Difference between revisions of "Hunter-gatherer" - New World Encyclopedia

Latest revision as of 16:35, 20 January 2018

Hunter-gatherer is an anthropological term used to describe human beings who obtain their food from the bounty of nature, hunting animals and gathering wild plants. It is a subsistence lifestyle, practiced by all early human societies. Such people are generally nomads, moving on as food supplies dwindle. There is little development of skills or specialized labor beyond that required for hunting and gathering food. Such societies generally remain small, consisting of several, often related, family units.

Historical Context

Archaeological evidence to date suggests that all human beings were hunter-gatherers prior to twelve thousand years ago, before the Neolithic Era. The Neolithic revolution, at the beginning of the Holocene epoch, marks the emergence of agriculture and domestication of animals and the subsequent decline of hunter-gatherer populations.

However, the line between agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies is not clear cut. Many hunter-gatherers consciously manipulate the landscape through cutting or burning inedible plants while encouraging those that can be consumed. In agricultural societies people often continue to hunt and gather. They may farm during the temperate months and hunt during the winter. In developed countries, even today, many people enjoy spending some time hunting for food or for recreation.

Structure of Hunter-gatherer Societies

The nature of the available food supplies leads hunter-gatherer societies to develop different specializations. Some hunt big game, or trap animals, while others may fish in lakes, rivers, or along the coast. An older term found in Scandinavian countries is hunter-trapper instead of "gatherer," signifying their use of complex trap systems involving holes in the ground to catch elks, reindeer, etc.

Hunter-gatherer societies tend to have very low population densities. Only a limited number of people can congregate without quickly exhausting the local food supplies. In climates that can support agriculture, farmland will support population densities 60 to 100 times greater than land left uncultivated.

Nomadic hunter-gatherer societies usually have non-hierarchical social structures, unlike higher-order horticultural, pastoral, and industrial societies. The group usually consists of a small number of family units, often related, comprising a tribe. Typically, men are responsible for hunting and women for gathering.

The male puberty rite of passage often receives greater emphasis in hunter-gatherer societies than the other three ritual occasions celebrated in all human societies (birth, marriage, and death). Their puberty rites, which may take as long as a month, generally include instruction in adult responsibilities, rituals dramatizing changes in relationships between boys and girls and with their mothers, and physical ordeals that often involve hunting.

Characteristics of Hunter-gatherer Life

Hunter-gatherers are foragers, dependent upon the natural availability of food. Consequently, they are relatively mobile, moving on as their food supplies become exhausted. This nomadic lifestyle, in which all possessions must be carried, leads hunter-gatherers to rely on materials available in the wild to construct simple shelters. There is rarely any elaborate building of permanent housing or development of cities in such societies.

Their mobile lifestyle generally means that there is no possibility of storing surplus food and thus the society remains at a subsistence level. Specialization of labor does not develop beyond the division of responsibilities between men (hunting) and women (gathering and domestic). Each family acquires only enough food for its own needs and has no surplus to share or trade with others. Thus, full-time leaders, artisans, or other specialists are rarely supported by pure hunter-gatherer societies.

However, in cases where food is abundant and reliable, a hunter-gatherer group may become sedentary. In such cases, a combination of hunting and gathering with agriculture or horticulture, animal husbandry, or herding is common. Moving from the subsistence level to creating surplus provides support for societal development. The existence of surplus relieves individuals, or family units, from the burden of having to procure sufficient food for their needs every day. This frees them to develop skills and talents in ways that benefit others, who in return can share surplus food or other products. In this way, using flour from acorns and smoke-dried salmon for food, natives of the American Pacific Northwest, such as the Haida, were able to become skilled artisans, famous for their woven clothing and elaborately carved items.

Modern Hunter-gatherers

Today hunter-gatherer groups are found in the Arctic, tropical rainforests, and deserts, where other forms of subsistence production are impossible or too costly. Examples of traditional hunter-gatherers that continue this lifestyle today are the Bushmen of southern Africa, the Pygmies of central Africa, and the Spinifex people of western Australia. Other groups do not have a continuous history of hunting and gathering; in many cases their ancestors were farmers who were pushed into marginal areas as a result of migrations and wars.

There are some modern social movements related to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle:

freeganism involves gathering of discarded food in the context of an urban environment
sport hunting and sport fishing are recreational activities practiced by people in developed countries who get the majority of their food by modern means (see also: fox hunt, safari)
anarcho-primitivism, which strives for the abolishment of civilization and the return to a life in the wild

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Lee, Richard B, and Richard Daly (eds). 2004. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521609194
Panter-Brick, Catherine, Robert H. Layton, and Peter Rowley-Conwy (eds). 2003. Hunter-Gatherers: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521776724

External links

All links retrieved January 20, 2018.

African Pygmies Culture and photos of these African hunter-gatherers.

Credits

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{credit|22521897}}
+[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
-In [[anthropology]], the '''hunter-gatherer''' way of life is that led by all human [[society | societies]] before the [[Neolithic]] Era, and by an ever declining number of populations after the [[Neolithic_Revolution | Neolithic revolution]]. It is based on the exploitation (or one could say living with and in harmony with the natural state of the world) of wild plants and animals.  Consequently, hunter-gatherers are relatively mobile, and groups of hunter-gatherers have fluid boundaries and composition.
+[[Category:Anthropology]]
-Typically, men hunt and women gather and hunt small game.
+[[Category:Public]]
-Hunter-gatherers use materials available in the wild to construct shelters, but they prefer overhangs which only need little or no additions to become shelters. Their shelters give them protection from predators and the elements.
+{{Copyedited}}{{Paid}}{{Images OK}}{{Approved}} {{Submitted}}  {{Status}}
+'''Hunter-gatherer''' is an [[Anthropology|anthropological]] term used to describe human beings who obtain their food from the bounty of nature, hunting animals and gathering wild plants. It is a [[subsistence farming|subsistence]] lifestyle, practiced by all early human [[society|societies]]. Such people are generally [[nomads]], moving on as food supplies dwindle. There is little development of skills or specialized labor beyond that required for hunting and gathering food. Such societies generally remain small, consisting of several, often related, [[family]] units.
+{{toc}}
+==Historical Context==
+[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence to date suggests that all human beings were hunter-gatherers prior to twelve thousand years ago, before the [[Neolithic]] Era. The [[Neolithic_Revolution|Neolithic revolution]], at the beginning of the [[Holocene epoch]], marks the emergence of agriculture and [[domestication of animals]] and the subsequent decline of hunter-gatherer populations.
+However, the line between agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies is not clear cut. Many hunter-gatherers consciously manipulate the landscape through cutting or burning inedible plants while encouraging those that can be consumed. In agricultural societies people often continue to hunt and gather. They may farm during the temperate months and hunt during the winter. In developed countries, even today, many people enjoy spending some time hunting for food or for recreation.
+==Structure of Hunter-gatherer Societies==
+The nature of the available food supplies leads hunter-gatherer societies to develop different specializations. Some hunt big game, or trap animals, while others may fish in lakes, rivers, or along the coast. An older term found in Scandinavian countries is '''hunter-trapper''' instead of "gatherer," signifying their use of complex trap systems involving holes in the ground to catch elks, reindeer, etc.
+Hunter-gatherer societies tend to have very low population densities. Only a limited number of people can congregate without quickly exhausting the local food supplies. In climates that can support agriculture, farmland will support population densities 60 to 100 times greater than land left uncultivated.
-An older term commonly used is '''hunter-trappers''' or '''farmer-trappers''' instead of "gatherer". The reason was presumably and foremost an earlier usage of the term in Scandinavian countries, and secondly to signify a [[paleolithic]] economy since there are many holes in the ground making complex trap systems to catch elks, reindeer, etc. However, this usage is beginning to be replaced with gatherer.
+Nomadic hunter-gatherer societies usually have non-hierarchical social structures, unlike higher-order horticultural, [[pastoral]], and [[industrial]] societies. The group usually consists of a small number of [[family]] units, often related, comprising a [[tribe]]. Typically, men are responsible for hunting and women for gathering.
-All [[archaeology | archeological]] evidence to date suggests that prior to twelve thousand years ago, all human beings were hunter-gatherers.  Today hunter-gatherer groups are found in the Arctic, tropical rainforests, and deserts where other forms of [[List of subsistence techniques|subsistence]] production are impossible or too costly.  In most cases these groups do not have a continuous history of hunting and gathering; in many cases their ancestors were farmers who were pushed into marginal areas as a result of migrations and wars.  It is estimated that in only a few decades there will be no more such communities.
+The male [[puberty]] [[rites of passage|rite of passage]] often receives greater emphasis in hunter-gatherer societies than the other three [[ritual]] occasions celebrated in all human societies ([[birth]], [[marriage]], and [[death]]). Their puberty rites, which may take as long as a month, generally include instruction in adult responsibilities, rituals dramatizing changes in relationships between boys and girls and with their mothers, and physical ordeals that often involve hunting.
-The vast majority of hunter-gatherer societies are [[nomad]]ic, as the resources of one region will usually be quickly exhausted.  There are exceptions, however.  The [[Haida]] of what is now [[British Columbia]] lived in such a rich environment that they could remain sedentary.  Other groups that live in the Northwest coast can remain sedentary for a majority of the year.
+==Characteristics of Hunter-gatherer Life==
-Hunter-gatherers tend to have very low population densities. In climates that can support [[agriculture]], farmland can support population densities 60&ndash;100 times greater than land left uncultivated.
+Hunter-gatherers are foragers, dependent upon the natural availability of food. Consequently, they are relatively mobile, moving on as their food supplies become exhausted. This nomadic lifestyle, in which all possessions must be carried, leads hunter-gatherers to rely on materials available in the wild to construct simple shelters. There is rarely any elaborate building of permanent housing or development of cities in such societies.
-Hunter-gatherer societies also tend to have non-hierarchical social structures, but this is not always the case.  As many are nomadic, they generally do not have the possibility to store any surplus food.  Thus full-time leaders, bureaucrats, or artisans are rarely supported by hunter-gatherer societies.  One way to divide hunter-gatherer groups is in their return systems.  James Woodburn describes this as immediate return hunter-gatherers (egalitarian) and delayed return (nonegalitarian).  Immediate return foragers consume their food in a day or two after they procure it.  Delayed return foragers store the surplus food.
+Their mobile lifestyle generally means that there is no possibility of storing surplus food and thus the society remains at a subsistence level. [[Specialization of labor]] does not develop beyond the division of responsibilities between men (hunting) and women (gathering and domestic). Each family acquires only enough food for its own needs and has no surplus to share or trade with others. Thus, full-time leaders, [[artisans]], or other specialists are rarely supported by pure hunter-gatherer societies.
-As egalitarian societies, many hunter-gatherer units have gender-based social stuctures dissimiliar from higher order horticultural, pastoral, and industrial societies. For example, gender structures seem, albeit not universally, more fair. Although disputed as to why, many anthropologists claim the egalitarianism stems from the lack of control over food production, lack of food surplus (control), and an equal gender contribution to kin and cultural survival.
+However, in cases where food is abundant and reliable, a hunter-gatherer group may become sedentary. In such cases, a combination of hunting and gathering with [[agriculture]] or [[horticulture]], [[animal husbandry]], or [[herding]] is common. Moving from the subsistence level to creating surplus provides support for societal development. The existence of surplus relieves individuals, or family units, from the burden of having to procure sufficient food for their needs every day. This frees them to develop skills and talents in ways that benefit others, who in return can share surplus food or other products. In this way, using flour from acorns and smoke-dried salmon for food, natives of the American Pacific Northwest, such as the [[Haida]], were able to become skilled artisans, famous for their woven clothing and elaborately carved items.
-The line between [[agriculture|agricultural]] and hunter-gatherer societies is not clear cut.  Many hunter-gatherers would consciously manipulate the landscape through cutting or burning unuseful plants while encouraging those they could consume.  Most agricultural people continued to do some hunting and gathering.  Some would farm during the temperate months and then hunt during the winter.  Still today many in developed countries will go hunting for food and for amusement.
+==Modern Hunter-gatherers==
+Today hunter-gatherer groups are found in the [[Arctic]], [[tropical rainforests]], and [[desert]]s, where other forms of subsistence production are impossible or too costly. Examples of traditional hunter-gatherers that continue this lifestyle today are the [[Bushmen]] of southern [[Africa]], the [[Pygmies]] of central Africa, and the [[Spinifex people]] of western [[Australia]]. Other groups do not have a continuous history of hunting and gathering; in many cases their [[ancestors]] were farmers who were pushed into marginal areas as a result of migrations and wars.
 There are some modern social movements related to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle:
 *[[freeganism]] involves gathering of discarded food in the context of an urban environment
-*[[gleaning]] involves the gathering of food that traditional farmers have left behind in their fields
+*sport [[hunting]] and sport [[fishing]] are recreational activities practiced by people in developed countries who get the majority of their food by modern means (see also: [[fox hunt]], [[safari]])
-*sport [[hunting]] and sport [[fishing]] are recreational activities practiced by people who get the majority of their food by modern means (see also: [[fox hunt]], [[safari]])
 *[[anarcho-primitivism]], which strives for the abolishment of civilization and the return to a life in the wild
-==See also==
+==References==
-* [[Bushmen]]
+*Lee, Richard B, and Richard Daly (eds). 2004. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521609194
-* [[Neolithic Revolution]]
+*Panter-Brick, Catherine, Robert H. Layton, and Peter Rowley-Conwy (eds). 2003. ''Hunter-Gatherers: An Interdisciplinary Perspective''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521776724
-* [[Wikipedia:Hunter-gatherer]]
-[[Category:POLITICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES]]
+==External links==
+All links retrieved January 20, 2018.
+* [http://www.pygmies.org/ African Pygmies] Culture and photos of these African hunter-gatherers.
+{{credit|22521897}}