such a kingdom of God throughout the Old and New Testaments, this is the only literal reference in the bible to such a period lasting one thousand years. The literal belief in a thousand year reign of Christ is a later development in Christianity, as it does not seem to have been present in first century texts.

In writing his account of Revelation, Saint John may have been influenced by the tumultuous social climate in Rome at the time. Numerous religious traditons which deviated from the Roman state religion were undermined or destroyed entirely under Roman rule, among which was Christianity. Christian millenialism was one of a number of reactions against the prevailing Roman Empire. Overtaxation, polarization of land-owners and slaves, as well as the general venality of Roman officials had engendered widespread discontent within the Empire. The possibility of deliverance from this state made the thought of a millenium under Jesus' benevolent rule more appealing. Similar social climates set off other uprisings in Millenialist and Millenarian thought, as in the sixteenth century whenAnabaptist leader Thomas Müntzer preached the coming of the highly equalitarian Kingdom of God in order to lead a peasent rebellion in Thuringia, Germany.

Types of Millenialism

In Revelation, the victory of God's Kingdom over Satan occurs in two phases. The first has already happened in part with the advent of Christ (as described in Matthew 20.29), and is completed when Satan is bound for 1000 years, during which time Christ reigns. However, this is not the end of Satan. At the end of the 1000 years, he will return for a short time, until he is finally cast into a lake of fire (Revelation 20: 3-10.)

Millenialism is just one of a number of terms related to the end-times, along with pre-millenialism, chiliasm, dispensationalism, amillenialism, and post-millenialism. These various types are usually divided upon the extent to which Revelation is interpreted in a literal sense. Chiliasm, from the Greek for "a thousand", refers to a fundamental, literal reading of Revelation. This involves a three-stage victory of Christ over Satan, first in Jesus' life, death, resurrection, then in the 1000 year period, and finally, the end. Dispensationalism teaches that the millenium is not a redemptive work of Christ but rather a fulfillment of Israel's history. This view has been popularl among American Fundamentalists who interpret the rise of the new Israel in 1948 as an sign of the impending endtimes. Amillenialisms involves a more symbolic reading of Revelations, considering the thousand year figure as representative of the age of the church. Post-Millenialists believe that the kingdom of God will be realized in the current age, and beleive that the thousand year rule of Christ will not occur until all of society has been converted to Christianity. In all cases, the final destiny of the "saved" souls is a new earth.

Various types of millennialism exist with regard to Christian Eschatology, especially within Protestantism, such as Premillennialism, Postmillennialism, and Amillennialism. The first two refer to different views of the relationship between the "millennial Kingdom" and Christ's second coming. Premillennialism sees Christ's second advent as preceding the millennium, thereby separating the second coming from the final judgment. In this view, "Christ's reign" will be physical. Postmillennialism see's Christ's second coming as subsequent to the millennium and consequent with the final judgment. In this view "Christ's reign" (during the millennium) will be spiritual in and through the church. Amillennialism basically denies a future literal 1000 year Kingdom and sees the church age metaphorically described in Rev. 20:1-6. In this view, "Christ's reign" is current in and through the church.

The early church and premillennialism (chiliasm)

If millenarian beliefs are ignored, dismissed, or ridiculed in mainstream Christian theology today, this was not the case during the early Christian centuries. At least during the first four centuries, millennialism was normative in both East and West. Tertullian, Commodian, Lactantius, Methodius, and Apollinaris of Laodicea all advocated premillennial doctrine. [1] (PDF file) In addition, according to religious scholar Rev. and Dr. Francis Nigel Lee the following is true, "Justin's 'Occasional Chiliasm' sui generis which was strongly anti-pretribulationistic was followed possibly by Pothinus in A.D. 175 and more probably (around 185) by Irenaeus — although Justin Martyr, discussing his own premillennial beliefs in his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, Chapter 110, observed that they were not necessary to Christians:

I admitted to you formerly, that I and many others are of this opinion, and [believe] that such will take place, as you assuredly are aware; but, on the other hand, I signified to you that many who belong to the pure and pious faith, and are true Christians, think otherwise.[2]

Around 220, there were some similar influences on Tertullian though only with very important and extremely optimistic (if not perhaps even postmillennial modifications and implications). On the other hand, 'Christian Chiliastic' ideas were indeed advocated in 240 by Commodian; in 250 by the Egyptian Bishop Nepos in his Refutation of Allegorists; in 260 by the almost unknown Coracion; and in 310 by Lactantius. [3]

Melito of Sardis is frequently listed as a second century proponent of premillennialism. . The support usually given for the supposition is that Jerome [Comm. on Ezek. 36 ] and Gennadius [De Dogm. Eccl., Ch. 52] both affirm that he was a decided millenarian.”.[4]

Chiliasm was, however, condemned as a heresy in the 4th century by the Church, which included the phrase whose Kingdom shall have no end in the Nicene Creed in order to rule out the idea of a Kingdom of God which would last for only 1000 literal years. Despite some writers' belief in millennialism, it was a decided minority view, as expressed in the nearly universal condemnation of the doctrine.

Christian millennialism following the Reformation

Three hundred years before Luther, millenialist sentiments had already begun to stir throughout Europe, due in no small measure to momentous events such as the Black Death and the gradual disentegration of the continent's religious unity. The most notable fifteenth century millenialists were the Taborites, who were inspirited by the teachings of Jan Hus, who had been burnt as a heretic in 1415. After making a considerable social stir, culminating in the murder of Prague's King Wencelsas in 1419, these Hussites decamped to a hill outside Prague, which they named Tabor. Here they established an egalitarian society and awaited Christ's return, remaining a influential force until their demise in 1434.

In the seventeenth century, not surprisingly, millenialism reached a fever pitch largely out of dissatisfaction with the Roman Catholic church and its habitual downplaying of the millenial doctrine. Christian views on the future order of events diversified after the Protestant reformation. In particular, new emphasis was placed on the passages in the Book of Revelation which seemed to say that Satan would be locked away for 1000 years, but then released on the world in a final battle (Rev. 20:1-6). Previous Catholic and Orthodox theologians had no clear or consensus view on what this actually meant (only the concept of an end of the world coming unexpected, "like a thief in a night", and the concept of "the antichrist" were almost universally held). Millennialist theories try to explain what this "1000 years of Satan in chains" would be like.

In the wake of reformers such as Luther and Zwingli, millenialism arose among those who took the reformation in an even more radical direction. Thomas Muntzer called for a complete upheaval of the secular world, including the corrupted Catholic church, in order to hasten the return of Christ. Convinced that the end times were imminent, Muntzer believed that God had called him to the lead role in the coming apocalyptic drama. However, Muntzer and his followers were easily defeated by the German authorities. Hans Hut, one of Muntzer's loyal followers, continued on the message of the immennent millenium. Hut believed that Christ would have returned to Whitsuntide in 1528, though Hut died before this could occur. His followers attempted to set up yet another kingdom of God by force, starting up a communal society.

Another millenialist Anabaptist group which set aside traditional Anabaptist vows of pacificism were those who descended upon the city of Munster Germany in 1534, based upon the prophecies of Melchior Hoffman. When Hoffman's prediction that Strasbourge would become the New Jerusalem in 1533 failed to come true, his followers stormed the city of Munster to start up a city there, expelling all non-Anabaptists and establising a communal abolition of buying and selling. This city also came to impose severe punishment for misconducts, with sexual misconducts punishable by death. Eventually, opponents of the city cut off all trade, leading to widespread squalor, and its anarchical climate came to define Anabaptist traditions for the next hundred years.

Millenialism also took hold in England during the seventeenth century, considering the equation of the antichrist and the Pope which was common during the reign of Elizabeth I, and the idea that with such events like the defeast of the Armada in 1588 that England may have been God's chosen nation. Complex numerologies suggested numerous dates that Christ would return to establish his new kingdom, often pointing toward the year 1666 due to its similarity with the number of the beast, and also 1656, which some believed corresponded to the year after creation in which God flooded the world. Also, the 42 months and 1260 years mentioned in the Book of Danel were figured into these various calculations. The collapse of the four great historical empires mentioned in Daniel also figured in millenialist prophecy. For the so-called Fifth Monarchists, the mounmental death of Charles I was thought to clear the way for the kingdom of Jesus. Jews, who had previously not been allowed to reside in England since the 13th century, were allowed admittance in the 1650's since Christians believed that Jesus' second coming would be delayed so long as Jews remained unconverted.

Post-millennialism

Post-millenialism, the belief that Christ will return to earth after the literal thousand year reign of Christ , has appeared throughout Christianity from the third century ownward. Nonetheless, it has been largely peripheral to mainstream Christian theology. Unlike pre-millenialism, which believes in a secret Rapture of the Church which will allow saints to miss the tribulations of eschaton, post-millenialists believe that these tribulations will be endured by all. The thousand year Kingdom of God will be ushered in by the "true" church regardless of this, and will have to face attacks perpetrated by the Antichrist head-on. The church will be perfected in the meantime, overcoming all evil by setting in motion a religious revival throughout the world.

In the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth century, post-millenialism almost supplanted pre-millenialism in the United States. Nineteenth centurly post-millenialism believed in the supernatural events of Revelation while also embracing natural laws of science and rationality. Post-millenialism allowed proponents such as Johnathan Edwards the ability to preach in favour of social and intellectual progression alongside their calls for a world-wide religious revival. However, in the late nineteenth century, the emergence of biblical criticism made post-millenial doctrines difficult to sustain, since the bible suggests no single eschatology. Further, post-millenialism's sharp dualism which identifies virtually everything outside their boundaries as Satanic, including policital figures and other religious organizations, seemed something of an aberration from mainstream biblical thought. In addition, the rise of modern secularization and skepticism made the post-millenial idea of a ubiquitous revival seem anything but likely.

In the later decades of the twentieth century post-millenialism has been carried on by Neo-Pentacostalism in the denominations of Restorationism and Reconstructionism. Reconstructionists believe that the conservative variations of Christianity can shape North America and the world by way of the basic principles of the Pentateuch, thereby creating the social climate for Christ's millenial Kingdom. Restorationism, which is upheld by a number of Charismatic groups, is a more sectarian form of post-millenialism which urges retreat from society, such that the millenial Kingdom on earth is actually an alternative, counter-culture society run by God's rules.

Premillennial sects look for signs of Christ's imminent return. Other chiliast sects, such as the prophetic Anabaptist followers of Thomas Müntzer, have believed that the millennium had already begun, with only their own members having realized this fact. Consequently, they have attempted to live out their own vision of millennial life, radically overturning the beliefs and practices of the surrounding society. In doing so, they offered a model of the good life and expressed their hope that soon the rest of the world would follow and live like they did.

Transition to the Millennium

Millennial sects have typically believed that the transition from the present age to the millennium would be anything but smooth, with the Antichrist having to be defeated and Jesus' reign on earth having to be established. Millennial theories differ as to whether the battle with the Antichrist will occur before or after the 1000 years. Leaders of some movements have seen it as their responsibility to bring about the expected disastrous wars which would bring an end to the present age. Based on Revelation 20:3, some believe Satan's "Millennial Rebellion" will occur after the 1000 year peace. [5]

On the other hand, those who did not believe in the millennium also imagined the end of the world as chaotic and catastrophic. The word Apocalypse has been used for this final phase of human history as we know it, with Armageddon as the site of the last decisive battle on the Day of Judgement.

An (or the) Apocalypse [from Greek apo "off", "from", "away", "un-" and kalyptein "cover"] is,

• in the Judeo-Christian tradition, a revelation of God's purposes with the main intention of encouraging an oppressed and suffering minority to have faith in God and of proclaiming his ultimate triumph;

• in particular, the revelation of the future granted to John of the isle of Patmos, the author of the Bible's book of Revelation. Many consider this to be the same person as St John (one of the four evangelists), but this is now widely disputed by scholars. Revelation was written in Greek in the 1st century AD and burning with the conviction that the world is about to be destroyed and that Christ's Second Coming is at hand;

• hence, the last book of the New Testament (the "Revelation of St John", the Book of Revelation), which contains it;

• hence, the total destruction and end of the world.

The Book of Revelation is not easy to interpret. Numerous painters and sculptors have produced works of art dealing with the Apocalypse. For example, they portrayed the four horsemen of the Apocalypse, symbolizing pestilence, war, famine, and death.

Millennialism and Utopianism

The early Christian concept had ramifications far beyond strictly religious concern during the centuries to come, as it was blended and enhanced with ideas of utopia.

In the wake of early millennial thinking, the Three Ages philosophy (Drei-Reiche-Lehre) developed. Making use of the dogma of the Trinity, the Italian monk and theologian Joachim of Fiore (d. 1202) claimed that all of human history was a succession of three ages:

1. the Age of the Father (the Old Testament)
2. the Age of the Son (the New Testament)
3. the Age of the Holy Spirit (the age of love, peace, and freedom)

It was believed that the Age of the Holy Spirit would begin at around 1260, and that from then on all believers would be living as monks, mystically transfigured and full of praise for God, for a thousand years until Judgement Day would put an end to the history of our planet.

In the Modern Era, with the impact of religion on everyday life gradually decreasing and eventually almost vanishing, some of the concepts of millennial thinking have found their way into various secular ideas, usually in the form of a belief that a certain historical event will fundamentally change human society (or has already done so). For example, the French Revolution seemed to many to be ushering in the millennial age of reason. Also, the philosophies of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (d. 1831) and Karl Marx (d. 1883) carried strong millennial overtones. As late as 1970, Yale law teacher Charles A. Reich coined the term "Consciousness III" in his best seller The Greening of America, in which he spoke of a new age ushered in by the hippie generation. However, these secular theories generally have little or nothing to do with the original millennial thinking, or with each other.

Secular Millennialism

T'aiping Rebellion

The T'aiping Rebellion, one of largest revolutionary movement in history, was based largely in millenialist doctrine, largely made up of Christian rhetoric. Hung sieou-Tsuien, who orchestrated the movement and became something of a messianic figure for his followers, proclaimed himself to be a younger brother of Jesus Christ. His goal was not only to destroy the Manchu and Confucian influences which presided over Japan, but also to restore a previous order in which all nations worshipped the "Great God". As in post-millenialism, Hung claimed that the true millenium of God's rule would only begin once Christianity had been spread to all peoples of the world. However, more in line with millenialism proper, the t'aiping also believed that the New Jersulem had already arrived, in this case in the city of Nanking, which the T'aiping established as its own capital in 1853. Nankin, the Kingdom of heavenly peace, was ruled by a law reminiscent of earlier Christian millenial centers, upholding stringent adherence to Christian values, with severe punishment put in place for transgressions, and dissolution of all private property. Hope for this kingdom culled together many groups of people, and lead to the destruction of more than 600 urban centres.

Nazism

Outside of theology, Hitler's Nazi movement has been described as Millennial or Millenarian in scholarly works. The most controversial interpretation of the Three Ages philosophy and of millennialism in general is Hitler's "Third Reich" ("Drittes Reich", "Tausendjähriges Reich"), which, in his vision, would last for a thousand years - but which in reality only lasted for 12 years (1933-1945).

The phrase "Third Reich" was coined by the German thinker Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, who in 1923 published a book entitled Das Dritte Reich, which eventually became a catchphrase that survived the Nazi regime.

Looking back at German history, two periods were distinguished:

• the Holy Roman Empire (beginning with Charlemagne in AD 800) (the "First Reich"), and
• the German Empire under the Hohenzollern dynasty (1871 - 1918) (the "Second Reich").

These were now to be followed — after the interval of the Weimar Republic (1918 - 1933), during which constitutionalism, parliamentarism and even pacifism ruled — by:

• the "Third Reich" of Adolf Hitler.

In a speech held on 27 November 1937, Hitler commented on his plans to have major parts of Berlin torn down and rebuilt:

[...] einem tausendjährigen Volk mit tausendjähriger geschichtlicher und kultureller Vergangenheit für die vor ihm liegende unabsehbare Zukunft eine ebenbürtige tausendjährige Stadt zu bauen [...].

[...] to build a millennial city adequate [in splendour] to a thousand year old people with a thousand year old historical and cultural past, for its never-ending [glorious] future [...]

The Year 2000

Leading up to the onset of the year 2000 C.E. there was considerable fervour among contemporary Christian sects, particularly those which were fundamentalist in nature, as to the symbolic significance of the end of the second millenium. In 1999, numerous Christians made pilgrimages to Jerusalem with the full expectation they would witness apocalyptic events, such as the battle of Gog and Magog, the resurrection of the dead and the return of Christ. Approximately 100 Christians from North America went so far as to rent apartments on Jerusalem's mount of Olives, where Christ was forecast to arrive. Israeli authoritices labelled this behaviour as "Jerusalem Syndrome" or "messianic madness", referring to the delusions some otherwise psychologically healthy Christans began to experience, thinking they were figures involved in an eschatological drama. As a precaution, Israel's Health Ministry set up a contingence strategy in January of 1999, anticipating the need for psychiatric help for at least forty thousand visitors that year, as well as hospital treatment for a thousand. That same year, members of the American group the Concerned Christians were arrested by Israeli police for plotting acts of extreme violence in hopes of setting off the Second Advent.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Barkun, Michael. Disaster and the Millennium. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974. ISBN 0-300-01725-1
• Cohn, Norman. The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages, revised and expanded. New York: Oxford University Press, [1957] 1970.
• Ellwood, Robert. "Nazism as a Millennialist Movement", in Catherine Wessinger (ed.), Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical Cases. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8156-2809-9 or ISBN 0-8156-0599-4
• Fenn, Richard K. The End of Time: Religion, Ritual, and the Forging of the Soul. Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8298-1206-7
• Kaplan, Jeffrey. Radical Religion in America: Millenarian Movements from the Far Right to the Children of Noah. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8156-2687-8
• "Millennialism." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 Feb. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052706>.
• Rhodes, James M. The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution. Stanford, CAL: Hoover Institution Press, 1980. ISBN 0-8179-7131-9
• Stone, Jon R. (ed.) Expecting Armageddon. London: Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-415-92331-X
• Wistrich, Robert. Hitler’s Apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi Legacy. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. ISBN 0-312-38819-5

External links

• The Center For Millennial Studies
• The Pristine Faith Restoration Society Restoring the Chiliasm of early Christianity
• Millennial Earthly Kingdom (PDF)
• Catholic Encyclopedia "Millennium and Millenarianism"
• Centre for Millennialism Studies at Liverpool Hope University

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