Labor union

A Labor Union, or trade union, has been defined as an association of fair wage-earners uniting for the purpose of maintaining and improving the conditions of their employment.

Over the last three hundred years, labor unions have developed into a number of forms influenced by various political and economic regimes. Immediate objectives and activities of trade unions often vary according to industry. Despite any differences, the fundamental ideals upheld by traditional labor unions include the provision of member benefits, the right to collectively bargain, and the right to take industrial action.

Early trade unions, like Friendly Societies, provided a range of benefits to accommodate its members in times of unemployment, ill health and old age. Unions were also responsible for covering the funeral expenses of fallen members. To date, these functions have been assumed by the state, though the provision of legal advice and representation for union members is still provided. Upholding the rights of collective bargaining, trade unions maintain the rights of its members to negotiate with their employers regarding wages and working conditions. Union members are also protected when taking industrial action, such as striking or lockouts, to achieve particular goals.

Trade unions often promote political legislation favorable to the interests of their members or workers as a whole. Members may sponsor campaigns, undertake political lobbying or financially support certain parties of individual candidates for public office.

History

In the eighteenth century, much of Western society witnessed the world’s first industrial revolution and the abandonment of an agrarian culture with craft based production. The young industrial environment provided much of the momentum for the establishment and advancement of the labor union.

The start of the industrial revolution sparked a rising fear in the craftsman associations of the time, who feared encroachment on their established jobs, wage changes and workforce restructuring. The rapid expansion of the industrial society quickly drew large numbers of women, children, rural workers, and immigrants into the work force to labor for meager wages in appalling conditions. These working environments would later prove to be an important arena for change.

Early History

Trade unions have sometimes been seen as successors to the guilds of Medieval Europe, though the relationship between the two is disputed. Medieval guilds existed to enhance their members’ livelihoods through controlling the instructional capital of artisanship and the progression of their members from apprentice to craftsman, journeyman, and eventually to master and grandmaster of their craft. Guilds also facilitated mobility by providing accommodation for their members traveling in search of work. Though guilds exhibited some aspects of the modern trade union, they also exhibited aspects of professional associations and modern corporations.

Unlike modern labor unions, guilds were highly selective and offered membership to only those artisans practicing a specific trade. Today, unions seek to incorporate a broad array of laborers to increase membership numbers and union leverage as a whole.

Since the 1894 publication of Sidney and Beatrice Webb’s History of Trade Unionism, trade unions have been defined as a collection of employees working to negotiate pay rates, working conditions and member benefits. More recent theories, however, put forth the belief that trade unions are part of a broader movement to benefit society, and are listed among the likes of freemasons, friendly societies and various fraternal organizations.

Later History

In the 18th century, most countries deemed labor unions illegal and constructed severe penalties, including execution, for the attempt to organize such affiliations. Despite these measures, labor unions would succeed in forming and would acquire political powers resulting in the passage of the body of labor which legalized organizing efforts. Despite the awarding of legal stature, trade unions continued to face generations of opposition.

The right to join a trade union is contained within the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This article also prohibits the forcing of a person to join or form such a union body. The forcing of an individual to enter into a union, whether by a government or a business, is generally considered a human rights abuse. Similar allegations can be leveled against an employer if found to be discriminating against employees based on union membership. An attempt by an employer or outside agency to prevent its employees from attaining union membership is known as union busting.

Throughout 19th century mainland Europe, socialist parties and anarchists played a prominent role in the formation and progression of trade unions. In Britain, New Model Unions would dominate the union movement. Here, trade unionism would remain stronger than the political labor movement until the early years of the twentieth century which marked the formation and growth of England’s Labor Party.

The Modern Labor Union

Structure and Politics

A rally of the trade union UNISON in Oxford during a strike in 2006.

Unions may engage in three types of unification efforts: craft unionism, general unionism, and industrial unionism. Craft unionism is defined by the organization of a particular section of skilled workers. An organization of a cross-section of workers from various trades is known as general unionism. Attempting to organize all workers within a particular industry is defined as industrial unionism. Labor unions are often divided into branches, or locals, and are united through national federations. These federations are affiliated with internationals organizations, such as the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions.

In many countries, a union may acquire the status of a legal entity and obtain a mandate to negotiate with employers for the workers it represents. In such cases, unions are awarded certain legal entitlements that allow them the right to collectively bargain with employers regarding member wages, working hours and other conditions of employment. The inability of both parties to reach an agreement may lead to industrial action, a right granted to all recognized unions.

In other circumstances, unions may be denied the right to represent workers, or the right may be infringed. This lack of status may result if unions are failed to be officially recognized, or if the political or criminal prosecution of union activists and members is undertaken.

Unions may also engage in broader political or social struggles. Social unionism defines the many unions that use their organizational strength to advocate for social policies and legislation considered favorable for their members. In some countries, unions maintain close alliances with political parties. Labor unions are also delineated by a service model and an organizing model. The service model maintains worker rights, provides member services, and resolves union disputes. The organizing model typically involves full-time organizers, who foster confidence, build networks and promote leaders throughout the workforce. Labor organizers may also launch confrontational campaigns involving large numbers of union members and affiliates. Most labor unions are a blend of these two philosophies, and the definitions of the models themselves are often debated.

Research, such as that conducted by the Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Research and Training (ACIRRT) purports to show that unionized workers enjoy better conditions and wages than those who are not unionized.

Union leadership is usually achieved through democratic elections.

Union Operations

Companies that employ workers with a union generally operate on one of several models called shops. Within the United States, unions can operate under a closed shop or a union shop. Under a closed shop, a union will employ only those already union members and employers must recruit directly from a union pool of applicants. A union shop employs non-unions workers as well, but establishes a time limit within new hires must become union members.

An agency shop requires non-union workers to pay a fee to the union for its services in negotiating their contracts. This is sometimes referred to as the Rand formula. In certain situations regarding U.S. government employees, fair share laws make it easy to require these sorts of payments.

An open shop is a union operation that does not discriminate based on union membership. Where a union is active, an open shop will allow for workers to benefit from, but not contribute to, the labor union. In the United States, "Right to Work" laws mandate the operation of an open shop on the state level.

During the 1980’s, under Margaret Thatcher, the United Kingdom was introduced to a series of laws directing the government to restrict all closed and union shops. All agreements requiring a worker to join a union have since been deemed illegal. In 1947, the Taft-Hartley Act outlawed the operation of the closed shop union in the United States, but permits the existence of the union shop.

International Diversity

As labor laws remain diverse in different countries, so do the functions of unions. According to German labor unions, only the operation of an open shop policy is legal and all discrimination based on union membership is forbidden. German unions also play a large role in the managerial decisions and co-determination of global unions by participating in corporate boards. These conditions affect the function and service of the German labor union.

Political Diversity

Union relations with political parties will also vary. In many countries, labor unions may be closely linked to, or may even share leadership with, a political party intended to represent the interests of the working class. Often times, these parties include left-wing politicians or socialists.

In the United States, labor unions have historically aligned with the Democratic Party, though their allegiance to the party is by no means steadfast. On a number of occasions, the International Brotherhood of Teamsters has opted to support Republican candidates. In 1980, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization, or PATCO, endorsed presidential candidate Ronald Reagan, only to be later disassembled by Regan’s installation of permanent replacement workers when the organization waged a strike. To avoid the alienation of its Catholic constituency, the AFL-CIO supports a pro-life Republican position and remains vocal in its opposition to abortion.

In the United Kingdom, the relationship between the labor movement and the labor party has disintegrated over the party’s support of privatization plans, a position at odds with the movement’s perception of worker interest.

Employment Laws

Varying structures of employment laws can also affect a union’s business operations. In many western European countries, wages and benefits are largely set by a governmental body. The United States takes a more laissez-faire approach, setting a minimum standard but allowing most workers' wages and benefits to be decided through collective bargaining and market forces. The Republic of Korea has historically regulated collective bargaining by requiring employers to participate in bargaining practices. However, collective bargaining is only legally recognized if the sessions are held before the lunar new year. Under totalitarian regimes, such as Nazi-Germany and the Soviet Union, labor unions have typically been controlled by de facto government agencies, devoted to the smooth and efficient operation of enterprises.

International Operations

Labor unions also engage in international operations. Such organizations include the World Confederation of Labor and the World Federation of Trade Unions. The world’s largest international organization, the Brussels-based International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, encompasses an estimated 231 affiliated organizations throughout more than 150 countries and territories, and has a combined membership of 158 million.

National and regional trade unions organizing in specific industry sectors or occupational groups have also formed global union federations, such as Union Network International and the International Federation of Journalists.

General functions of labor unions also vary according to global region. Labor union operations of South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States are briefly detailed below.

South Africa

The history of South African trade unions dates back to the 1880’s. At this time, unions were viewed as a reflection of national racial disunity, as the earliest unions were established for only white workers. Through the turbulent years of apartheid, trade unions played an important part in developing political and economic resistance, and were a driving force in the establishment of a South African democratic government.

To date, trade unions continue to represent an important force in South Africa, encompassing a quarter of the general work force represented by 3.1 million members. The Congress of South African Trade Unions, or COSATU, is the largest of the three major trade unions with a membership of 1.8 million. COSATU is part of the Tripartite alliance with the ruling African National Congress, or ANC, and the South African Communist Party, or SACP.

The United Kingdom

Unions in Britain were subject to often severe repression until 1824, but were already widespread in cities such as London. Workplace militancy had also manifested itself as Luddism and had been prominent in struggles such as the 1820 Rising in Scotland where 60,000 workers went on a general strike, which was soon crushed. From 1830 on, attempts were made to set up national general unions, most notably Robert Owen's Grand National Consolidated Trades Union in 1834, which attracted a range of socialists from Owenites to revolutionaries. That organisation played a part in the protests after the Tolpuddle Martyrs' case, but soon collapsed.

In the later 1830s and 1840s, trade unionism was overshadowed, to some extent, by political activity. Of particular importance was Chartism, the aims of which were supported by most socialists, although none appear to have played leading roles.

More permanent trade unions were established from the 1850s, better resourced but often less radical. The London Trades Council was founded in 1860, and the Sheffield Outrages spurred the establishment of the Trades Union Congress in 1868. The legal status of trade unions in the United Kingdom was established by a Royal Commission in 1867, which agreed that the establishment of the organizations was to the advantage of both employers and employees. Legalized in 1871.

The strongest unions of the mid-Victorian period were unions of skilled workers such as the Amalgamated Society of Engineers. Trade unionism amongst semi-skilled and unskilled workers made little progress until the emergence of the New Unions in the late 1880s. Unions played a prominent role in the creation of the Labour Representation Committee which effectively formed the basis for today's Labour Party, which still has extensive links with the Trade Union Movement in Britain.

The years 1910-14 witnessed serious industrial unrest and an enormous increase in trade union membership which affected all industries, though to differing extents. The First World War resulted in a further increase in union membership, as well as widespread recognition of unions and their increased involvement in management.

The United States

Labor unions in the United States today function as legally recognized representatives of workers in numerous industries, but in recent years have seen their greatest growth among service sector and public sector workers. Activity by labor unions in the United States today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership and on representing their members if management attempts to violate contract provisions. Although down from the peak membership they achieved in the third quarter of the twentieth century, American unions also remain an important political factor, both through mobilization of their own memberships and through coalitions with like-minded activist organizations around issues such as immigrant rights, trade policy, health care, and living wage campaigns.

Labor unions in the past have been infiltrated by members of organized crime, such as the Mafia. Organized crime had been active in some Teamster locals, particularly in the garment industry in New York City, as early as the 1920s. Labor racketeers made inroads in other cities, such as Chicago, Cleveland, Kansas City and Detroit, in the 1930s. Jimmy Hoffa and other Teamster leaders made strategic alliances with organized crime, in deals that benefited both the Mafia and its associates, who obtained sweetheart contracts, and the union leaders, who received kickbacks and other forms of assistance. Jimmy Hoffa would later mysteriously disappear. Hoffa's son, James P. Hoffa, is the current president of the Teamsters. For more information, refer to Teamsters: Organized crime's influence.

The US labor movement has gone through major changes in the last year with the departure from the AFL-CIO of five major unions led by the Service Employees International Union into the Change to Win federation. The face of the labor movement is also changing. For the last twenty years women have made up the majority of new workers organized and union growth has been significantly higher among workers of color and immigrant workers than among white male workers.

Unions in other countries

Some countries such as Belgium, Sweden, Finland, and the other Nordic countries have strong, centralised unions, where every type of industry has a specific union, which are then gathered in large national union confederations. Usually there are at least two national union confederations, one for academically educated and one for branches with lower education level. The largest Swedish union confederation is Landsorganisationen, or LO. The LO has almost two million members, which is more than a fifth of Sweden's population. Finland's equivalent is SAK, the Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions, with about one million members out of the country's 5.2 million inhabitants. In addition, there are two other Finnish union confederations for more educated workers with combined membership of circa one million.

In comparison, France is thought to have one of the lowest union densities in Europe, with only about 10% of the workers inside unions. Generally, several unions are represented inside large companies or administrations, normally with one from each of the main national confederation of unions and possibly independent unions. Union membership, however, tends to be concentrated in some specific areas, especially the public sector. Unions in some sectors, such as public transportation (e.g. SNCF and RATP) are likely to enter well-publicised strikes.

The Australian labour movement has a long history of craft, trade and industrial unionism. While unions have sometimes been very strong, as of 2005 they are relatively weak and in decline, due in part to the actions of Australian politicians, including Prime Minister John Howard and his Liberal government which introduced the Workplace Relations Act 1996; although the decline in membership had begun before Howard came into power. In 2005 the Federal Government brought in WorkChoices which many Australian Unions claimed would reduce minimum wage, the powers of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission and the ability of Australian Unions to organise. The full extent of this legislation has yet to be seen, as it only became effective in March 2006. However, the movement has mounted a strong campaign against the changes and have activated large levels of community support. There are reports among unions such as the Transport Workers Union that membership levels have increased.

International cooperation

The largest organisation of trade union members in the world is the Brussels-based International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, which today has approx. 231 affiliated organisations in 150 countries and territories, with a combined membership of 158 million. Other global trade union organisations are the World Confederation of Labour and the World Federation of Trade Unions.

National and regional trade unions organising in specific industry sectors or occupational groups also form global union federations, such as Union Network International and the International Federation of Journalists.

Impact of Unions

The labour movement brought an end to child labor practices, improved worker safety, increased wages for both union and non-union workers, raised the entire society's standard of living, reduced the hours in a work week, fought for and won public education for children, and brought a host of other benefits to working class families.

This is particularly important for groups who are more likely to suffer labour-market discrimination. On average, women in Britain earn 20% less than men for the same work but women who are union members earn 24% more than those who are not . In countries that restrict the right of citizens to this form of free association economic growth does not seem to be enough in itself to correct such problems. In China for example, the pay gap between men and women has actually increased in recent years despite the booming economy .

Criticism

Trade unions are often accused of benefiting the insider workers, those having a secure job and high productivity, at the cost of the outsider workers, consumers of the goods or services produced, and the shareholders of the unionised business. The ones that are likely to lose the most from a trade union are those who are unemployed or at the risk of unemployment or who are not able to get the job that they want in a particular area of work

Union publications

Several sources of current news exist about the trade union movement in the world. These include LabourStart and the official website of the international trade union movement Global Unions.

Another source of Labor news is the Workers Independent News, a news organization providing radio articles to independent and syndicated radio shows.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Clarke, T. & Clements, L. 1978 Trade Unions under Capitalism Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. ISBN 0391007289

External links

Europe

• Trade union membership 1993-2003 - European Industrial Relations Observatory report on membership trends in 26 European countries
• Trade Union Ancestors - Listing of 5,000 UK trade unions with histories of main organisations, trade union "family trees" and details of union membership and strikes since 1900.
• TUC History online - History of the British union movement
• Preston & South Ribble Trades Union Council

USA

• Labor rights in the USA

General

• New analysis of economic data shows that unionization could maximize productivity

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