Jade Emperor

The Jade Emperor (Chinese: 玉皇|Pinyin: Yù Huáng}} or 玉帝 Yù Dì), known informally as Heavenly Grandfather (天公 Tiān Gōng) and formally as the Pure August Jade Emperor or August Personage of Jade (玉皇上帝 Yu Huang Shangdi or 玉皇大帝 Yu Huang Dadi),^[1] is the ruler of Heaven (Tian) in Chinese mythology and is among the most important gods in the Daoist and folk pantheons. In his capacity as celestial ruler, the Jade Emperor is thought to govern Heaven and Earth, just as the earthly emperors once ruled over China. As such, he and his court (whose positions are filled by various gods and heavenly worthies) provide an explicit mythological parallel with the Chinese political hierarchy. Indeed, from the eleventh century onward, the divine sovereign was characterized as the official patron deity of the Chinese imperial family.

In addition to the myriad Chinese myths and popular tales that reference the deity, the Jade Emperor also figures into many religious rituals practiced by Daoists and adherents of Chinese folk religion (two categories that are often co-extensive).

Historical Origins

Given the Jade Emperor's lofty place in the pantheons of Daoist and folk religionists, it is intriguing to note that his cult and mythos lack the antiquity of many traditional practices. Historical records suggest that Yu Di was a relatively unimportant (or simply unknown) deity until the later Tang period (ca. 800 C.E.),^[2] and that it took the explicit patronage of a mortal emperor to invest the cult with any great popular importance. Specifically, Emperor Zhen Cong of the Song (r. 997–1022) lent great prestige to his family name by claiming to receive spiritual revelations from the celestial court of the Jade Emperor. As such, the deity came to be seen as the patron of the royal family, and was memorialized with various honorific titles (such as "Pure August Emperor on High" and "Supreme Lord of the Physical World"). Honored by this imperial sanction, the Jade Emperor thereafter came to be idealized by the practitioners of various Chinese religions.^[3]

The Jade Emperor in Chinese Religious Practice

Given his role as the ruler over the cosmic hierarchy, the figure of Yu Di plays a central role in many Chinese religious practices. <daoist ritual practice (barefoot medium + celestial master) —> see Schipper>

New Year Rituals

Main article: Chinese New Year

<kitchen god cult> <— Expand! Chinese New Year's Eve is also a day of worship as it is said to be the day the Jade Emperor makes his annual inspection of the deeds of mortals and rewards or punishes them accordingly. On this day incense is burned in the home and offerings are made to the Jade Emperor and also to Zao Jun, the god of kitchen who reports to the Emperor on each family.

The Jade Emperor's Birthday is said to be the ninth day of the first lunar month. On this day Daoist temples hold a Jade Emperor ritual (拜天公 bài tiān gōng, literally "heaven worship") at which priests and laymen prostrate themselves, burn incense, and make food offerings.

Temples

<temples> <— enough info to warrant its own sub-section? A temple in Hong Kong is located at A Kung Ngam and is also called "Yù Huáng Po Tin" (玉皇寶殿 Yu Huang Bao Dian). In the mid 19th century, people from Huizhou and Chaozhou mined stones in the hill for the development of the central urban area. They set up a shrine to worship Yuk Wong. At the beginning of the 20th century, the shrine was developed into a small temple and was renovated many times. The latest renovation was in 1992.

The Jade Emperor in Chinese Mythology

Given that the Jade Emperor is most prominent in folk practices, it is unsurprising that he is a commonly recurring character in popular Chinese mythology. Indeed, virtually all Chinese myths, to the extent that they describe gods at all, will contain at least some reference to the celestial sovereign. As such, only the most relevant or illustrative will be touched on below.

Origin Myth

Two strikingly incongruent accounts of the Jade Emperor's origins are found in the region's textual corpus: one popular, the other explicitly Daoist.

It was said that the Jade Emperor was originally the crown prince of the kingdom of Pure Felicity and Majestic Heavenly Lights and Ornaments. At birth he emitted a wondrous light that filled the entire kingdom. When he was young, he was kind, intelligent and wise. He devoted his entire childhood to helping the needy (the poor and suffering, the deserted and single, the hungry and disabled). Furthermore, he showed respect and benevolence to both men and creatures. After his father died, he ascended the throne. He made sure that everyone in his kingdom found peace and contentment. After that, he told his ministers that he wished to cultivate Tao on the Bright and Fragrant Cliff. After 1,550 kalpas, each kalpa lasting for 129,600 years, he attained Golden Immortality. After another one hundred million years of cultivation, he finally became the Jade Emperor. (Using the given figures, this period before his becoming the Jade Emperor lasted for a total of about 200,880,000 years.)^[4]

Familial Connections

The Jade Emperor vanquishing evil

There is a little known myth which tells of how the Jade Emperor became the monarch of all the deities in heaven. It is one of the few myths in which the Jade Emperor really shows his might. In the beginning of time, the earth was a very difficult place to live. Men were having tremendous difficulty coping with existence; not only did men have to deal with harsh conditions, but also with all kinds of monstrous beings. At this time, there were also not many gods or deities to protect men. Furthermore, a lot of powerful, evil demons were defying the immortals of heaven. The Jade Emperor was still an ordinary immortal who roamed earth to help as many people as he could. However, he felt sad because his powers were limited and could only ease the sufferings of men. He decided to retreat in a mountain cave and cultivate his Dao. He passed 3,200 trials, each trial lasted for about 3 million years. Unfortunately, a powerful, evil entity which dwelt on earth had the ambition to conquer the immortals and gods in heaven and proclaim sovereignty over the entire universe. He went into retreat later than the Jade Emperor. This evil entity retreated himself too and went into meditation to expand his power. He passed through 3,000 trials each trial lasting for about 3 million years too. After he passed his final trial, he felt confident that no one could defeat him anymore. He re-entered the world again, and recruited an army of demons with the purpose of attacking heaven. The immortals being aware of the threat gathered themselves and prepared for war. The gods were unable to stop the powerful demon and all were defeated by him. The Three Pure Ones were leading the celestial beings at that time. Fortunately, the Jade Emperor finished his cultivation in the midst of this war. He was changing the land to make it more livable for men and repelling all kinds of monstrous beasts. Suddenly, he saw an evil glow emitting from heaven and knew something was amiss. He ascended and saw that a war was going on, he saw that the demon was too powerful to be stopped by any of the gods present. He went up and challenged the demon, and a battle ensued between them. Mountains shook and rivers and seas toppled; however, the Jade Emperor stood victorious due to his deeper and wiser cultivation, not for might but for benevolence. After totally annihilating the demon, all the other demons were scattered by the gods and immortals. Because of his noble and benevolent deeds, the gods, immortals and mankind proclaimed the Jade Emperor the supreme sovereign of all.

Creation myth

According to one creation myth, the Jade Emperor fashioned the first humans from clay, but as he left them to harden in the sun, it rained, misshaping some of the figures, thus explaining the origin of sickness and physical abnormalities. (The most common alternative Chinese creation myth states that human beings were once fleas on the body of Pangu.) The story above is also told as Nüwa who fashions humans out of the mud from the Yellow River by hand. Those she made herself became the richer people of the earth. After getting lazy she used a rope and swung it around. The drops that fell from the rope became the poorer humans.

The princess and the cowherd

Main article: Cowherd and Weaver Girl

In another story, popular throughout Asia and with many differing versions, the Jade Emperor has a daughter named Chih'nü (Traditional Chinese: 織女; Simplified Chinese: 织女; Pinyin: zhī nǚ; literally: "weaver girl"). She is most often represented as responsible for weaving colorful clouds in the heaven, in some versions she is instead a seamstress who works for the Jade Emperor. Everyday Chih'nü descended to earth with the aid of a magical robe to bathe. One day, a lowly cowherd named Niu Lang spotted Chih'nü as she bathed in a stream. Niu Lang fell instantly in love with her and stole her magic robe which she had left on the bank of the stream, leaving her unable to escape back to Heaven. When Chih'nü emerged from the water, Niu Lang grabbed her and carried her back to his home.

When the Jade Emperor heard of this matter, he was furious but unable to intercede, since in the meantime his daughter had fallen in love and married the cowherd. As time passed, Chih'nü grew homesick and began to miss her father. One day, she came across a box containing her magic robe which her husband had hidden. She decided to visit her father back in Heaven, but once she returned, the Jade Emperor summoned a river to flow across the sky (the Milky Way), which Chih'nü was unable to cross to return to her husband. The Emperor took pity on the young lovers, and so once a year on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar, he allows them to meet on a bridge over the river.

The story refers to constellations in the night sky. Chih'nü is the star Vega in the constellation of Lyra east of the Milky Way, and Niu Lang is the star Altair in the constellation of Aquila, west of the Milky Way. Under the first quarter moon (7th day) of the seventh lunar month (around August), the lighting condition in the sky causes the Milky Way to appear dimmer, hence the story that the two lovers are no longer separated in that one particular day each year. The seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar is a holiday in China called Qi Xi, which is a day for young lovers much like Valentine's Day in the West; in Japan, it is called Tanabata (star day). If it rains on that day, it is said to be Zhi'nü crying tears at being reunited with her husband.

The zodiac

There are several stories as to how the twelve animals of the Chinese zodiac were chosen. In one, the Jade Emperor, although having ruled Heaven and Earth justly and wisely for many years, had never had the time to actually visit the Earth personally. He grew curious as to what the creatures looked like. Thus, he asked all the animals to visit him in heaven. The cat, being the most handsome of all animals, asked his friend the rat to wake him on the day they were to go to Heaven so he wouldn't oversleep. The rat, however, was worried that he would seem ugly compared to the cat, so he didn't wake the cat. Consequently, the cat missed the meeting with the Jade Emperor and was replaced by the pig. The Jade Emperor was delighted with the animals and so decided to divide the years up amongst them. When the cat learned of what had happened, he was furious with the rat and that, according to the story, is why cats and rats are enemies to this day.

Notes

↑ As noted by Pas and Leung, these exalted titles were originally granted by imperial fiat as a means of increasing the god's prestige (185).
↑ H. Y. Feng's landmark article explores various Tang- and Song-era artistic works (including poetry and visual art) that evidence the god's existing mytho-religious cachet (244-247).
↑ Stevens, 49; Pas and Leung, 184; Werner, 598-599. The last of these sources is notable for its entirely dismissive (even insulting) description of the deity's origins, which he claims were entirely fabricated following a disastrous military defeat. Indeed, he overtly states that "[the Jade Emperor] was born of a fraud, and came ready-made from the brain of an emperor" (599). While this view has held some scholarly currency (at least historically), Feng eloquently summarizes its fundamentally problematic nature: "It is not likely that an emperor who wished to cover up his defeat at the hands of barbarians by some divine ordinance would invent a cleity totally unknown to his subjects. Maspero has said that '... with false visions even more than genuine ones it is essential to base them upon well-established belief...' and 'it is evident that, for the Emperor to have so definite a vision of his ancestor bringing him the order from the god, the god must already have ranked as a supreme deity in popular belief.'" (242-244). His article, referenced above, provides an excellent summary of references predating the god's imperial patronage. Further, it must be acknowledged that any such references would have only survived in elite modes of communication (writings, paintings, etc.), which indicates that the overall level of popular support remains both unknown and unknowable.
↑ This tale is originally expounded in a scripture from the Tang or Song dynasties (Pas and Leung, 184).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Fitzgerald, C. P. China: A Short Cultural History. London: The Cresset Library, 1986. ISBN 0-09-168751-9.
Goodrich, Anne S. Peking Paper Gods: A Look at Home Worship. Monumenta Serica Monograph Series XXIII. Nettetal: Steyler-Verlag, 1991. ISBN 3-8050-0284-X.
Hansen, Valerie. Changing Gods in Medieval China, 1127-1276. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990. ISBN 0691055599.
Kohn, Livia. Daoism and Chinese Culture. Cambridge, MA: Three Pines Press, 2001. ISBN 1-931483-00-0.
Pas, Julian F. and Man Kam Leung. "Jade Emperor." Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Lanham, M.D. and London: The Scarecrow Press, 1998. ISBN 0810833697
Robinet, Isabelle. Taoism: Growth of a Religion. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997 [original French 1992]. ISBN 0804728399.
Schipper, Kristopher. The Taoist Body. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993 [original French version 1982]. ISBN 0520082249.
von Glahn, Richard. The Sinister Way: The Divine and Demonic in Chinese Religious Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 0-520-23408-1.
Werner, E.T.C. "Pa-Hsien" in A Dictionary of Chinese Mythology. Wakefield, NH: Longwood Academic, 1990. 341-352. ISBN 0-89341-034-9.

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[1] As noted by Pas and Leung, these exalted titles were originally granted by imperial fiat as a means of increasing the god's prestige (185).

[2] H. Y. Feng's landmark article explores various Tang- and Song-era artistic works (including poetry and visual art) that evidence the god's existing mytho-religious cachet (244-247).

[3] Stevens, 49; Pas and Leung, 184; Werner, 598-599. The last of these sources is notable for its entirely dismissive (even insulting) description of the deity's origins, which he claims were entirely fabricated following a disastrous military defeat. Indeed, he overtly states that "[the Jade Emperor] was born of a fraud, and came ready-made from the brain of an emperor" (599). While this view has held some scholarly currency (at least historically), Feng eloquently summarizes its fundamentally problematic nature: "It is not likely that an emperor who wished to cover up his defeat at the hands of barbarians by some divine ordinance would invent a cleity totally unknown to his subjects. Maspero has said that '... with false visions even more than genuine ones it is essential to base them upon well-established belief...' and 'it is evident that, for the Emperor to have so definite a vision of his ancestor bringing him the order from the god, the god must already have ranked as a supreme deity in popular belief.'" (242-244). His article, referenced above, provides an excellent summary of references predating the god's imperial patronage. Further, it must be acknowledged that any such references would have only survived in elite modes of communication (writings, paintings, etc.), which indicates that the overall level of popular support remains both unknown and unknowable.

[4] This tale is originally expounded in a scripture from the Tang or Song dynasties (Pas and Leung, 184).

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