Wechsler, David

Revision as of 19:30, 1 November 2007

David Wechsler (January 12, 1896 - May 2, 1981) was a leading American psychologist. He developed well-known intelligence scales, such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Wechsler is also known for establishing the deviation quotient, or DQ, which replaced the use of mental ages in testing an individual’s IQ. A student of both Karl Pearson and Charles Spearman, Wechsler was also greatly influenced by the psychologist E.L. Thorndike. Updated versions of Wechsler’s intelligence tests continue to remain significantly popular in the 21st century.

Life

Wechsler was born into a Jewish family in Lespezi, Romania, and immigrated with his parents to the United States as a child. He studied at the City College of New York and Columbia University, where he earned his master's degree in 1917. Shortly after the U.S. entered the First World War, Wechsler joined the U.S. Army as an army psychologist to aid in the screening of new draftees. Assigned to Camp Logan, Texas, Wechsler worked alongside prominent intelligence theorists Karl Pearson, Charles Spearman, Edward Thorndike, and Robert Mearns Yerkes. Here Wechsler scored the Army Alpha Test, one of two tests designed by the U.S. Army to test group intelligence. Following his work with the Alpha Test, Wechsler worked as an individual psychological examiner, administering the Stanford-Binet test to recruits who had performed poorly in the group intelligence testing. In 1918 Wechsler, along with Spearman and Pearson were sent to perform similar research at the University of London.

Work

Following World War I, Wechsler studied at the University of Paris where he undertook extensive research in experimental psychology until 1922. Upon returning to the United States, Wechsler worked as a clinical psychologist at the Bureau of Child Guidance in New York. In 1925 he received a Ph.D. in experimental psychology from Columbia University where he studied under the direction of Robert S. Woodworth. After short stints at various locations, including five years in private practice, Wechsler became chief psychologist at Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital in 1932. In 1939 Wechsler published The Measurement of Adult Intelligence, following in 1940 by the equally influential Non-intellective Factors in General Intelligence. He remained at the Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital until 1967, later dying in 1981 at the age of 85.

Intelligence Scales

While working at the Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital, Wechsler published various intelligence scales. The renowned Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) was developed first in 1939 and termed the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test. From this he derived the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) in 1949 and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) in 1967. Wechsler originally created these tests to find out more about his patients at the Bellevue clinic; he found the then-popular Stanford-Binet IQ test unsatisfactory. Wechsler’s tests were based on his philosophy that intelligence is "the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with [one's] environment." ^[1]

The Wechsler scales introduced many novel concepts and breakthroughs to the intelligence testing movement. First, he did away with the “quotient” scores of older intelligence tests, or the Q in "I.Q.". Instead, he assigned an arbitrary value of 100 to the mean intelligence and added or subtracted another 15 points for each standard deviation above or below the subject’s mean. Rejecting a concept of global intelligence, as propagated by Charles Spearman’s Spearman's hypothesis, he divided the concept of intelligence into two main areas: verbal and performance, and further subdivided and tested each area with a different subtest. These conceptualizations continue to be reflected in the Wechsler scales of the twenty-first century; as such, the WAIS continues to remain the most commonly administered psychological test in existence ^[2].

Intelligence Testing

The full scale IQ test is broken down into 14 sub tests, comprising the verbal scale, seven verbal sub tests, the performance scale and seven performance sub tests. Wechsler's tests provide three scores; a verbal IQ score, a performance IQ score, and a composite IQ score based on the combined scores.

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is appropriate throughout adulthood and for use with those individuals over 74 years of age. For testing children aged 7 to 16, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is used, while the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence is used for testing children aged 2.5 – 7. Both tests can be completed without reading or writing.

Verbal subtests aim to test general cultural information, abstract comprehension, arithmetic, verbal reasoning, vocabulary, concentration, and memory. Performance subtests include visual perception, visual-motor coordination, spatial perception, abstract problem solving, sequential reasoning, perception speed and visual analysis.

Other Uses

Wechsler’s intelligence scales are used not only as an intelligence test, but also as a clinical tool. Many practitioners use the Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) to diagnose attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and to detect learning disabilities. This is usually done through a process called pattern analysis, in which the various subtests' scores are compared to one another and clusters of unusually low scores in relation to the others are searched for. David Wechsler himself suggested this in 1958 ^[3]. The empirical consensus is that the WISC is best used as a tool to evaluate intelligence and not to diagnose ADHD or learning disabled children. However, many clinicians use it to compare a child's cognitive development to his or her actual school or social performance. Using this discrepancy and other sources of data, the WISC can contribute information concerning a child's psychological well-being.

Legacy

Wechsler is best known for his many contributions to intelligence theory. He is credited with the creation of various intelligence testing scales, including the renowned Wechsler-Bellevue Scale of Intelligence, the Wechsler Memory Scale, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, and the Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence. Many of these tests have remained in circulation into the twenty-first century, most showing only small alteration over time. Wechsler is also known for his creation of the deviation quotient, or DQ, which worked to replace mental age in computing IQ scores; this allowed for greater comparison among adult examinees. An author of various influential publications, Wechsler viewed intelligence as an effect rather than a cause, and believed former assessments of general intelligence to be too narrow. Instead, he found that non-intellective factors, such as personality, often contribute to the development of an individual’s intelligence ^[4]. Wechsler eventually died a greatly respected psychologist in 1981, at the age of 85.

Publications

Wechsler, D. (1939). The Measurement of Adult Intelligence. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0548385300.
Wechsler, D. (1940). Non-intellective Factors in General Intelligence. Psychological Bulletin, 37, 444-445.
Wechsler, D.(1949). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. New York: The Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (1955a). The Range of Human Capacities (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Wechsler, D. (1955b). Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. New York: The Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (1967). Manual for the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. New York: Psychological Corporation.

Notes

↑ Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, p. 256.
↑ Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
↑ Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
↑ lucker, J. A. (Ed.). (2003). Human Intelligence: Historical Influences, Current Controversies, Teaching Resources. Retrieved 1 November, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0534633064.
Plucker, J. A. (Ed.). (2003). Human Intelligence: Historical Influences, Current Controversies, Teaching Resources. Retrieved 1 November, 2007.
Edwards, A. J. (1994). Wechsler, David (1896-1981). In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 1134-1136). New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0028974077.
Fancher, R. E. (1985). The Intelligence Men: Makers of the IQ Controversy. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393955257.

External Links

Credits

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[1] Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, p. 256.

[2] Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

[3] Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

[4] ucker, J. A. (Ed.). (2003). Human Intelligence: Historical Influences, Current Controversies, Teaching Resources. Retrieved 1 November, 2007.

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[2]

[3]

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Claimed}}{{Started}}
 [[Category:Psychologists]]
 {{epname|Wechsler, David}}
-'''David Wechsler''' (January 12, 1896 - May 2, 1981) was a leading [[United States|American]] [[psychologist]]. He developed well-known intelligence scales, such as the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]] (WAIS) and the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children]] (WISC).
+'''David Wechsler''' (January 12, 1896 - May 2, 1981) was a leading [[American]] [[psychologist]]. He developed well-known intelligence scales, such as the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]] (WAIS) and the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children]] (WISC). Wechsler is also known for establishing the [[deviation quotient]], or [[DQ]], which replaced the use of mental ages in testing an individual’s IQ. A student of both [[Karl Pearson]] and [[Charles Spearman]], Wechsler was also greatly influenced by the psychologist [[E.L. Thorndike]]. Updated versions of Wechsler’s intelligence tests continue to remain significantly popular in the 21st century.
-==Biography==
+==Life==
-Wechsler was born in a [[History of the Jews in Romania|Jewish]] family in [[Lespezi]], [[Romania]], and immigrated with his parents to the [[United States]] as a child. He studied at the [[City College of New York]] and [[Columbia University]], where he earned his master's degree in 1917 and his Ph.D. in 1925 under the direction of [[Robert S. Woodworth]]. During [[World War I]] he worked with the [[United States Army]] to develop psychological tests to screen new draftees while studying under [[Charles Spearman]] and [[Karl Pearson]].
+Wechsler was born into a [[Jewish]] family in [[Lespezi]], [[Romania]], and immigrated with his parents to the [[United States]] as a child. He studied at the [[City College of New York]] and [[Columbia University]], where he earned his master's degree in 1917. Shortly after the U.S. entered the [[First World War]], Wechsler joined the [[U.S. Army]] as an army psychologist to aid in the screening of new draftees. Assigned to Camp Logan, Texas, Wechsler worked alongside prominent intelligence theorists [[Karl Pearson]], [[Charles Spearman]], [[Edward Thorndike]], and [[Robert Mearns Yerkes]]. Here Wechsler scored the [[Army Alpha Test]], one of two tests designed by the [[U.S. Army]] to test group intelligence. Following his work with the Alpha Test, Wechsler worked as an individual psychological examiner, administering the [[Stanford-Binet]] test to recruits who had performed poorly in the group intelligence testing. In 1918 Wechsler, along with [[Spearman]] and [[Pearson]] were sent to perform similar research at the [[University of London]].
-After short stints at various locations (including five years in private practice), Wechsler became chief psychologist at [[Bellevue Hospital Center|Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital]] in 1932, where he stayed until 1967. He died in 1981, his psychological tests already being highly respected.
+==Work==
+Following World War I, Wechsler studied at the [[University of Paris]] where he undertook extensive research in experimental psychology until 1922. Upon returning to the [[United States]], Wechsler worked as a clinical psychologist at the Bureau of Child Guidance in New York. In 1925 he received a Ph.D. in experimental psychology from [[Columbia University]] where he studied under the direction of [[Robert S. Woodworth]]. After short stints at various locations, including five years in private practice, Wechsler became chief psychologist at [[Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital]] in 1932. In 1939 Wechsler published [[The Measurement of Adult Intelligence]], following in 1940 by the equally influential [[Non-intellective Factors in General Intelligence]]. He remained at the Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital until 1967, later dying in 1981 at the age of 85.
-==Intelligence scales==
+===Intelligence Scales===
-Wechsler is best known for his intelligence tests. The [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]] (WAIS) was developed first in 1939 and then called the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test. From these he derived the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children]] (WISC) in 1949 and the [[Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence]] (WPPSI) in 1967. Wechsler originally created these tests to find out more about his patients at the Bellevue clinic and he found the then-current [[Stanford-Binet IQ test|Binet IQ test]] unsatisfactory. The tests are still based on his philosophy that intelligence is "the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with [one's] environment" (cited in Kaplan & Saccuzzo, p. 256).
+While working at the [[Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital]], Wechsler published various intelligence scales. The renowned [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]] (WAIS) was developed first in 1939 and termed the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test. From this he derived the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children]] (WISC) in 1949 and the [[Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence]] (WPPSI) in 1967. Wechsler originally created these tests to find out more about his patients at the Bellevue clinic; he found the then-popular [[Stanford-Binet IQ test]] unsatisfactory. Wechsler’s tests were based on his philosophy that intelligence is "the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with [one's] environment." <ref>Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, p. 256.</ref>
-The Wechsler scales introduced many novel concepts and breakthroughs to the intelligence testing movement. First, he did away with the quotient scores of older intelligence tests (the Q in "[[Intelligence quotient|I.Q.]]"). Instead, he assigned an arbitrary value of 100 to the mean intelligence and added or subtracted another 15 points for each [[standard deviation]] above or below the mean the subject was. Rejecting a concept of global intelligence (as was propagated by [[Spearman's hypothesis|Charles Spearman]]), he divided the concept of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] into two main areas: verbal and performance (non-verbal) areas, each further subdivided and tested with a different subtest. These conceptualizations are still reflected in the most recent versions of the Wechsler scales.
+The Wechsler scales introduced many novel concepts and breakthroughs to the intelligence testing movement. First, he did away with the “quotient” scores of older intelligence tests, or the Q in "[[I.Q.]]". Instead, he assigned an arbitrary value of 100 to the mean intelligence and added or subtracted another 15 points for each [[standard deviation]] above or below the subject’s mean. Rejecting a concept of global intelligence, as propagated by [[Charles Spearman’s]] [[Spearman's hypothesis]], he divided the concept of [[intelligence]] into two main areas: verbal and performance, and further subdivided and tested each area with a different subtest. These conceptualizations continue to be reflected in the Wechsler scales of the twenty-first century; as such, the WAIS continues to remain the most commonly administered psychological test in existence <ref>Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.</ref>.
-The WAIS is today the most commonly administered psychological test (Kaplan & Sacuzzo, 2005). The tests are currently updated approximately every ten years to compensate for the [[Flynn effect]].
+===Intelligence Testing===
+The full scale [[IQ]] test is broken down into 14 sub tests, comprising the verbal scale, seven verbal sub tests, the performance scale and seven performance sub tests. Wechsler's tests provide three scores; a verbal IQ score, a performance IQ score, and a composite IQ score based on the combined scores.
+The [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]] is appropriate throughout adulthood and for use with those individuals over 74 years of age.  For testing children aged 7 to 16, the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children]] is used, while the [[Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence]] is used for testing children aged 2.5 – 7. Both tests can be completed without reading or writing.
-'''Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale''' or '''WAIS''' is a general test of intelligence ([[Intelligence quotient|IQ]]), published in February 1955 as a revision of the [[David Wechsler|Wechsler]]-[[Bellevue Hospital Center|Bellevue]] test (1939), a battery of tests that is composed from subtests Wechsler "adopted" from the Army Tests ([[Robert Yerkes|Yerkes]], 1921).
+Verbal subtests aim to test general cultural information, abstract comprehension, arithmetic, verbal reasoning, vocabulary, concentration, and memory. Performance subtests include visual perception, visual-motor coordination, spatial perception, abstract problem solving, sequential reasoning, perception speed and visual analysis.
-Weschler defined intelligence as  "The global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his/her environment."<ref>{{cite book
-  | last =Weschler
-  | first =David
-  | authorlink =
-  | coauthors =
-  | title =The measurement of adult intelligence
-  | publisher =Williams & Wilkins
-  | date =1939
-  | location =Baltimore
-  | pages =229
-  | url =
-  | doi =
-  | id =
-  | ASIN= B00085W3CU }}</ref>
+===Other Uses===
+Wechsler’s intelligence scales are used not only as an intelligence test, but also as a clinical tool. Many practitioners use the [[Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale for Children]] (WISC) to diagnose [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and to detect [[learning disabilities]]. This is usually done through a process called ''pattern analysis'', in which the various subtests' scores are compared to one another and clusters of unusually low scores in relation to the others are searched for. David Wechsler himself suggested this in 1958 <ref>Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.</ref>.
+The empirical consensus is that the WISC is best used as a tool to evaluate intelligence and not to diagnose ADHD or learning disabled children. However, many clinicians use it to compare a child's cognitive development to his or her actual school or social performance. Using this discrepancy and other sources of data, the WISC can contribute information concerning a child's psychological well-being.
-==Overview==
+==Legacy==
-The full scale [[IQ]] test is broken down into 14 sub tests, comprising the verbal (7 sub tests) and performance scales (7 sub tests).
+Wechsler is best known for his many contributions to intelligence theory. He is credited with the creation of various intelligence testing scales, including the renowned [[Wechsler-Bellevue Scale of Intelligence]], the [[Wechsler Memory Scale]], the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children]], the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]], and the [[Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence]]. Many of these tests have remained in circulation into the twenty-first century, most showing only small alteration over time. Wechsler is also known for his creation of the [[deviation quotient]], or DQ, which worked to replace mental age in computing IQ scores; this allowed for greater comparison among adult examinees. An author of various influential publications, Wechsler viewed intelligence as an effect rather than a cause, and believed former assessments of general intelligence to be too narrow. Instead, he found that non-intellective factors, such as personality, often contribute to the development of an individual’s intelligence <ref> lucker, J. A. (Ed.). (2003). [http://www.indiana.edu/~intell Human Intelligence: Historical Influences, Current Controversies, Teaching Resources.] Retrieved 1 November, 2007.</ref>. Wechsler eventually died a greatly respected psychologist in 1981, at the age of 85.
-Wechsler's tests provide three scores:
-# a verbal IQ (VIQ)
-# a performance IQ (PIQ)
-# a composite, single '''full-scale''' IQ score based on the combined scores.
-WAIS-R was standardised in 1981 on a sample of 1,880 [[USA|US]] subjects, ranging from 16 to 74 years of age, broken down into 9 different age groups.  It is considered to have very strong reliability.  The current version is WAIS-III (1997).
-The [[median]] full-scale IQ is centered at 100<ref>{{cite web
-  | last =
-  | first =
-  | authorlink =
-  | coauthors =
-  | title =Distribution of IQ Scores
-  | work =
-  | publisher =MSN Encarta
-  | date =
-  | url =http://encarta.msn.com/media_461540296/Distribution_of_IQ_Scores.html
-  | format =
-  | doi =
-  | accessdate =2007-07-08 }}</ref>, with a [[standard deviation]] of 15. In a [[normal distribution]] this IQ range (1σ above and below the mean) is where approximately 68% of adults would fall. To qualify for entrance into [[Mensa International|Mensa]] a score of 130 is needed.
-==Test variants==
-The WAIS-III measure is appropriate throughout adulthood and for use with those individuals over 74 years of age.  For persons under 16, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children ([[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children|WISC]], 7-16 yrs) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence ([[Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence|WPPSI]], 2 1/2-7 yrs) are used.
-An IQ score can be obtained without administering the verbal section of the test since each section yields its own score.
-A short, four-subtest, version of the battery has recently been released, allowing clinicians to form a validated estimate of verbal, performance and full scale IQ in a shorter amount of time. The Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) uses the vocabulary, similarities, block design and matrix reasoning subtests of the WAIS to provide an estimate of the full IQ scores.
-Intelligence tests also are used in populations with psychiatric illness or brain injury, though some regard this use as controversial.  Some neuropsychologists use the technique on people suffering brain damage as it [[Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder|leads to links]] with which part of the brain has been affected, or use specific subtests in order to get an idea of the extent of the brain damage. For example, digit span may be used to get a sense of attentional difficulties. Others employ the '''WAIS-R NI''' ''(Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised as a Neuropsychological Instrument)'', another measure published by Harcourt. Each subtest score is tallied and calculated with respect to non-normal or brain-damaged norms. As the WAIS is developed for the average, non-injured individual, separate norms were developed for appropriate comparison among similar functioning individuals {{Fact|date=May 2007}}.
-==14 subtests of the WAIS-III==
-===Verbal Subtests===
-; Information : Degree of general information acquired from culture (e.g. Who is the president of Russia?)
-; Comprehension: Ability to deal with abstract social conventions, rules and expressions (e.g. What does "Kill 2 birds with 1 stone" metaphorically mean?)
-; Arithmetic: Concentration while manipulating mental mathematical problems  (e.g. How many 45c. stamps can you buy for a dollar?)
-; Similarities: Abstract verbal reasoning (e.g. In what way are an apple and a pear alike?)
-; Vocabulary: The degree to which one has learned, been able to comprehend and verbally express vocabulary (e.g. What is a guitar?)
-; Digit span: attention/concentration (e.g. Digits forward: 123, Digits backward 321.)
-; Letter-Number Sequencing: attention and working memory (e.g. Given Q1B3J2, place the numbers in numerical order and then the letters in alphabetical order)
-===Performance Subtests===
-; Picture Completion: Ability to quickly perceive visual details
-; Digit Symbol - Coding: [[Visual-motor coordination]], motor and mental speed
-; Block Design: Spatial perception, visual abstract processing & problem solving
-; Matrix Reasoning: Nonverbal abstract problem solving, inductive reasoning, spatial reasoning
-; Picture Arrangement: Logical/sequential reasoning, social insight
-; Symbol Search: Visual perception, speed
-; Object Assembly: Visual analysis, synthesis, and construction
-Optional post-tests include Digit Symbol - Incidental Learning and Digit Symbol - Free Recall.
-==WAIS-III Subtests Grouped According to Indices==
-In addition to the Verbal and Performance IQ scores, the following four indices are derived.
-===Verbal comprehension===
-* Vocabulary
-* Information
-* Similarities
+==Publications==
+*Wechsler, D. (1939).  The Measurement of Adult Intelligence.  Baltimore:  Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0548385300.
-===Perceptual organization===
+*Wechsler, D. (1940).  Non-intellective Factors in General Intelligence.  Psychological Bulletin, 37, 444-445.
+*Wechsler, D.(1949). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. New York:  The Psychological Corporation.
-* Picture Completion
+*Wechsler, D. (1955a).  The Range of Human Capacities (2nd ed.).  Baltimore:  Williams & Wilkins.
-* [[Block design test|Block Design]]
+*Wechsler, D. (1955b). Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. New York:  The Psychological Corporation.
-* Matrix Reasoning
+*Wechsler, D. (1967). Manual for the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence.  New York:  Psychological Corporation.
-===Working memory===
-* Arithmetic
-* [[Digit Span]]
-* Letter-Number Sequencing
-===Processing speed===
-* Digit Symbol-Coding
-* Symbol Search
-''Note: Picture Arrangement, Comprehension, and Object Assembly do not contribute to the Index Scores'
-The '''Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children''' ('''WISC'''), developed by [[David Wechsler]], is an [[intelligence test]] for children between the ages of 6 and 16 inclusive that can be completed without reading or writing. The WISC generates an [[Intelligence quotient|IQ score]].
-==History==
-The WISC was originally developed as a downward extension of the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]] in 1949. A revised edition (WISC-R) in 1974 as the WISC-R, and the third edition, the WISC-III in 1991. The current version, the WISC-IV, was produced in 2003. Each successive version has renormed the test to compensate for the [[Flynn effect]], refined questions to make them less biased against minorities and females, and updated materials to make them more useful in the administration of the test.
-==Uses==
-The WISC is used not only as an intelligence test, but as a clinical tool. Many practitioners use it to diagnose [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[learning disability|learning disabilities]], for example. This is usually done through a process called ''pattern analysis'', in which the various subtests' scores are compared to one another (ipsative scoring) and clusters of unusually low scores in relation to the others are searched for. David Wechsler himself suggested this in 1958 (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2005).
-However, the research does not show this to be a very effective way to diagnosis ADHD or learning disabilities (Watkins, Kush, & Glutting, 1997). The vast majority of ADHD children do not display certain subscores substantially below others, and many children who display such patterns do not have ADHD. Other patterns for children with learning disabilities show a similar lack of usefulness of the WISC as a diagnostic tool (Ward, Ward, Hatt, Young, & Moller, 1995).
-When diagnosing children, best practice suggests that a multi-test battery should be used as learning problems, attention, and emotional difficulties can have similar symptoms, co-occur, or influence each other. For example, children with learning difficulties can become emotionally distraught and thus have concentration difficulties, begin to exhibit behavior problems, or both. Children with ADD or ADHD may show learning difficulties because of their attentional problems or also have learning disorder or mental retardation (or have nothing else). In short, while diagnosis of any childhood or adult difficulty should never be made based on IQ alone (or interview, physician examination, parent report, other test etc. for that matter) the cognitive ability test can help rule out, in conjunction with other tests and sources of information, other explanations for problems, uncover co-morbid problems, and be a rich source of information when properly analyzed and care is taken to avoid relying simply on the single summary IQ score (Sattler, ?year).
-The empirical consensus is that the WISC is best used as a tool to evaluate intelligence and not to diagnose ADHD or learning disabled children. However, many clinicians use it to compare a child's cognitive development to his or her actual school or social performance. Using this discrepancy and other sources of data, the WISC can contribute information concerning a child's psychological well-being.
-==Translations==
-WISC has been translated or adapted to many languages, and norms have been established for a number of countries, including Spanish, Norwegian, Swedish, French (France and Canada), English (United States, Canada, United Kingdom), Chinese (Hong Kong), Greek , and Italian. Separate norms are established with each translation. (Norway uses the Swedish norms).
 ==Notes==
@@ Line 140: / Line 42: @@
 ==References==
-*Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). ''Psychological Testing: Principles, applications, and issues''. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
+*Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2005). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0534633064.
-*Watkins, M.W., Kush, J., & Glutting, J.J. (1997). Discriminant and predictive validity of the WISC-III ACID profile among children with learning disabilities. ''Psychology in the Schools, 34''(4), 309-319.
+*Plucker, J. A. (Ed.). (2003). [http://www.indiana.edu/~intell Human Intelligence: Historical Influences, Current Controversies, Teaching Resources.] Retrieved 1 November, 2007.
-*Ward, S.B., Ward, T. J., Hatt, C.V., Young, D.L, & Mollner, N.R. (1995). The incidence and utility of the ACID, ACIDS, and SCAD profiles in a referred population. ''Psychology in the Schools, 32(4)'', 267-276.
+*Edwards, A. J. (1994).  Wechsler, David (1896-1981).  In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 1134-1136). New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0028974077.
+*Fancher, R. E. (1985). The Intelligence Men: Makers of the IQ Controversy. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393955257.
-==External links==
-* [http://alpha.fdu.edu/psychology/WISC-III%20Descrpition_.htm WISC at Fairleigh Dickinson University site]
-* [http://harcourtassessment.com/haiweb/cultures/en-us/productdetail.htm?pid=015-8979-044 WISC-IV on Harcourt Assessment site]
-* [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~hevern/psy448/448documents/wais_iii.html Overview]
-* [http://harcourtassessment.com/haiweb/cultures/en-us/productdetail.htm?pid=015-8980-727 Official page]
-* [http://www.psychologicaltesting.com/iqtest.htm More descriptions about individual tests]
-* PMID 12801187 - "Scoring reliability on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition"
-* PMID 10877468 - "Prorating Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III summary scores"
+==External Links==
+*[http://alpha.fdu.edu/psychology/WISC-III%20Descrpition_.htm WISC at Farleigh Dickinson University]
+*[http://harcourtassessment.com/haiweb/cultures/en-us/productdetail.htm?pid=015-8979-044 WISC-IV Harcourt Assessment]
+*[http://web.lemoyne.edu/~hevern/psy448/448documents/wais_iii.html Overview]
+*[http://www.psychologicaltesting.com/iqtest.htm Individual tests]
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