Difference between revisions of "Empathy" - New World Encyclopedia

Latest revision as of 17:47, 28 December 2023

Hugging someone who is hurt is a signal of empathy.

Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their frame of reference, that is, by placing oneself (mentally) in another's position. Definitions of empathy encompass a broad range of social, cognitive, and emotional processes primarily concerned with understanding others (and others' emotions in particular).

While empathy is generally considered a positive trait, facilitating the formation of good relationships and bringing pleasure as one's understanding and experience of life is increased, it can also lead to problems. Too much empathy can lead to a loss of sense of self, flawed decision making, and emotional fatigue particularly among health care workers. A balance between empathetic understanding of others and awareness of one's own sense of self and values is needed for a healthy and fulfilling life.

Etymology

The English word empathy is derived from the Ancient Greek ἐμπάθεια empatheia, meaning "physical affection or passion"). That word derives from ἐν (en, "in, at") and πάθος (pathos, "passion" or "suffering").^[1] Theodor Lipps adapted the German aesthetic term Einfühlung ("feeling into") to psychology in 1903,^[2] and Edward B. Titchener translated Einfühlung into English as "empathy" in 1909.^[3]

Definitions

Being there for another

Since its introduction into the English language, empathy has had a wide range of (sometimes conflicting) definitions among both researchers and laypeople.^[4] Empathy definitions encompass a broad range of phenomena, including caring for other people and having a desire to help them; experiencing emotions that match another person's emotions; discerning what another person is thinking or feeling; and making less distinct the differences between the self and the other.^[5]

Related concepts

Compassion and sympathy are terms associated with empathy. A person feels compassion when they notice others are in need, and this feeling motivates that person to help. Like empathy, compassion has a wide range of definitions and purported facets (which overlap with some definitions of empathy).^[6] Sympathy is a feeling of care and understanding for someone in need. Some include in sympathy an empathic concern for another person, and the wish to see them better off or happier.^[7]

Empathy is also related to pity.^[8]^[7] One feels pity towards others who might be in trouble or in need of help. This feeling is described as "feeling sorry" for someone.

Classification

There are two major types of empathy: cognitive empathy, emotional (or affective) empathy.^[9] Affective and cognitive empathy are independent from one another; someone who strongly empathizes emotionally is not necessarily good in understanding another's perspective.

Affective empathy

Also called emotional empathy, affective empathy is the ability to respond with an appropriate emotion to another's mental states.^[10] Our ability to empathize emotionally is based on emotional contagion, being affected by another's emotional or arousal state.^[11]

Affective empathy can be subdivided as follows:^[10]^[12]

Empathic concern

Empathic concern is evidenced as sympathy and compassion for others in response to their suffering.^[10]^[13]

Personal distress

People often experience feelings of discomfort and anxiety in response to another's suffering.^[10]^[13] However, there is no consensus regarding whether personal distress is a form of empathy or instead is something distinct from empathy.^[8] There may be a developmental aspect to this subdivision. Infants respond to the distress of others by getting distressed themselves; only when they are two years old do they start to respond in other-oriented ways: trying to help, comfort, and share.

Affective mentalizing

People may use clues like body language, facial expressions, knowledge about the other's beliefs, situation, and context to understand more about their empathetic feelings.^[2]

Empathic Anger

Empathic anger is an emotion, a form of empathic distress. It is felt in a situation where someone else is being hurt by another person or thing.^[14] Empathic anger affects desires both to help and to punish.

Empathic Distress

Empathic distress is feeling the perceived pain of another person. This feeling can be transformed into empathic anger, feelings of injustice, or guilt. These emotions can be perceived as pro-social. However, views differ as to whether they serve as motives for moral behavior.^[14]^[15]

Cognitive empathy

Cognitive empathy is the ability to understand another's perspective or mental state.^[16]^[10] Although measures of cognitive empathy include self-report questionnaires and behavioral measures, a 2019 meta-analysis found only a negligible association between self-report and behavioral measures, suggesting that people are generally not able to accurately assess their own cognitive empathy abilities.^[17]

Cognitive empathy can be subdivided as follows:^[10]^[12]

Perspective-taking: the tendency to spontaneously adopt others' psychological perspectives.
Fantasy: the tendency to identify with fictional characters.<
Tactical (or strategic) empathy: the deliberate use of perspective-taking to achieve certain desired ends.
Emotion regulation: a damper on the emotional contagion process that allows you to empathize without being overwhelmed by the emotion you are empathizing with.^[18]

The scientific community has not coalesced around a precise definition of these constructs, but there is consensus about this distinction.^[19]

Measurement

Efforts to measure empathy go back to at least the mid-twentieth century, and researchers have approach it from a number of perspectives.

Behavioral measures normally involve raters assessing the presence or absence of certain behaviors, both verbal and non-verbal, in the subjects they are monitoring. Both verbal and non-verbal behaviors have been captured on video by experimenters. Other experimenters have required subjects to comment upon their own feelings and behaviors, or those of other people involved in the experiment, as indirect ways of signaling their level of empathic functioning.

Physiological responses tend to be captured by electronic equipment that has been physically connected to the subject's body. Researchers may then draw inferences about that person's empathic reactions from the electronic readings produced.

Subjects may be asked to read scenarios or watch video scenarios (either staged or authentic) and make written responses which are then assessed for their levels of empathy.

Picture or puppet-story indices for empathy have been adopted to enable even very young, pre-school subjects to respond without needing to read questions and write answers.

Self-report measures

Measures of empathy often require subjects to self-report upon their own ability or capacity for empathy, using Likert-style numerical responses to a printed questionnaire that may have been designed to reveal the affective, cognitive-affective, or largely cognitive substrates of empathic functioning. However, a 2019 meta analysis questions the validity of self-report measures of cognitive empathy, finding that such self-report measures have negligibly small correlations with corresponding behavioral measures.^[17]

Such measures are also vulnerable to measuring not empathy but the difference between a person's felt empathy and their standards for how much empathy is appropriate. For example, students scored themselves as less empathetic after taking a class discussing empathy. After learning more about empathy, the students became more exacting in how they judged their own feelings and behavior, expected more from themselves, and so rated themselves more severely.^[2]

The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) is among the oldest published measurement tools still in frequent use (first published in 1983) that provides a multi-dimensional assessment of empathy. It comprises a self-report questionnaire of 28 items, divided into four seven-item scales covering the subdivisions of affective and cognitive empathy described above.^[10]^[12] More recent self-report tools include The Empathy Quotient (EQ), which comprises a self-report questionnaire consisting of 60 items.^[20] Another multi-dimensional scale is the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE, first published in 2011).^[21]

The Empathic Experience Scale is a 30-item questionnaire that measures empathy from a phenomenological perspective on intersubjectivity, which provides a common basis for the perceptual experience (vicarious experience dimension) and a basic cognitive awareness (intuitive understanding dimension) of others' emotional states.^[22]

It is difficult to make comparisons over time using such questionnaires because of how language changes. For example, one study using a single questionnaire to measure 13,737 college students between 1979 and 2009 found that empathy scores fell substantially over that time. A critic noted these results could be because the wording of the questionnaire had become anachronistically quaint (it used idioms no longer in common use, like "tender feelings," "ill at ease," "quite touched," or "go to pieces," that today's students might not identify with).^[23]

Influence on helping behavior

Investigators into the social response to natural disasters researched the characteristics associated with individuals who help victims. Researchers found that cognitive empathy, rather than emotional empathy, predicted helping behavior towards victims.^[24] Taking on the perspectives of others (cognitive empathy) may allow these helpers to better empathize with victims without as much discomfort, whereas sharing the emotions of the victims (emotional empathy) can cause emotional distress, helplessness, and victim-blaming, and may lead to avoidance rather than helping.^[25]

Empathy-induced altruism may not always produce pro-social effects. For example, it could lead one to exert oneself on behalf of those for whom empathy is felt at the expense of other potential pro-social goals, thus inducing a type of bias. Researchers suggest that individuals are willing to act against the greater collective good or to violate their own moral principles of fairness and justice if doing so will benefit a person for whom empathy is felt.^[26]

Therapeutic programs to foster altruistic impulses by encouraging perspective-taking and empathic feelings might enable individuals to develop more satisfactory interpersonal relations, especially in the long-term. Empathy-induced altruism can improve attitudes toward stigmatized groups, racial attitudes, and actions toward people with AIDS, the homeless, and convicts. Such resulting altruism also increases cooperation in competitive situations.^[27]

Empathy is good at prompting prosocial behaviors that are informal, unplanned, and directed at someone who is immediately present, but is not as good at prompting more abstractly-considered, long-term prosocial behavior.^[28]

Development

Ontogenetic development

By the age of two, children normally begin to exhibit fundamental behaviors of empathy by having an emotional response that corresponds with another person's emotional state.^[29] Even earlier, at one year of age, infants have some rudiments of empathy; they understand that, as with their own actions, other people's actions have goals.^[30] Toddlers sometimes comfort others or show concern for them. Although children as young as 18 months to two years are capable of showing some signs of empathy, including attempting to comfort a crying baby, most do not demonstrate a full theory of mind until around the age of four. Theory of mind involves the ability to understand that other people may have beliefs that are different from one's own, and is thought to involve the cognitive component of empathy.^[16]

According to researchers at the University of Chicago who used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), children between the ages of seven and twelve, when seeing others being injured, experience brain activity similar that which would occur if the child themself had been injured.^[31] Their findings are consistent with previous fMRI studies of pain empathy with adults, and previous findings that vicarious experiencing, particularly of others' distress, is hardwired and present early in life. The research also found additional areas of the brain, associated with social and moral cognition, were activated when young people saw another person intentionally hurt by somebody, including regions involved in moral reasoning.^[31]

Sex differences

It has been found that, on average, females score higher than males on measures of empathy, such as the Empathy Quotient (EQ)^[32] However, other studies show no significant sex differences, and instead suggest that gender differences could be the result of motivational differences, such as upholding stereotypes.^[32]^[33]

Environmental influences

Some researchers have theorized that environmental factors, such as parenting style and relationships, affect the development of empathy in children.

Learning by teaching helps to develop empathy. The method of having students teach other students has been present since antiquity, often due to lack of resources. In the early nineteenth century, the Monitorial System was developed in parallel by Scotsman Andrew Bell who had worked in Madras and Joseph Lancaster who worked in London; each attempted to educate masses of poor children with scant resources by having older children teach younger children what they had already learned.^[34] When students transmit new content to their classmates, they have to reflect continuously on those classmates' mental processes. Thus, they develop cognitive empathy as they attempt to transmit their learning, and in many cases affective empathy is also developed as the students spend quality time together.

Genetics

The basic capacity to recognize emotions in others may be innate.^[35]

Measures of empathy show evidence of being genetically influenced.^[36] For example, a gene located near LRRN1 on chromosome 3 influences the human ability to read, understand, and respond to emotions in others.^[37]

Neuroscientific basis of empathy

Contemporary neuroscience offers insights into the neural basis of the mind's ability to understand and process emotion. Empathy is a spontaneous sharing of affect, provoked by witnessing and sympathizing with another's emotional state. The empathic person mirrors or mimics the emotional response they would expect to feel if they were in the other person's place. Studies of mirror neurons attempt to measure the neural basis for human mind-reading and emotion-sharing abilities and thereby to explain the basis of the empathy reaction.^[38] People who score high on empathy tests have especially busy mirror neuron systems.^[39]

fMRI has been employed to investigate the functional anatomy of empathy. Observing another person's emotional state activates parts of the neuronal network that are involved in processing that same state in oneself, whether it is disgust, touch, or pain.^[13] As these emotional states are being observed, the brain is able activate a network of the brain that is involved in empathy.

Meta-analysis of fMRI studies of empathy confirms that different brain areas are activated during affective-perceptual empathy than during cognitive-evaluative empathy. Affective empathy is correlated with increased activity in the insula while cognitive empathy is correlated with activity in the mid cingulate cortex and adjacent dorsomedial prefrontal cortex.^[40] A study with patients who experienced different types of brain damage also confirmed this distinction between emotional and cognitive empathy. Specifically, the inferior frontal gyrus appears to be responsible for emotional empathy, and the ventromedial prefrontal gyrus seems to mediate cognitive empathy.^[41]

Mirroring-behavior in motor neurons during empathy may help duplicate feelings. Such sympathetic action may afford access to sympathetic feelings and, perhaps, trigger emotions of kindness and forgiveness.^[42]^[43]

Evolution across species

There is strong evidence that empathy is not exclusive to humans. Empathy has deep evolutionary, biochemical, and neurological underpinnings, and that even the most advanced forms of empathy in humans are built on more basic forms and remain connected to core mechanisms associated with affective communication, social attachment, and parental care.^[44]

Empathy-like behaviors have been observed in primates, both in captivity and in the wild, and in particular in bonobos, perhaps the most empathic primate.^[45] Bonobos seek out body contact with one another as a coping mechanism, and have been found to seek out more body contact after watching other bonobos in distress than after their individually experienced stressful event. ^[46]

Empathic-like behavior has been observed in chimpanzees in different aspects of their natural behaviors. For example, chimpanzees spontaneously contribute comforting behaviors to victims of aggressive behavior in both natural and unnatural settings. This behavior is also found in humans, particularly in human infants. Another similarity found between chimpanzees and humans is that empathic-like responding was disproportionately provided to kin. Although comforting towards non-family chimpanzees was also observed, as with humans, chimpanzees showed the majority of comfort and concern to close/loved ones.

Empathy between species

Humans can empathize with other species and vice versa.

For example, canines appear to share empathic-like responding towards human species. Researchers Custance and Mayer adapted an experimental protocol first used with human infants to investigate empathy in domestic dogs. Individual dogs were placed in an enclosure with their owner and a stranger. When the participants were talking and appeared content, the dog showed no behavioral changes; however when the participants were pretending to cry, the dogs oriented their behavior toward the person in distress whether it be the owner or stranger. The dogs approached the apparently distressed participants in a submissive fashion, by sniffing, licking, and nuzzling them rather than approaching in the usual form of excitement, tail wagging, or panting. Since the dogs did not direct their empathic-like responses only towards their owner, it was hypothesized that dogs generally seek out humans showing distressed behavior.^[47]

Impairment

Empathy may be disrupted due to brain trauma such as stroke. In most cases, empathy is impaired if a lesion or stroke occurs on the right side of the brain. Damage to the frontal lobe, which is primarily responsible for emotional regulation, can profoundly impact a person's capacity to experience empathy. People with an acquired brain injury also show lower levels of empathy. More than half of those people with a traumatic brain injury self-report a deficit in their empathic capacity.^[48]

A difference in distribution between affective and cognitive empathy has been observed in various conditions. Psychopathy and narcissism are associated with impairments in affective but not cognitive empathy, whereas bipolar disorder is associated with deficits in cognitive but not affective empathy. People with Borderline personality disorder may suffer from impairments in cognitive empathy as well as fluctuating affective empathy, although this topic is controversial.^[19] Autism spectrum disorders are associated with various combinations, including deficits in cognitive empathy as well as deficits in both cognitive and affective empathy.^[10]^[41] Schizophrenia, too, is associated with deficits in both types of empathy. However, even in people without conditions such as these, the balance between affective and cognitive empathy varies.^[19]

Atypical empathic responses are associated with autism and particular personality disorders such as psychopathy, borderline, narcissistic, and schizoid personality disorders; schizophrenia; bipolar disorder;^[19] and depersonalization.^[49]

Benefits of empathy

The capacity to empathize is a revered trait in society.^[10] Empathy is considered a motivating factor for unselfish, prosocial behavior, whereas a lack of empathy is related to antisocial behavior.^[2]

Empathy can bring us pleasure:

by widening the scope of that which we experience... by providing us with more than one perspective of a situation, thereby multiplying our experience... and... by intensifying that experience.^[23]

People can use empathy to borrow joy from the joy of children discovering things or playing make-believe, or to satisfy our curiosity about other people's lives.^[15]

People who score more highly on empathy questionnaires also report having more positive relationships with other people. They report "greater life satisfaction, more positive affect, less negative affect, and less depressive symptoms than people who had lower empathy scores."^[50] Empathy can be called the "fundamental people skill."^[51] It not only facilitates relationship development, it also helps form the basis of morality, compassion, forgiveness, and caring for others. Higher levels of empathy have been found to be a hallmark of resilience.^[52]

In educational contexts

A growing focus of investigation is how empathy manifests in education between teachers and learners.^[53]

Carl Rogers pioneered research in effective psychotherapy and teaching which espoused that empathy coupled with unconditional positive regard or caring for students and authenticity or congruence were the most important traits for a therapist or teacher to have. Other research and meta-analyses corroborated the importance of these person-centered traits.^[54]

In intercultural contexts

Research shows that people experience more difficulty empathizing with others who are different from them in characteristics such as status, culture, religion, language, skin color, gender, and age.^[55]

Empathy can be increased towards other cultures through frequent positive experiences,^[33] allowing a person to interpret experiences or perspectives from more than one worldview.^[56]

Problems with empathy

The judgments that empathy provides about the emotional states of others are not necessarily accurate. One's emotional background may affect or distort how they perceive the emotions in others.^[51]

People report finding it easier to take the perspective of another person in a situation when they have experienced a similar situation, and that they experience greater empathic understanding. However results on whether similar past experience makes the empathizer more accurate are mixed.^[57]

Empathic inaccuracy

People can severely overestimate how much they understand others. When people empathize with another, they may oversimplify that other person in order to make them more legible.^[23] It may improve empathic accuracy for the empathizer to explicitly ask the person empathized with for confirmation of the empathic hypothesis.^[18] However, people may be reluctant to abandon their empathic hypotheses even when they are explicitly denied.^[23]

Loss of self

The empathic person must temporarily dampen their own sense of self in order to empathize with the other, experiencing a weaker sense of their own self. Because we oversimplify people in order to make them legible enough to empathize with, the other seems to have a magnified and extra-cohesive sense of self, the empathic person may suffer from this and may "project onto others the self that they are lacking" and envy "that which they must give up in order to be able to feel empathy: a strong self."^[23]

Bias

People are more able and willing to empathize with those most similar to themselves. In particular, empathy increases with similarities in culture and living conditions. Empathy is also more likely to occur between individuals whose interaction is more frequent.^[33]^[29]

This bias can result in tribalism and violent responses in the name of helping people of the same "tribe" or social group. Improper use of empathy and social intelligence can lead to shortsighted actions and parochialism. Thus, empathy can encourage unethical behavior when it causes people to care more about people similar to themselves.^[15]

Empathic distress fatigue

Excessive empathy can lead to "empathic distress fatigue," especially if it is associated with pathological altruism. The risks are fatigue, occupational burnout, guilt, shame, anxiety, and depression.^[58] Health care workers and caregivers are particularly at risk.

Breithaupt emphasizes the importance of empathy suppression mechanisms in healthy empathy.^[23] People who understand how empathic feelings evoke altruistic motivation may adopt strategies for suppressing or avoiding such feelings. People can better cognitively control their actions the more they understand how altruistic behavior emerges, whether it is from minimizing sadness or the arousal of mirror neurons.

In fiction

George Eliot wrote in her essay in 1856:

The greatest benefits we owe to the artist, whether painter, poet, or novelist, is the extension of our sympathies. Appeals founded on generalizations and statistics require a sympathy ready-made, a moral sentiment already in activity; but a picture of human life such as a great artist can give, surprises even the trivial and the selfish into that attention to what is apart from themselves, which may be called the raw material of moral sentiment.… Art is the nearest thing to life; it is a mode of amplifying experience and extending our contact with our fellow-men beyond the bounds of our personal lot.^[59]

It has been suggested the concept of human rights developed how it did and when it did in part as a result of the influence of mid-eighteenth-century European novelists, particularly those whose use of the epistolatory novel form, written as a series of letters between the fictional characters, gave readers a more vivid sense that they were gaining access to the candid details of a real life: The epistolatory novel did not just reflect important cultural and social changes of the time. Novel reading actually helped create new kinds of feelings including a recognition of shared psychological experiences, and these feelings then translated into new cultural and social movements including human rights.^[60]

The power of empathy has become a popular ability in fiction, specifically in that of superhero media. "Empaths" have the ability to sense/feel the emotions and bodily sensations of others and, in some cases, influence or control them. Although sometimes a specific power held by specific characters such as the Marvel Comics character Empath, the power has also been frequently linked to that of telepathy such as in the case of Jean Grey.

Notes

↑ empathy (n.) Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 Elizabeth A. Segal, Karen E. Gerdes, Cynthia A. Lietz, M. Alex Wagaman, and Jennifer M. Geiger, Assessing Empathy (Columbia University Press, 2017, ISBN 9780231181914).
↑ Edward Bradford Titchener, Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes (Legare Street Press, 2022 (original 1909), ISBN 1015885470).
↑ Susan Lanzoni, Empathy: A History (Yale University Press, 2018, ISBN 978-0300222685).
↑ Sara D. Hodges and Kristi J.K. Klein, Regulating the costs of empathy: the price of being human The Journal of Socio-Economics 30 (2001): 437– 452. Retrieved December 26, 2023.
↑ Clara Strauss, Billie Lever Taylor, Jenny Gu, Willem Kuyken, Ruth Baer, Fergal Jones, and Kate Cavanagh, What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures Clinical Psychology Review 47 (July 2016):15-27. Retrieved December 26, 2023.
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 Jean Decety and Williams Icles (eds.) The Social Neuroscience of Empathy (MIT Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0262012973).
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 Amy Coplan, Will the real empathy please stand up? A case for a narrow conceptualization The Southern Journal of Philosophy 49 (September 2011):40–65. Retrieved December 26, 2023.
↑ Babette Rothschild and Marjorie Rand, Help for the Helper: The psychophysiology of compassion fatigue and vicarious trauma (W. W. Norton & Company, 2006, ISBN 978-0393704228).
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 ^10.4 ^10.5 ^10.6 ^10.7 ^10.8 Kimberley Rogers, Isabel Dziobek, Jason Hassenstab, Oliver T. Wolf, and Antonio Convit, Who cares? Revisiting empathy in Asperger syndrome Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 37(4) (April 2007):709-715. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Frans B.M. de Waal, Putting the altruism back into altruism: the evolution of empathy Annual Review of Psychology 59(1) (2008):279–300. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ ^12.0 ^12.1 ^12.2 Mark H. Davis, Measuring individual differences in empathy: evidence for a multidimensional approach Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44(1) (1983):113–126. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ ^13.0 ^13.1 ^13.2 Chris Lamm, C. Daniel Batson, and Jean Decety, The neural substrate of human empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 19(1) (2007):42–58. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ ^14.0 ^14.1 Martin L. Hoffman, Empathy and Justic Motivation Motivation and Emotion 14(2) (1990):151–172. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ ^15.0 ^15.1 ^15.2 Paul Bloom, Against Empathy: The Case for Rational Compassion (Ecco, 2018, ISBN 978-0062339348).
↑ ^16.0 ^16.1 Simon Baron-Cohen, The Essential Difference: The Truth About The Male And Female Brain (Basic Books, 2003, ISBN 978-0738208442).
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 Brett A. Murphy and Scott O. Lilienfeld, Are self-report cognitive empathy ratings valid proxies for cognitive empathy ability? Negligible meta-analytic relations with behavioral task performance Psychological Assessment 31(8) (August 2019):1062–1072. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ ^18.0 ^18.1 Karla McLaren, The Art of Empathy: A Complete Guide to Life's Most Essential Skill (Sounds True, 2013, ISBN 978-1622030613).
↑ ^19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 ^19.3 Christine L. Cox, Lucina Q. Uddin, Adriana Di Martino, F. Xavier Castellanos, Michael P. Milham, and Clare Kelly, The balance between feeling and knowing: affective and cognitive empathy are reflected in the brain's intrinsic functional dynamics Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 7(6) (2012):727–737. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Simon Baron-Cohen and Sally Wheelwright, The empathy quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 34(2) (April 2004):163–175. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Renate L.E.P. Reniers, Rhiannon Corcoran, Richard Drake, Nick M. Shryane, and Birgit A. Völlm, The QCAE: a Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy Journal of Personality Assessment 93(1) (January 2011):84–95. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Marco Innamorati, Sjoerd J.H. Ebisch, Vittorio Gallese, and Aristide Saggino, A bidimensional measure of empathy: Empathic Experience Scale PLOS ONE 14(4) (April 2019). Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ ^23.0 ^23.1 ^23.2 ^23.3 ^23.4 ^23.5 Fritz Breithaupt, The Dark Sides of Empathy (Cornell University Press, 2019, ISBN 978-1501721649).
↑ Zdravko Marjanovic, C. Ward Struthers, and Esther R. Greenglass, Who Helps Natural-Disaster Victims? Assessment of Trait and Situational Predictors Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 12(1) (August 8, 2011):245–267. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Christopher J. Einolf, Is Cognitive Empathy More Important than Affective Empathy? A Response to 'Who Helps Natural-Disaster Victims?' Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 12(1) (March 13, 2012):268–271. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ C. Daniel Batson and and Tecia Moran, Empathy-induced altruism in a prisoner's dilemma European Journal of Social Psychology 29(7) (1999):909–924. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ C.R. Snyder and Shane J. Lopez, Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0195187243).
↑ Christopher J Einolf, Empathic concern and prosocial behaviors: A test of experimental results using survey data Social Science Research 37(4) (2008):1267–1279.
↑ ^29.0 ^29.1 Martin L. Hoffman, Empathy and Moral Development (Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0521580342).
↑ Melanie Killen and Judith G. Smetana (eds.), Handbook of Moral Development (Routledge, 2022, ISBN 978-0367497545).
↑ ^31.0 ^31.1 Jean Decety, Kalina J Michalska, and Yuko Akitsuki, Who caused the pain? An fMRI investigation of empathy and intentionality in children Neuropsychologia 46(11) (September 2008):2607–2614. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ ^32.0 ^32.1 Jennifer Katherine Bosson, Camille E. Buckner, and Joseph Alan Vandello, The Psychology of Sex and Gender (SAGE Publications, Inc, 2021, ISBN 978-1544393995).
↑ ^33.0 ^33.1 ^33.2 William Ickes (ed.), Empathic Accuracy (The Guilford Press, 1997, ISBN 978-1572301610).
↑ Frank Pierrepont Graves, A Student's History of Education (Legare Street Press, 2023 (original 1915), ISBN 978-1020355608).
↑ James D. Baird and Laurie Nadel, Happiness Genes: Unlock the Positive Potential Hidden in Your DNA (Weiser, 2010, ISBN 978-1601631053).
↑ Mark H. Davis, Carol Luce, and Stephen J. Kraus , The heritability of characteristics associated with dispositional empathy Journal of Personality 62(3) (September 1994):369–391. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ V. Warrier et al., Genome-wide meta-analysis of cognitive empathy: heritability, and correlates with sex, neuropsychiatric conditions and cognition Molecular Psychiatry 23(6) (June 2018):1402–1409. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Suzanne Keen, A Theory of Narrative Empathy Narrative 14(3) (October 2006):207–236. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Valeria Gazzola, Lisa Aziz-Zadeh, and Christian Keysers, Empathy and the somatotopic auditory mirror system in humans Current Biology 16(18) (September 2006):1824–1829. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Yan Fan, Niall W. Duncan, Moritz de Greck, and Georg Northoff, Is there a core neural network in empathy? An fMRI based quantitative meta-analysis Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35(3) (January 2011):903-911. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ ^41.0 ^41.1 Simone G. Shamay-Tsoory, Judith Aharon-Peretz, and Daniella Perry, Two systems for empathy: a double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy in inferior frontal gyrus versus ventromedial prefrontal lesions Brain 132(Pt 3) (March 2009):617–627. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Jason Marsh, Do mirror neurons give us empathy? Greater Good Magazine (March 29, 2012). Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ V.S. Ramachandran, The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist's Quest for What Makes Us Human (W.W. Norton & Company, 2011, ISBN 978-0393077827).
↑ Jean Decety, The neuroevolution of empathy Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1231(1) (August 2011):35–45. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Jo Sandin, Bonobos: Encounters in Empathy (Zoological Society of Milwaukee & The Foundation for Wildlife Conservation, Inc., 2007, ISBN 978-0979415104).
↑ Frans de Waal, The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society (Souvenir Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0285638907).
↑ Deborah Custance and Jennifer Mayer, Empathic-like responding by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to distress in humans: an exploratory study Animal Cognition 15(5) (September 2012):851–859. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Arielle de Sousa, Skye McDonald, Jacqueline Rushby, Sophie Li, Aneta Dimoska, and Charlotte James, Why don't you feel how I feel? Insight into the absence of empathy after severe traumatic brain injury Neuropsychologia 48(12) (October 2010):3585–3595. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Dave Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (Back Bay Books, 2009, ISBN 978-0316040938).
↑ Daniel Grühn, Kristine Rebucal, Manfred Diehl, Mark Lumley, and Gisela Labouvie-Vief, Empathy across the adult lifespan: Longitudinal and experience-sampling findings Emotion 8(6) (2008):753–765. Retrieved December 28, 2023.
↑ ^51.0 ^51.1 Daniel Goleman, Emotional intelligence (Bantam Books, 2005, ISBN 978-0553383713).
↑ Bonnie Bernard, Resiliency: What We Have Learned (WestEd, 2004, ISBN 978-0914409182).
↑ Katie Dunworth and Grace Zhang (eds.), Critical Perspectives on Language Education: Australia and the Asia Pacific (Springer, 2014, ISBN 978-3319061849).
↑ Carl Rogers, Harold C. Lyon, and Reinhard Tausch, On Becoming an Effective Teacher (Routledge, 2013, ISBN 978-0415816984).
↑ Sharon Tettegah and Carolyn J. Anderson, Pre-service teachers' empathy and cognitions: Statistical analysis of text data by graphical models Contemporary Educational Psychology 32(1) (January 2007):48–82. Retrieved December 28, 2023.
↑ William H. Weeks, Paul B. Pedersen, and Richard W. Brislin (eds.), Manual of Structured Experiences for Cross-Cultural Learning (Intercultural Press, 1979, ISBN 978-0933662056).
↑ Sara D. Hodges, Kristi J. Kiel, Adam D. Kramer, Darya Veach, and B. Renee Villanueva, Giving birth to empathy: the effects of similar experience on empathic accuracy, empathic concern, and perceived empathy Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 36(3) (March 2010):398–409. Retrieved December 28, 2023.
↑ Barbara Oakley, Ariel Knafo, Guruprasad Madhavan, and David Sloan Wilson (eds.), Pathological Altruism (Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0199738571).
↑ Michelle Legro, Beauty, Aging, and the Expansion of Our Sympathies: What George Eliot Teaches Us About the Rewards of Middle Age The Marginalian. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
↑ Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (W.W. Norton & Company, 2008, ISBN 978-0393331998).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Baird, James D., and Laurie Nadel. Happiness Genes: Unlock the Positive Potential Hidden in Your DNA. Weiser, 2010. ISBN 978-1601631053
Baron-Cohen, Simon. The Essential Difference: The Truth About The Male And Female Brain. Basic Books, 2003. ISBN 978-0738208442
Bar-On, Reuven, and James D. A. Parker (eds.). The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence : Theory, Development, Assessment, and Application at Home, School and in the Workplace. Jossey-Bass, 2000. ISBN 978-0787949846
Bernard, Bonnie. Resiliency: What We Have Learned. WestEd, 2004. ISBN 978-0914409182
Bloom, Paul. Against Empathy: The Case for Rational Compassion. Ecco, 2018. ISBN 978-0062339348
Bosson, Jennifer Katherine, Camille E. Buckner, and Joseph Alan Vandello. The Psychology of Sex and Gender. SAGE Publications, Inc, 2021. ISBN 978-1544393995
Breithaupt, Fritz, Andrew B. B. Hamilton (trans.). The Dark Sides of Empathy. Cornell University Press, 2019. ISBN 978-1501721649
de Waal, Frans. The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society. Souvenir Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0285638907
Decety, Jean, and Williams Icles (eds.). The Social Neuroscience of Empathy. MIT Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0262012973
Dunworth, Katie, and Grace Zhang (eds.). Critical Perspectives on Language Education: Australia and the Asia Pacific. Springer, 2014. ISBN 978-3319061849
Goleman, Daniel. Emotional intelligence. Bantam Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0553383713
Graves, Frank Pierrepont. A Student's History of Education. Legare Street Press, 2023 (original 1915). ISBN 978-1020355608
Hoffman, Martin L. Empathy and Moral Development. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0521580342
Hunt, Lynn. Inventing Human Rights: A History. W.W. Norton & Company, 2008. ISBN 978-0393331998
Ickes, William (ed.). Empathic Accuracy. The Guilford Press, 1997. ISBN 978-1572301610
Killen, Melanie, and Judith G. Smetana (eds.). Handbook of Moral Development. Routledge, 2022. ISBN 978-0367497545
Lanzoni, Susan. Empathy: A History. Yale University Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0300222685
McLaren, Karla. The Art of Empathy: A Complete Guide to Life's Most Essential Skill. Sounds True, 2013. ISBN 978-1622030613
Oakley, Barbara, Ariel Knafo, Guruprasad Madhavan, and David Sloan Wilson (eds.). Pathological Altruism. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0199738571
Ramachandran, V.S. The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist's Quest for What Makes Us Human. W.W. Norton & Company, 2011. ISBN 978-0393077827
Rogers, Carl, Harold C. Lyon, and Reinhard Tausch. On Becoming an Effective Teacher. Routledge, 2013. ISBN 978-0415816984
Rothschild, Babette, and Marjorie Rand. Help for the Helper: The psychophysiology of compassion fatigue and vicarious trauma. W. W. Norton & Company, 2006. ISBN 978-0393704228
Sandin, Jo. Bonobos: Encounters in Empathy. Zoological Society of Milwaukee & The Foundation for Wildlife Conservation, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0979415104
Segal, Elizabeth A., Karen E. Gerdes, Cynthia A. Lietz, M. Alex Wagaman, and Jennifer M. Geiger. Assessing Empathy. Columbia University Press, 2017. ISBN 9780231181914
Snyder, C.R., and Shane J. Lopez. Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0195187243
Titchener, Edward Bradford. Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes. Legare Street Press, 2022 (original 1909). ISBN 1015885470
Weeks, William H., Paul B. Pedersen, and Richard W. Brislin (eds.). Manual of Structured Experiences for Cross-Cultural Learning. Intercultural Press, 1979. ISBN 978-0933662056

External links

All links retrieved December 28, 2023.

Empathy and Sympathy in Ethics Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Empathy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Notes on Empathy by David Gross
Empathy Psychology Today
What Is Empathy? VeryWell Mind

Credits

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Empathy ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

History of "Empathy"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

[1] thy (n.) Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved December 6, 2023.

[Segal-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 Elizabeth A. Segal, Karen E. Gerdes, Cynthia A. Lietz, M. Alex Wagaman, and Jennifer M. Geiger, Assessing Empathy (Columbia University Press, 2017, ISBN 9780231181914).

[3] Edward Bradford Titchener, Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes (Legare Street Press, 2022 (original 1909), ISBN 1015885470).

[Lanzoni2018-4] Susan Lanzoni, Empathy: A History (Yale University Press, 2018, ISBN 978-0300222685).

[5] Sara D. Hodges and Kristi J.K. Klein, Regulating the costs of empathy: the price of being human The Journal of Socio-Economics 30 (2001): 437– 452. Retrieved December 26, 2023.

[6] Clara Strauss, Billie Lever Taylor, Jenny Gu, Willem Kuyken, Ruth Baer, Fergal Jones, and Kate Cavanagh, What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures Clinical Psychology Review 47 (July 2016):15-27. Retrieved December 26, 2023.

[Decety-7] 7.0 ^7.1 Jean Decety and Williams Icles (eds.) The Social Neuroscience of Empathy (MIT Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0262012973).

[Coplan2011-8] 8.0 ^8.1 Amy Coplan, Will the real empathy please stand up? A case for a narrow conceptualization The Southern Journal of Philosophy 49 (September 2011):40–65. Retrieved December 26, 2023.

[9] Babette Rothschild and Marjorie Rand, Help for the Helper: The psychophysiology of compassion fatigue and vicarious trauma (W. W. Norton & Company, 2006, ISBN 978-0393704228).

[Rogers-10] 10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 ^10.4 ^10.5 ^10.6 ^10.7 ^10.8 Kimberley Rogers, Isabel Dziobek, Jason Hassenstab, Oliver T. Wolf, and Antonio Convit, Who cares? Revisiting empathy in Asperger syndrome Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 37(4) (April 2007):709-715. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[Waal2008-11] Frans B.M. de Waal, Putting the altruism back into altruism: the evolution of empathy Annual Review of Psychology 59(1) (2008):279–300. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[Davis1983-12] 12.0 ^12.1 ^12.2 Mark H. Davis, Measuring individual differences in empathy: evidence for a multidimensional approach Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44(1) (1983):113–126. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[Lamm-13] 13.0 ^13.1 ^13.2 Chris Lamm, C. Daniel Batson, and Jean Decety, The neural substrate of human empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 19(1) (2007):42–58. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[Hoffman-14] 14.0 ^14.1 Martin L. Hoffman, Empathy and Justic Motivation Motivation and Emotion 14(2) (1990):151–172. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[Bloom-15] 15.0 ^15.1 ^15.2 Paul Bloom, Against Empathy: The Case for Rational Compassion (Ecco, 2018, ISBN 978-0062339348).

[Baron-Cohen_2003-16] 16.0 ^16.1 Simon Baron-Cohen, The Essential Difference: The Truth About The Male And Female Brain (Basic Books, 2003, ISBN 978-0738208442).

[Murphy2019-17] 17.0 ^17.1 Brett A. Murphy and Scott O. Lilienfeld, Are self-report cognitive empathy ratings valid proxies for cognitive empathy ability? Negligible meta-analytic relations with behavioral task performance Psychological Assessment 31(8) (August 2019):1062–1072. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[McLaren-18] 18.0 ^18.1 Karla McLaren, The Art of Empathy: A Complete Guide to Life's Most Essential Skill (Sounds True, 2013, ISBN 978-1622030613).

[Cox-19] 19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 ^19.3 Christine L. Cox, Lucina Q. Uddin, Adriana Di Martino, F. Xavier Castellanos, Michael P. Milham, and Clare Kelly, The balance between feeling and knowing: affective and cognitive empathy are reflected in the brain's intrinsic functional dynamics Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 7(6) (2012):727–737. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[20] Simon Baron-Cohen and Sally Wheelwright, The empathy quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 34(2) (April 2004):163–175. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[21] Renate L.E.P. Reniers, Rhiannon Corcoran, Richard Drake, Nick M. Shryane, and Birgit A. Völlm, The QCAE: a Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy Journal of Personality Assessment 93(1) (January 2011):84–95. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[22] Marco Innamorati, Sjoerd J.H. Ebisch, Vittorio Gallese, and Aristide Saggino, A bidimensional measure of empathy: Empathic Experience Scale PLOS ONE 14(4) (April 2019). Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[Breithaupt-23] 23.0 ^23.1 ^23.2 ^23.3 ^23.4 ^23.5 Fritz Breithaupt, The Dark Sides of Empathy (Cornell University Press, 2019, ISBN 978-1501721649).

[24] Zdravko Marjanovic, C. Ward Struthers, and Esther R. Greenglass, Who Helps Natural-Disaster Victims? Assessment of Trait and Situational Predictors Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 12(1) (August 8, 2011):245–267. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[25] Christopher J. Einolf, Is Cognitive Empathy More Important than Affective Empathy? A Response to 'Who Helps Natural-Disaster Victims?' Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 12(1) (March 13, 2012):268–271. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[26] C. Daniel Batson and and Tecia Moran, Empathy-induced altruism in a prisoner's dilemma European Journal of Social Psychology 29(7) (1999):909–924. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[27] C.R. Snyder and Shane J. Lopez, Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0195187243).

[28] Christopher J Einolf, Empathic concern and prosocial behaviors: A test of experimental results using survey data Social Science Research 37(4) (2008):1267–1279.

[Hoffman2000-29] 29.0 ^29.1 Martin L. Hoffman, Empathy and Moral Development (Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0521580342).

[30] Melanie Killen and Judith G. Smetana (eds.), Handbook of Moral Development (Routledge, 2022, ISBN 978-0367497545).

[Decety_2008-31] 31.0 ^31.1 Jean Decety, Kalina J Michalska, and Yuko Akitsuki, Who caused the pain? An fMRI investigation of empathy and intentionality in children Neuropsychologia 46(11) (September 2008):2607–2614. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[Bosson-32] 32.0 ^32.1 Jennifer Katherine Bosson, Camille E. Buckner, and Joseph Alan Vandello, The Psychology of Sex and Gender (SAGE Publications, Inc, 2021, ISBN 978-1544393995).

[Ickes-33] 33.0 ^33.1 ^33.2 William Ickes (ed.), Empathic Accuracy (The Guilford Press, 1997, ISBN 978-1572301610).

[34] Frank Pierrepont Graves, A Student's History of Education (Legare Street Press, 2023 (original 1915), ISBN 978-1020355608).

[35] James D. Baird and Laurie Nadel, Happiness Genes: Unlock the Positive Potential Hidden in Your DNA (Weiser, 2010, ISBN 978-1601631053).

[36] Mark H. Davis, Carol Luce, and Stephen J. Kraus , The heritability of characteristics associated with dispositional empathy Journal of Personality 62(3) (September 1994):369–391. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[37] V. Warrier et al., Genome-wide meta-analysis of cognitive empathy: heritability, and correlates with sex, neuropsychiatric conditions and cognition Molecular Psychiatry 23(6) (June 2018):1402–1409. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[38] Suzanne Keen, A Theory of Narrative Empathy Narrative 14(3) (October 2006):207–236. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[39] Valeria Gazzola, Lisa Aziz-Zadeh, and Christian Keysers, Empathy and the somatotopic auditory mirror system in humans Current Biology 16(18) (September 2006):1824–1829. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[40] Yan Fan, Niall W. Duncan, Moritz de Greck, and Georg Northoff, Is there a core neural network in empathy? An fMRI based quantitative meta-analysis Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35(3) (January 2011):903-911. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[Shamay-Tsoory-41] 41.0 ^41.1 Simone G. Shamay-Tsoory, Judith Aharon-Peretz, and Daniella Perry, Two systems for empathy: a double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy in inferior frontal gyrus versus ventromedial prefrontal lesions Brain 132(Pt 3) (March 2009):617–627. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[42] Jason Marsh, Do mirror neurons give us empathy? Greater Good Magazine (March 29, 2012). Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[43] V.S. Ramachandran, The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist's Quest for What Makes Us Human (W.W. Norton & Company, 2011, ISBN 978-0393077827).

[44] Jean Decety, The neuroevolution of empathy Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1231(1) (August 2011):35–45. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[45] Jo Sandin, Bonobos: Encounters in Empathy (Zoological Society of Milwaukee & The Foundation for Wildlife Conservation, Inc., 2007, ISBN 978-0979415104).

[46] Frans de Waal, The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society (Souvenir Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0285638907).

[47] Deborah Custance and Jennifer Mayer, Empathic-like responding by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to distress in humans: an exploratory study Animal Cognition 15(5) (September 2012):851–859. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[48] Arielle de Sousa, Skye McDonald, Jacqueline Rushby, Sophie Li, Aneta Dimoska, and Charlotte James, Why don't you feel how I feel? Insight into the absence of empathy after severe traumatic brain injury Neuropsychologia 48(12) (October 2010):3585–3595. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[49] Dave Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (Back Bay Books, 2009, ISBN 978-0316040938).

[50] Daniel Grühn, Kristine Rebucal, Manfred Diehl, Mark Lumley, and Gisela Labouvie-Vief, Empathy across the adult lifespan: Longitudinal and experience-sampling findings Emotion 8(6) (2008):753–765. Retrieved December 28, 2023.

[Goleman-51] 51.0 ^51.1 Daniel Goleman, Emotional intelligence (Bantam Books, 2005, ISBN 978-0553383713).

[52] Bonnie Bernard, Resiliency: What We Have Learned (WestEd, 2004, ISBN 978-0914409182).

[53] Katie Dunworth and Grace Zhang (eds.), Critical Perspectives on Language Education: Australia and the Asia Pacific (Springer, 2014, ISBN 978-3319061849).

[54] Carl Rogers, Harold C. Lyon, and Reinhard Tausch, On Becoming an Effective Teacher (Routledge, 2013, ISBN 978-0415816984).

[55] Sharon Tettegah and Carolyn J. Anderson, Pre-service teachers' empathy and cognitions: Statistical analysis of text data by graphical models Contemporary Educational Psychology 32(1) (January 2007):48–82. Retrieved December 28, 2023.

[56] William H. Weeks, Paul B. Pedersen, and Richard W. Brislin (eds.), Manual of Structured Experiences for Cross-Cultural Learning (Intercultural Press, 1979, ISBN 978-0933662056).

[57] Sara D. Hodges, Kristi J. Kiel, Adam D. Kramer, Darya Veach, and B. Renee Villanueva, Giving birth to empathy: the effects of similar experience on empathic accuracy, empathic concern, and perceived empathy Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 36(3) (March 2010):398–409. Retrieved December 28, 2023.

[58] Barbara Oakley, Ariel Knafo, Guruprasad Madhavan, and David Sloan Wilson (eds.), Pathological Altruism (Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0199738571).

[59] Michelle Legro, Beauty, Aging, and the Expansion of Our Sympathies: What George Eliot Teaches Us About the Rewards of Middle Age The Marginalian. Retrieved December 27, 2023.

[60] Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (W.W. Norton & Company, 2008, ISBN 978-0393331998).

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Images OK}}
+{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}{{Copyedited}}
 [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Hugging]] someone who is hurt is a signal of empathy.]]
-'''Empathy''' is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their [[frame of reference]], that is, by placing oneself (mentally) in another's position. Definitions of empathy encompass a broad range of social, [[Cognition|cognitive]], and [[emotion]]al processes primarily concerned with understanding others (and others' emotions in particular). Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional (or affective) empathy, somatic empathy, and spiritual empathy.
+'''Empathy''' is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their [[frame of reference]], that is, by placing oneself (mentally) in another's position. Definitions of empathy encompass a broad range of social, [[Cognition|cognitive]], and [[emotion]]al processes primarily concerned with understanding others (and others' emotions in particular).
+{{toc}}
+While empathy is generally considered a positive trait, facilitating the formation of good relationships and bringing pleasure as one's understanding and experience of life is increased, it can also lead to problems. Too much empathy can lead to a loss of sense of [[self]], flawed decision making, and emotional fatigue particularly among [[health care]] workers. A balance between empathetic understanding of others and awareness of one's own sense of self and values is needed for a healthy and fulfilling life.
 == Etymology ==
-[[File:Les_noisettes.jpg|thumb|400px|Being there for another]]
+The English word ''empathy'' is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἐμπάθεια}} ''empatheia'', meaning "physical affection or passion"). That word derives from {{lang|grc|ἐν}} (''en'', "in, at") and {{lang|grc|πάθος}} (''[[pathos]]'', "passion" or "suffering").<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/empathy empathy (n.)] ''Online Etymology Dictionary''. Retrieved December 6, 2023.</ref> [[Theodor Lipps]] adapted the German aesthetic term {{lang|de|Einfühlung}} ("feeling into") to psychology in 1903,<ref name=Segal>Elizabeth A. Segal, Karen E. Gerdes, Cynthia A. Lietz, M. Alex Wagaman, and Jennifer M. Geiger, ''Assessing Empathy'' (Columbia University Press, 2017, ISBN 9780231181914).</ref> and [[Edward B. Titchener]] translated {{lang|de|Einfühlung}} into English as "empathy" in 1909.<ref>Edward Bradford Titchener, ''Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes'' (Legare Street Press, 2022 (original 1909), ISBN 1015885470). </ref>
-The English word ''empathy'' is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἐμπάθεια}} ''empatheia'', meaning "physical affection or passion"). That word derives from {{lang|grc|ἐν}} (''en'', "in, at") and {{lang|grc|πάθος}} (''[[pathos]]'', "passion" or "suffering").<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/empathy empathy (n.)] ''Online Etymology Dictionary''. Retrieved December 6, 2023.</ref> [[Theodor Lipps]] adapted the German aesthetic term {{lang|de|Einfühlung}} ("feeling into") to psychology in 1903,<ref>Elizabeth A. Segal, Karen E. Gerdes, Cynthia A. Lietz, M. Alex Wagaman, and Jennifer M. Geiger, ''Assessing Empathy'' (Columbia University Press, 2017, ISBN 9780231181914).</ref> and [[Edward B. Titchener]] translated {{lang|de|Einfühlung}} into English as "empathy" in 1909.<ref>Edward Bradford Titchener, ''Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes'' (Legare Street Press, 2022 (original 1909), ISBN 1015885470). </ref>
 == Definitions ==
-Since its introduction into the English language, ''empathy'' has had a wide range of (sometimes conflicting) definitions among both researchers and laypeople.<ref>{{cite book|last=Batson|first=C. Daniel|name-list-style=vanc|title=Altruism in Humans|year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Lanzoni2018">{{cite book |last1=Lanzoni |first1=Susan Marie |name-list-style=vanc|title=Empathy: a history |year=2018 |location=New Haven |isbn=978-0-300-22268-5}}</ref><ref>{{multiref2
+[[File:Les_noisettes.jpg|thumb|400px|Being there for another]]
-|1={{cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Judith A. |last2=Schwartz |first2=Rachel |name-list-style=vanc|title=Empathy present and future |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology |date=4 May 2019|df=mdy-all |volume=159 |issue=3 |pages=225–43 |doi=10.1080/00224545.2018.1477442|pmid=29781776 |s2cid=29167108 }}
+Since its introduction into the English language, ''empathy'' has had a wide range of (sometimes conflicting) definitions among both researchers and laypeople.<ref name="Lanzoni2018">Susan Lanzoni, ''Empathy: A History'' (Yale University Press, 2018, ISBN 978-0300222685).</ref> Empathy definitions encompass a broad range of phenomena, including caring for other people and having a desire to help them; experiencing [[emotion]]s that match another person's emotions; discerning what another person is thinking or feeling; and making less distinct the differences between the [[self]] and the other.<ref>Sara D. Hodges and Kristi J.K. Klein, [https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.uoregon.edu/dist/4/2521/files/2013/03/Hodges-Klein_2001-1tl1rsl.pdf Regulating the costs of empathy: the price of being human] ''The Journal of Socio-Economics'' 30 (2001): 437– 452. Retrieved December 26, 2023.</ref>
-|2={{cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Judith A. |last2=Schwartz |first2=Rachel |last3=Duong |first3=Fred |name-list-style=vanc|title=How do laypeople define empathy? |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology |date=2 January 2021|df=mdy-all |volume=161 |issue=1 |pages=5–24 |doi=10.1080/00224545.2020.1796567|pmid=32870130 |s2cid=221405375}}
-}}</ref> Empathy definitions encompass a broad range of phenomena, including caring for other people and having a desire to help them; experiencing emotions that match another person's emotions; discerning what another person is thinking or feeling;<ref name="Pijnenborg2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pijnenborg GH, Spikman JM, Jeronimus BF, Aleman A | title = Insight in schizophrenia: associations with empathy | journal = European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 263 | issue = 4 | pages = 299–307 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23076736 | doi = 10.1007/s00406-012-0373-0 | s2cid = 25194328 }}</ref> and making less distinct the differences between the self and the other.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hodges SD, Klein KJ | title = Regulating the costs of empathy: the price of being human. | journal = The Journal of Socio-Economics | date = September 2001 | volume = 30 | issue = 5 | pages = 437–52 | doi = 10.1016/S1053-5357(01)00112-3 | url = https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.uoregon.edu/dist/4/2521/files/2013/03/Hodges-Klein_2001-1tl1rsl.pdf }}</ref>
-Since empathy involves understanding the emotional states of other people, the way it is characterized derives from the way emotions are characterized. For example, if emotions are characterized by bodily feelings, then understanding the bodily feelings of another will be considered central to empathy. On the other hand, if emotions are characterized by a combination of beliefs and desires, then understanding those beliefs and desires will be more essential to empathy. The ability to imagine oneself as another person is a sophisticated process. However, the basic capacity to recognize emotions in others may be innate<ref name="Baird, James D., and Laurie Nadel, 2010">{{cite book | vauthors = Baird JD, Nadel L | title = Happiness Genes: Unlock the Positive Potential Hidden in Your DNA | publisher = New Page Books | date = April 2010 | isbn = 978-1-60163-105-3 }}</ref> and may be achieved unconsciously. Empirical research supports a variety of interventions to improve empathy.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = O'Malley WJ | year = 1999 | title = Teaching Empathy | journal = America | volume = 180 | issue = 12| pages = 22–6 }}
-|2={{cite journal |last1=Teding van Berkhout |first1=Emily |last2=Malouff |first2=John M.|name-list-style=vanc |title=The efficacy of empathy training: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. |journal=Journal of Counseling Psychology |date=January 2016 |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=32–41 |doi=10.1037/cou0000093|pmid=26191979 }}
-|3={{cite journal |last1=Singer |first1=Tania |last2=Engert |first2=Veronika |name-list-style=vanc|title=It matters what you practice: differential training effects on subjective experience, behavior, brain and body in the ReSource Project |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |date=August 2019 |volume=28 |pages=151–8 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.005|pmid=30684917 |s2cid=59291558 }}
-|4={{cite journal |last1=Rathje |first1=Steve |last2=Hackel |first2=Leor |last3=Zaki |first3=Jamil|name-list-style=vanc |title=Attending live theatre improves empathy, changes attitudes, and leads to pro-social behavior |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |date=July 2021 |volume=95 |page=104138 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104138|s2cid=233549299 |url=https://psyarxiv.com/feqr8/}}
-|5={{cite journal |last1=Weisz |first1=Erika |last2=Ong |first2=Desmond C. |last3=Carlson |first3=Ryan W. |last4=Zaki |first4=Jamil|name-list-style=vanc |title=Building empathy through motivation-based interventions. |journal=Emotion |date=August 2021 |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=990–9 |doi=10.1037/emo0000929|pmid=33211508 |s2cid=227079997 |doi-access=free}}
-}}</ref>
-Empathy is not all-or-nothing; rather, a person can be more or less empathic toward another. Paradigmatically, a person exhibits empathy when they communicate an accurate recognition of the significance of another person's ongoing intentional actions, associated emotional states, and personal characteristics in a manner that seems accurate and tolerable to the recognized person.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Schwartz W | title = From passivity to competence: a conceptualization of knowledge, skill, tolerance, and empathy | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychiatry_winter-2002_65_4/page/339 | journal = Psychiatry | volume = 65 | issue = 4 | pages = 339–45 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12530337 | doi = 10.1521/psyc.65.4.338.20239 | s2cid = 35496086 }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Schwartz W | year = 2013 | title = The parameters of empathy: Core considerations for psychotherapy and supervision | doi = 10.2139/ssrn.2393689 | journal = Advances in Descriptive Psychology | volume = 10}}
-}}</ref>
-One's ability to recognize the bodily feelings of another is related to one's imitative capacities, and seems to be grounded in an innate capacity to associate the bodily movements and facial expressions one sees in another with the [[proprioception|proprioceptive]] feelings of producing those corresponding movements or expressions oneself.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Meltzoff AN, Decety J | title = What imitation tells us about social cognition: a rapprochement between developmental psychology and cognitive neuroscience | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 358 | issue = 1431 | pages = 491–500 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12689375 | pmc = 1351349 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2002.1261 }}</ref> Because empathy is rooted in our ability to imitate their painful experience, people with disorders that inhibit them from social understanding/connection may experience difficulty portraying empathy for others. The people could include individuals diagnosed with aspergers or autism.
-=== Distinctions between empathy and related concepts ===
+=== Related concepts ===
-[[Compassion]] and [[sympathy]] are terms associated with empathy. A person feels compassion when they notice others are in need, and this feeling motivates that person to help. Like empathy, compassion has a wide range of definitions and purported facets (which overlap with some definitions of empathy).<ref>{{multiref2
+[[Compassion]] and [[sympathy]] are terms associated with empathy. A person feels compassion when they notice others are in need, and this feeling motivates that person to help. Like empathy, compassion has a wide range of definitions and purported facets (which overlap with some definitions of empathy).<ref>Clara Strauss, Billie Lever Taylor, Jenny Gu, Willem Kuyken, Ruth Baer, Fergal Jones, and Kate Cavanagh, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27267346/ What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures] ''Clinical Psychology Review'' 47 (July 2016):15-27. Retrieved December 26, 2023.</ref> Sympathy is a feeling of care and understanding for someone in need. Some include in sympathy an empathic concern for another person, and the wish to see them better off or happier.<ref name=Decety> Jean Decety and Williams Icles (eds.) ''The Social Neuroscience of Empathy'' (MIT Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0262012973).</ref>
-|1={{cite journal |last1=Strauss |first1=Clara |last2=Lever Taylor |first2=Billie |last3=Gu |first3=Jenny |last4=Kuyken |first4=Willem |last5=Baer |first5=Ruth |last6=Jones |first6=Fergal |last7=Cavanagh |first7=Kate|name-list-style=vanc |title=What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |date=July 2016 |volume=47 |pages=15–27 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2016.05.004|pmid=27267346 |doi-access=free }}
-|2={{cite journal |last1=Gu |first1=Jenny |last2=Cavanagh |first2=Kate |last3=Baer |first3=Ruth |last4=Strauss |first4=Clara|name-list-style=vanc |title=An empirical examination of the factor structure of compassion |journal=PLOS ONE |date=17 February 2017|df=mdy-all |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=e0172471 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0172471|pmid=28212391 |pmc=5315311 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1272471G |doi-access=free
-}}}}</ref> Sympathy is a feeling of care and understanding for someone in need. Some include in sympathy an [[empathic concern]] for another person, and the wish to see them better off or happier.<ref name="Batson, C.D. 2009 pp. 3">{{cite book | vauthors = Batson CD | year = 2009 | chapter = These things called empathy: Eight related but distinct phenomena. | veditors = Decety J, Ickes W | title = The Social Neuroscience of Empathy | url = https://archive.org/details/socialneuroscien0000unse | pages = [https://archive.org/details/socialneuroscien0000unse/page/n3 3]–15 | location = Cambridge | publisher = [[MIT Press]] | isbn = 9780262012973 }}</ref>
-Empathy is also related to [[pity]] and [[emotional contagion]].<ref name="Coplan2011">{{cite journal |last1=Coplan |first1=Amy|name-list-style=vanc |title=Will the real empathy please stand up? A case for a narrow conceptualization |journal=The Southern Journal of Philosophy |date=September 2011 |volume=49 |pages=40–65 |doi=10.1111/j.2041-6962.2011.00056.x}}</ref><ref name="Batson, C.D. 2009 pp. 3"/> One feels pity towards others who might be in trouble or in need of help. This feeling is described as "feeling sorry" for someone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geller |first=Jesse D. |date=April 2006 |title=Pity, Suffering, and Psychotherapy |url=http://psychotherapy.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2006.60.2.187 |journal=American Journal of Psychotherapy |language=en |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=187–205 |doi=10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2006.60.2.187 |issn=0002-9564}}</ref> Emotional contagion is when a person (especially an infant or a member of a [[crowd|mob]]) imitatively "catches" the emotions that others are showing without necessarily recognizing this is happening.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Hatfield E, Cacioppo JL, Rapson RL |year=1993 |title=Emotional contagion |url=http://www.elainehatfield.com/ch50.pdf |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=96–9 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953 |s2cid=220533081 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119002643/http://www.elainehatfield.com/ch50.pdf |archive-date=November 19, 2012 }}</ref>
+Empathy is also related to [[pity]].<ref name="Coplan2011">Amy Coplan, [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.2041-6962.2011.00056.x Will the real empathy please stand up? A case for a narrow conceptualization] ''The Southern Journal of Philosophy'' 49 (September 2011):40–65. Retrieved December 26, 2023.</ref><ref name=Decety/> One feels pity towards others who might be in trouble or in need of help. This feeling is described as "feeling sorry" for someone.
-''[[Alexithymia]]'' describes a deficiency in understanding, processing, or describing one's own emotions (unlike empathy which is about someone else's emotions).<ref name="Bar-On">{{cite book | vauthors = Bar-On RE, Parker JD | year = 2000 | title = The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Development, Assessment, and Application at Home, School, and in the Workplace | location = San Francisco, Calif. | publisher = Jossey-Bass | isbn = 0-7879-4984-1 }}</ref>
 == Classification ==
-Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional (or affective) empathy, somatic empathy, and spiritual empathy.<ref>{{multiref2
+There are two major types of empathy: cognitive empathy, emotional (or affective) empathy.<ref> Babette Rothschild and Marjorie Rand, ''Help for the Helper: The psychophysiology of compassion fatigue and vicarious trauma'' (W. W. Norton & Company, 2006, ISBN 978-0393704228).</ref> Affective and cognitive empathy are independent from one another; someone who strongly empathizes emotionally is not necessarily good in understanding another's perspective.
-|1={{cite book|vauthors=Rothschild B, Rand ML|year=2006|title=Help for the Helper: The psychophysiology of compassion fatigue and vicarious trauma|publisher=Norton|isbn=978-0393704228}}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Read H |title=A typology of empathy and its many moral forms |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=22 August 2019 |df=mdy-all|volume=14 |issue=10 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12623|s2cid=202396600 }}
-|3={{cite journal|title=The relationship of nursing students' spiritual care perspectives to their expressions of spiritual empathy|last1=Chism|first1=Lisa Astalos|last2=Magnan|first2=Morris A.|name-list-style=vanc|journal=The Journal of Nursing Education|year=2009|volume=48|number=11|pages=597–605|location=United States|doi=10.3928/01484834-20090716-05 |pmid=19650610}}
-}}</ref>
-Empathy has two major components:<ref name="Rogers">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers K, Dziobek I, Hassenstab J, Wolf OT, Convit A | title = Who cares? Revisiting empathy in Asperger syndrome | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 37 | issue = 4 | pages = 709–15 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 16906462 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-006-0197-8 | url = http://www.cog.psy.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/papers/2007/Rogers(2007)_JAutismDevDisord.pdf | url-status = dead | s2cid = 13999363 | df = mdy-all | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150716062645/http://www.cog.psy.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/papers/2007/Rogers(2007)_JAutismDevDisord.pdf | archive-date = July 16, 2015 }}</ref>
 ===Affective empathy===
-Also called ''emotional empathy'',<ref name="Shamay-Tsoory" /> affective empathy is the ability to respond with an appropriate emotion to another's mental states.<ref name="Rogers" /> Our ability to empathize emotionally is based on emotional contagion:<ref name="Shamay-Tsoory" /> being affected by another's emotional or arousal state.<ref name="Waal2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = de Waal FB | title = Putting the altruism back into altruism: the evolution of empathy | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 279–300 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17550343 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 | url = http://www.life.umd.edu/faculty/wilkinson/BIOL608W/deWaalAnnRevPsych2008.pdf | url-status = live | df = mdy-all | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120417084738/http://www.life.umd.edu/faculty/wilkinson/BIOL608W/deWaalAnnRevPsych2008.pdf | archive-date = April 17, 2012 }}</ref> Affective empathy can be subdivided into the following scales:<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Davis1983" />
+Also called ''emotional empathy'', affective empathy is the ability to respond with an appropriate emotion to another's mental states.<ref name="Rogers">Kimberley Rogers, Isabel Dziobek, Jason Hassenstab, Oliver T. Wolf, and Antonio Convit, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16906462/ Who cares? Revisiting empathy in Asperger syndrome] ''Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders'' 37(4) (April 2007):709-715. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref> Our ability to empathize emotionally is based on emotional contagion, being affected by another's emotional or arousal state.<ref name="Waal2008">Frans B.M. de Waal, [https://science.umd.edu/faculty/wilkinson/BIOL608W/deWaalAnnRevPsych2008.pdf Putting the altruism back into altruism: the evolution of empathy] ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 59(1) (2008):279–300. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref>
-;[[Empathic concern]]: sympathy and compassion for others in response to their suffering.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="response">{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Minio-Paluello I, Lombardo MV, Chakrabarti B, Wheelwright S, Baron-Cohen S | title = Response to Smith's Letter to the Editor "''Emotional Empathy in Autism Spectrum Conditions: Weak, Intact, or Heightened?''" | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-autism-and-developmental-disorders_2009-12_39_12/page/1749 | journal = [[Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders]] | volume = 39 | issue = 12 | page = 1749 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-009-0800-x | date = December 2009 | s2cid = 42834991 }} [http://people.ds.cam.ac.uk/bc249/papers/minio-paluello_2009_jadd.pdf PDF] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050227/http://people.ds.cam.ac.uk/bc249/papers/minio-paluello_2009_jadd.pdf |date=March 4, 2016}}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Smith A | title = Emotional empathy in autism spectrum conditions: weak, intact, or heightened? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-autism-and-developmental-disorders_2009-12_39_12/page/1747 | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 39 | issue = 12 | pages = 1747–8; author reply 1749–54 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19572192 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-009-0799-z | ref = none | s2cid = 13290717}}
-}}</ref><ref name="Lamm">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lamm C, Batson CD, Decety J | title = The neural substrate of human empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-cognitive-neuroscience_2007-01_19_1/page/42 | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 42–58 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17214562 | doi = 10.1162/jocn.2007.19.1.42 | s2cid = 2828843 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.511.3950 }}</ref>
-;[[Personal distress]]: feelings of discomfort and anxiety in response to another's suffering.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="response" /><ref name="Lamm" /> There is no consensus regarding whether personal distress is a form of empathy or instead is something distinct from empathy.<ref name="Coplan2011" /><ref name="response" /> There may be a developmental aspect to this subdivision. Infants respond to the distress of others by getting distressed themselves; only when they are two years old do they start to respond in other-oriented ways: trying to help, comfort, and share.<ref name="response" />
-;Affective mentalizing: uses clues like body language, facial expressions, knowledge about the other's beliefs & situation, and context to understand more about what one is empathizing with.<ref name=AssessingEmpathy>{{cite book|first1=Elizabeth A.|last1=Segal|first2=Karen E.|last2=Gerdes|first3=Cynthia A.|last3=Lietz|first4=M. Alex|last4=Wagaman|first5=Jennifer M.|last5=Geiger|name-list-style=vanc|title=Assessing Empathy|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=9780231181914|year=2017}}</ref>
-;Empathic Anger
+Affective empathy can be subdivided as follows:<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Davis1983" />
-Empathic anger is an emotion, a form of empathic distress.<ref name="springerlink.com">{{cite journal|title= Empathy and justice motivation|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_motivation-and-emotion_1990-06_14_2/page/151|doi=10.1007/BF00991641 |year=1990| vauthors = Hoffman ML |journal=Motivation and Emotion|volume=14|issue=2|pages=151–72|s2cid=143830768 }}</ref> Empathic anger is felt in a situation where someone else is being hurt by another person or thing.{{sfn|Hoffman|2000|p=101}}
+*[[Empathic concern]]
+Empathic concern is evidenced as sympathy and compassion for others in response to their [[suffering]].<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Lamm">Chris Lamm, C. Daniel Batson, and Jean Decety, [https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-cognitive-neuroscience_2007-01_19_1/page/42/mode/2up The neural substrate of human empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal] ''Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience'' 19(1) (2007):42–58. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref>
+*[[Personal distress]]
+People often experience feelings of discomfort and [[anxiety]] in response to another's suffering.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Lamm" /> However, there is no consensus regarding whether personal distress is a form of empathy or instead is something distinct from empathy.<ref name="Coplan2011" /> There may be a developmental aspect to this subdivision. Infants respond to the distress of others by getting distressed themselves; only when they are two years old do they start to respond in other-oriented ways: trying to help, comfort, and share.
+*Affective mentalizing
+People may use clues like body language, facial expressions, knowledge about the other's beliefs, situation, and context to understand more about their empathetic feelings.<ref name=Segal/>
-Empathic anger affects desires to help and to punish. Two sub-categories of empathic anger are state empathic anger (current empathic anger) and trait empathic anger (tendency or predisposition to experience empathic anger).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vitaglione GD, Barnett MA | title = Assessing a new dimension of empathy: Empathic anger as a predictor of helping and punishing desires | journal = Motivation and Emotion | date = December 2003 | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 301–25 | doi = 10.1023/A:1026231622102 | s2cid = 143276552 | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15290642 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514194128/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15290642 |archive-date= 14 May 2011|df=mdy-all }}</ref>
+*Empathic Anger
+Empathic anger is an emotion, a form of empathic distress. It is felt in a situation where someone else is being hurt by another person or thing.<ref name=Hoffman>Martin L. Hoffman, [https://archive.org/details/sim_motivation-and-emotion_1990-06_14_2/page/150/mode/2up Empathy and Justic Motivation] ''Motivation and Emotion'' 14(2) (1990):151–172. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref> Empathic anger affects desires both to help and to punish.
-The higher a person's perspective-taking ability, the less angry they are in response to a provocation. Empathic concern does not, however, significantly predict anger response, and higher personal distress is associated with increased anger.<ref>{{multiref2
+*Empathic Distress
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Mohr P, Howells K, Gerace A, Day A, Wharton M | year = 2007 | title = The role of perspective taking in anger arousal | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 43 | issue = 3| pages = 507–17 | doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.019 |hdl=2328/36189 | url = https://unisa.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12143192300001831 | hdl-access = free }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Day A, Mohr P, Howells K, Gerace A, Lim L | title = The role of empathy in anger arousal in violent offenders and university students | journal = International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology | volume = 56 | issue = 4 | pages = 599–613 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22158909 | doi = 10.1177/0306624X11431061 | url = https://fac.flinders.edu.au/dspace/api/core/bitstreams/a8e54cca-3d58-4e42-aa76-79997e6e4bd4/content | s2cid = 46542250 | hdl = 2328/35889}}
-}}</ref>
-;Empathic Distress
 {{Main|Personal distress}}
-Empathic distress is feeling the perceived pain of another person. This feeling can be transformed into empathic anger, feelings of injustice, or guilt. These emotions can be perceived as pro-social; however, views differ as to whether they serve as motives for moral behavior.<ref name="springerlink.com"/><ref name="Bloom2017" />
+Empathic distress is feeling the perceived pain of another person. This feeling can be transformed into empathic anger, feelings of injustice, or guilt. These emotions can be perceived as pro-social. However, views differ as to whether they serve as motives for moral behavior.<ref name=Hoffman/><ref name=Bloom/>
-Stoic philosophers believed that to condition your emotional disposition on the emotions or fortunes of someone else is foolish. Cicero said that someone who feels distress at another's misfortune is committing as much of an error as an envious person who feels distress at another's good fortune.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Cicero MT|title=Tusculan Disputations|chapter=On Grief of Mind}}</ref>
 ===Cognitive empathy===
-Cognitive empathy is the ability to understand another's perspective or mental state.<ref name="Baron-Cohen 2003">{{cite book | vauthors = Baron-Cohen S | author-link = Simon Baron-Cohen | title = The Essential Difference: The Truth about the Male and Female Brain | publisher = Basic Books | year = 2003 | isbn = 9780738208442 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/essentialdiffere00baro }}</ref><ref name="Rogers" /><ref name=Gerace>{{cite journal| vauthors = Gerace A, Day A, Casey S, Mohr P |title=An exploratory investigation of the process of perspective taking in interpersonal situations|journal=Journal of Relationships Research|year=2013|volume=4|pages=e6, 1–12|doi=10.1017/jrr.2013.6|doi-access=free}}<!--|access-date=8 May 2015—></ref> The terms ''[[empathic accuracy]]'', ''[[social cognition]]'', ''[[perspective-taking]]'', ''[[theory of mind]]'', and ''[[mentalizing]]'' are often used synonymously, but due to a lack of studies comparing theory of mind with types of empathy, it is unclear whether these are equivalent.{{r|Rogers}} Although measures of cognitive empathy include self-report questionnaires and behavioral measures, a 2019 meta-analysis<ref name="Murphy2019">{{cite journal | vauthors = Murphy BA, Lilienfeld SO | title = Are self-report cognitive empathy ratings valid proxies for cognitive empathy ability? Negligible meta-analytic relations with behavioral task performance | journal = Psychological Assessment | volume = 31 | issue = 8 | pages = 1062–72 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 31120296 | doi = 10.1037/pas0000732 | s2cid = 162181339 }}</ref> found only a negligible association between self-report and behavioral measures, suggesting that people are generally not able to accurately assess their own cognitive empathy abilities. Cognitive empathy can be subdivided into the following scales:<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Davis1983" />
+Cognitive empathy is the ability to understand another's perspective or mental state.<ref name="Baron-Cohen 2003">Simon Baron-Cohen, ''The Essential Difference: The Truth About The Male And Female Brain'' (Basic Books, 2003, ISBN 978-0738208442).</ref><ref name="Rogers" /> Although measures of cognitive empathy include self-report questionnaires and behavioral measures, a 2019 meta-analysis found only a negligible association between self-report and behavioral measures, suggesting that people are generally not able to accurately assess their own cognitive empathy abilities.<ref name="Murphy2019">Brett A. Murphy and Scott O. Lilienfeld, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31120296/ Are self-report cognitive empathy ratings valid proxies for cognitive empathy ability? Negligible meta-analytic relations with behavioral task performance] ''Psychological Assessment'' 31(8) (August 2019):1062–1072. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref>
-#* [[Perspective-taking]]: the tendency to spontaneously adopt others' psychological perspectives.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Radzvilavicius AL, Stewart AJ, Plotkin JB | title = Evolution of empathetic moral evaluation | journal = eLife | volume = 8 | page = e44269 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30964002 | pmc = 6488294 | doi = 10.7554/eLife.44269 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
-#* Fantasy: the tendency to identify with fictional characters.<ref name="Rogers" />
-#* Tactical (or strategic) empathy: the deliberate use of perspective-taking to achieve certain desired ends.<ref>{{Cite web|vauthors=Allyn D|date=30 November 2012|url=https://ssir.org/articles/entry/the_tao_of_doing_good|title=The Tao of Doing Good (SSIR)|website=ssir.org|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213090151/https://ssir.org/articles/entry/the_tao_of_doing_good|archive-date=February 13, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
-#* Emotion regulation: a damper on the emotional contagion process that allows you to empathize without being overwhelmed by the emotion you are empathizing with.<ref>{{cite book|first=Karla|last= McLaren|name-list-style=vanc|title= The Art of Empathy: A Complete Guide to Life's Most Essential Skill|publisher=Sounds True|isbn=9781622030613|year= 2013}}</ref>
-The scientific community has not coalesced around a precise definition of these constructs, but there is consensus about this distinction.<ref name="Cox">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cox CL, Uddin LQ, Di Martino A, Castellanos FX, Milham MP, Kelly C | title = The balance between feeling and knowing: affective and cognitive empathy are reflected in the brain's intrinsic functional dynamics | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 7 | issue = 6 | pages = 727–37 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 21896497 | pmc = 3427869 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nsr051 }}</ref><ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Winczewski LA, Bowen JD, Collins NL | title = Is Empathic Accuracy Enough to Facilitate Responsive Behavior in Dyadic Interaction? Distinguishing Ability From Motivation | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 394–404 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26847609 | doi = 10.1177/0956797615624491 | s2cid = 206588127 }}
-|2={{Cite journal |last1=Schurz |first1=Matthias |last2=Radua |first2=Joaquim |last3=Tholen |first3=Matthias G. |last4=Maliske |first4=Lara |last5=Margulies |first5=Daniel S. |last6=Mars |first6=Rogier B. |last7=Sallet |first7=Jerome |last8=Kanske |first8=Philipp|name-list-style=vanc |date=March 2021 |title=Toward a hierarchical model of social cognition: A neuroimaging meta-analysis and integrative review of empathy and theory of mind. |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2020-82377-001.html |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=147 |issue=3 |pages=293–327 |doi=10.1037/bul0000303 |pmid=33151703 |hdl=2066/226714 |s2cid=226272359 |issn=1939-1455|hdl-access=free}}
-}}</ref> Affective and cognitive empathy are also independent from one another; someone who strongly empathizes emotionally is not necessarily good in understanding another's perspective.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Kanske P, Böckler A, Trautwein FM, Parianen Lesemann FH, Singer T | title = Are strong empathizers better mentalizers? Evidence for independence and interaction between the routes of social cognition | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 11 | issue = 9 | pages = 1383–92 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27129794 | pmc = 5015801 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nsw052 }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Kanske P, Böckler A, Trautwein FM, Singer T | title = Dissecting the social brain: Introducing the EmpaToM to reveal distinct neural networks and brain-behavior relations for empathy and Theory of Mind | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 122 | pages = 6–19 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26254589 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.07.082 | s2cid = 20614006}}
-}}</ref>
-Additional constructs that have been proposed include ''behavioral empathy''<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Toi M, Batson CD|title=More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=43|year=1982|issue=2 |pages=281–92|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.43.2.281 }}</ref> (which governs how one chooses to respond to feelings of empathy) and ''social empathy'' (in which the empathetic person integrates their understanding of broader social dynamics into their empathetic modeling).<ref>{{multiref2
+Cognitive empathy can be subdivided as follows:<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Davis1983" />
-|1={{cite journal|vauthors=Segal EA|title=Social empathy: A model built on empathy, contextual understanding, and social responsibility that promotes social justice|journal=Journal of Social Service Research|volume=37|year=2011|issue=3 |pages=266–7|doi=10.1080/01488376.2011.564040 |s2cid=76656353 }}
+*[[Perspective-taking]]: the tendency to spontaneously adopt others' psychological perspectives.
-|2={{cite journal|vauthors=Segal EA etal|title=Developing the Social Empathy Index: An Exploratory Factor Analysis|journal=Advances in Social Work|volume=13|year=2012|issue=3 |pages=541–560 |doi=10.18060/2042 |s2cid=143341962 |url=https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/advancesinsocialwork/article/download/2042/3904|doi-access=free}}
+*Fantasy: the tendency to identify with [[fiction]]al characters.<
-}}</ref>
+*Tactical (or strategic) empathy: the deliberate use of perspective-taking to achieve certain desired ends.
+*Emotion regulation: a damper on the emotional contagion process that allows you to empathize without being overwhelmed by the emotion you are empathizing with.<ref name=McLaren>Karla McLaren, ''The Art of Empathy: A Complete Guide to Life's Most Essential Skill'' (Sounds True, 2013, ISBN 978-1622030613).</ref>
-In addition, Fritz Breithaupt emphasizes the importance of empathy ''suppression'' mechanisms in healthy empathy.<ref name=Breithaupt>{{cite book|vauthors=Breithaupt F|translator-last=Hamilton|translator-first=AB|title=The Dark Sides of Empathy|year=2019|publisher=Cornell University Press}}</ref>{{rp|ch.2}}
+The scientific community has not coalesced around a precise definition of these constructs, but there is consensus about this distinction.<ref name="Cox">Christine L. Cox, Lucina Q. Uddin, Adriana Di Martino, F. Xavier Castellanos, Michael P. Milham, and Clare Kelly, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21896497/ The balance between feeling and knowing: affective and cognitive empathy are reflected in the brain's intrinsic functional dynamics] ''Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience'' 7(6) (2012):727–737. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref>
 == Measurement ==
-Efforts to measure empathy go back to at least the mid-twentieth century.<ref name="Lanzoni2018" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chlopan |first1=Bruce E. |last2=McCain |first2=Marianne L. |last3=Carbonell |first3=Joyce L. |last4=Hagen |first4=Richard L.|name-list-style=vanc |title=Empathy: Review of available measures. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1985-03_48_3/page/635 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |year=1985 |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=635–53 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.48.3.635}}</ref> Researchers approach the measurement of empathy from a number of perspectives.
+Efforts to measure empathy go back to at least the mid-twentieth century, and researchers have approach it from a number of perspectives.
-Behavioral measures normally involve raters assessing the presence or absence of certain either {{clarify|text=predetermined or ad hoc|reason=unclear whether these adjectives describe the person who exhibits the behavior or the raters who rate it|date=March 2022}} behaviors in the subjects they are monitoring. Both verbal and non-verbal behaviors have been captured on video by experimenters.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Truax CB|year=1967|chapter=Rating of Accurate Empathy|title=The Therapeutic Relationship and its Impact. A Study of Psychotherapy with Schizophrenics|veditors=Rogers CR, Gendlin ET, Kiesler DJ, Truax CB|location=Madison, Wisconsin|publisher=The University of Wisconsin Press|pages=555–68}}</ref> Other experimenters required subjects to comment upon their own feelings and behaviors, or those of other people involved in the experiment, as indirect ways of signaling their level of empathic functioning to the raters.<ref name=MehrabianEpstein>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mehrabian A, Epstein N | title = A measure of emotional empathy | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality_1972-12_40_4/page/525 | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 40 | issue = 4 | pages = 525–43 | date = December 1972 | pmid = 4642390 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1972.tb00078.x }}</ref>
-Physiological responses tend to be captured by elaborate electronic equipment that has been physically connected to the subject's body. Researchers then draw inferences about that person's empathic reactions from the electronic readings produced.<ref name=egLevensonRuef1992Leslieetal2004>{{multiref2
+Behavioral measures normally involve raters assessing the presence or absence of certain behaviors, both verbal and non-verbal, in the subjects they are monitoring. Both verbal and non-verbal behaviors have been captured on video by experimenters. Other experimenters have required subjects to comment upon their own feelings and behaviors, or those of other people involved in the experiment, as indirect ways of signaling their level of empathic functioning.
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Levenson RW, Ruef AM | title = Empathy: a physiological substrate | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 63 | issue = 2 | pages = 234–46 | date = August 1992 | pmid = 1403614 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.234 | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Empathy%3A-a-physiological-substrate.-Levenson-Ruef/a36cbc62d4420a788b07c3193f54d2083b220d4d?p2df | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200730234930/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a36c/bc62d4420a788b07c3193f54d2083b220d4d.pdf | archive-date = 2020-07-30|df=mdy-all | s2cid = 12650202 }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Leslie KR, Johnson-Frey SH, Grafton ST | title = Functional imaging of face and hand imitation: towards a motor theory of empathy | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 601–7 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14980562 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.038 | s2cid = 1723495}}
-}}</ref>
-Bodily or "somatic" measures can be seen as behavioral measures at a micro level. They measure empathy through facial and other non-verbally expressed reactions. Such changes are presumably underpinned by physiological changes brought about by some form of "emotional contagion" or mirroring.<ref name=egLevensonRuef1992Leslieetal2004/> These reactions, while they appear to reflect the internal emotional state of the empathizer, could also, if the stimulus incident lasted more than the briefest period, reflect the results of emotional reactions based on cognitions associated with role-taking ("if I were him I would feel...").
+Physiological responses tend to be captured by electronic equipment that has been physically connected to the subject's body. Researchers may then draw inferences about that person's empathic reactions from the electronic readings produced.
-Picture or puppet-story indices for empathy have been adopted to enable even very young, pre-school subjects to respond without needing to read questions and write answers.<ref name="Denham McKinley Couchoud Holt 1990 p=1145">{{cite journal | vauthors = Denham SA, McKinley M, Couchoud EA, Holt R | title = Emotional and behavioral predictors of preschool peer ratings | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1990-08_61_4/page/1145 | journal = Child Development | volume = 61 | issue = 4 | pages = 1145–52 | date = August 1990 | pmid = 2209184 | doi = 10.2307/1130882 | publisher = JSTOR | jstor = 1130882 }}</ref> Dependent variables (variables that are monitored for any change by the experimenter) for younger subjects have included self reporting on a seven-point smiley face scale and filmed facial reactions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Barnett MA | year = 1984 | title = Similarity of experience and empathy in preschoolers | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-genetic-psychology_1984-12_145_2/page/241 | journal = Journal of Genetic Psychology | volume = 145 | issue = 2| pages = 241–50 | doi = 10.1080/00221325.1984.10532271 }}</ref>
+Subjects may be asked to read scenarios or watch video scenarios (either staged or authentic) and make written responses which are then assessed for their levels of empathy.
-In some experiments, subjects are required to watch video scenarios (either staged or authentic) and to make written responses which are then assessed for their levels of empathy;<ref>e.g. {{cite journal | vauthors=Geher G, Warner RM, Brown AS | title=Predictive validity of the emotional accuracy research scale | journal=Intelligence | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=29 | issue=5 | year=2001 | issn=0160-2896 | doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(00)00045-3 | pages=373–88}}</ref> scenarios are sometimes also depicted in printed form.{{r|MehrabianEpstein}}
+Picture or puppet-story indices for empathy have been adopted to enable even very young, pre-school subjects to respond without needing to read questions and write answers.
 === Self-report measures ===
+Measures of empathy often require subjects to self-report upon their own ability or capacity for empathy, using [[Likert scale|Likert]]-style numerical responses to a printed questionnaire that may have been designed to reveal the affective, cognitive-affective, or largely cognitive substrates of empathic functioning. However, a 2019 meta analysis questions the validity of self-report measures of cognitive empathy, finding that such self-report measures have negligibly small correlations with corresponding behavioral measures.<ref name="Murphy2019" />
-Measures of empathy also frequently require subjects to self-report upon their own ability or capacity for empathy, using [[Likert scale|Likert]]-style numerical responses to a printed questionnaire that may have been designed to reveal the affective, cognitive-affective, or largely cognitive substrates of empathic functioning. Some questionnaires claim to reveal both cognitive and affective substrates.<ref>e.g. {{cite journal | vauthors = Davis MH | year = 1980 | title = A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy | journal = JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology | volume = 10 | issue = 4| pages = 1–17 }}</ref> However, a 2019 meta analysis questions the validity of self-report measures of cognitive empathy, finding that such self-report measures have negligibly small correlations with corresponding behavioral measures.<ref name="Murphy2019" />
+Such measures are also vulnerable to measuring not empathy but the difference between a person's felt empathy and their standards for how much empathy is appropriate. For example, students scored themselves as less empathetic after taking a class discussing empathy. After learning more about empathy, the students became more exacting in how they judged their own feelings and behavior, expected more from themselves, and so rated themselves more severely.<ref name=Segal/>
-Such measures are also vulnerable to measuring not empathy but the difference between a person's felt empathy and their standards for how much empathy is appropriate. For example, one researcher found that students scored themselves as less empathetic after taking her empathy class. After learning more about empathy, the students became more exacting in how they judged their own feelings and behavior, expected more from themselves, and so rated themselves more severely.{{r|AssessingEmpathy}}
+The [[Interpersonal Reactivity Index|Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)]] is among the oldest published measurement tools still in frequent use (first published in 1983) that provides a multi-dimensional assessment of empathy. It comprises a self-report questionnaire of 28 items, divided into four seven-item scales covering the subdivisions of affective and cognitive empathy described above.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Davis1983">Mark H. Davis, [https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1983-01_44_1/page/112/mode/2up Measuring individual differences in empathy: evidence for a multidimensional approach] ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'' 44(1) (1983):113–126. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref> More recent self-report tools include The [[Empathy Quotient]] (EQ), which comprises a self-report questionnaire consisting of 60 items.<ref>Simon Baron-Cohen and Sally Wheelwright, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15162935/ The empathy quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences] ''Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders'' 34(2) (April 2004):163–175. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref> Another multi-dimensional scale is the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE, first published in 2011).<ref>Renate L.E.P. Reniers, Rhiannon Corcoran, Richard Drake, Nick M. Shryane, and Birgit A. Völlm, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21184334/ The QCAE: a Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy] ''Journal of Personality Assessment'' 93(1) (January 2011):84–95. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref>
-In the field of medicine, a measurement tool for carers is the ''Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy, Health Professional Version (JSPE-HP)''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen D, Lew R, Hershman W, Orlander J | title = A cross-sectional measurement of medical student empathy | journal = Journal of General Internal Medicine | volume = 22 | issue = 10 | pages = 1434–8 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17653807 | pmc = 2305857 | doi = 10.1007/s11606-007-0298-x }}</ref>
+The Empathic Experience Scale is a 30-item questionnaire that measures empathy from a [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenological]] perspective on [[intersubjectivity]], which provides a common basis for the perceptual experience (vicarious experience dimension) and a basic cognitive awareness (intuitive understanding dimension) of others' emotional states.<ref>Marco Innamorati, Sjoerd J.H. Ebisch, Vittorio Gallese, and Aristide Saggino, [https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0216164 A bidimensional measure of empathy: Empathic Experience Scale] ''PLOS ONE'' 14(4) (April 2019). Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref>
-The [[Interpersonal Reactivity Index|Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)]] is among the oldest published measurement tools still in frequent use (first published in 1983) that provides a multi-dimensional assessment of empathy. It comprises a self-report questionnaire of 28 items, divided into four seven-item scales covering the subdivisions of affective and cognitive empathy described above.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Davis1983">{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis M | year = 1983 | title = Measuring individual differences in empathy: evidence for a multidimensional approach | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1983-01_44_1/page/113 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 44 | issue = 1| pages = 113–26 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113| hdl = 10983/25968 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> More recent self-report tools include The [[Empathy Quotient]] (EQ) created by [[Simon Baron-Cohen|Baron-Cohen]] and Wheelwright<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S | title = The empathy quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 163–75 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15162935 | doi = 10.1023/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00 | url = http://www.queensu.ca/rarc/services/ASDAssessmentTemplate/ResourcesfromRobertGauthierfromRARCworkshop2014/EQArticle.pdf | url-status = dead | s2cid = 2663853 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150304035846/http://www.queensu.ca/rarc/services/ASDAssessmentTemplate/ResourcesfromRobertGauthierfromRARCworkshop2014/EQArticle.pdf | archive-date = March 4, 2015 }}</ref> which comprises a self-report questionnaire consisting of 60 items. Another multi-dimensional scale is the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE, first published in 2011).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reniers RL, Corcoran R, Drake R, Shryane NM, Völlm BA | title = The QCAE: a Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy | journal = Journal of Personality Assessment | volume = 93 | issue = 1 | pages = 84–95 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21184334 | doi = 10.1080/00223891.2010.528484 | s2cid = 3035172 }}</ref>
-The Empathic Experience Scale is a 30-item questionnaire that measures empathy from a [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenological]] perspective on [[intersubjectivity]], which provides a common basis for the perceptual experience (vicarious experience dimension) and a basic cognitive awareness (intuitive understanding dimension) of others' emotional states.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Innamorati M, Ebisch SJ, Gallese V, Saggino A | title = A bidimensional measure of empathy: Empathic Experience Scale | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | page = e0216164 | date = 29 April 2019 |df=mdy-all| pmid = 31034510 | pmc = 6488069 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0216164 | bibcode = 2019PLoSO..1416164I | doi-access = free }}</ref>
-It is difficult to make comparisons over time using such questionnaires because of how language changes. For example, one study used a single questionnaire to measure 13,737 college students between 1979 and 2009, and found that empathy scores fell substantially over that time.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Sara H. |last1=Konrath|first2= Edward H.|last2= O'Brien|first3= Courtney |last3=Hsing|name-list-style=vanc|title=Changes in Dispositional Empathy in American College Students Over Time: A Meta-Analysis|journal= Personality and Social Psychology Review |volume=15|year=2011|issue=2 |pages=180–98 |doi=10.1177/1088868310377395 |pmid=20688954 |s2cid=7645344 }}</ref> A critic noted these results could be because the wording of the questionnaire had become anachronistically quaint (it used idioms no longer in common use, like "tender feelings", "ill at ease", "quite touched", or "go to pieces" that today's students might not identify with).{{r|Breithaupt}}
+It is difficult to make comparisons over time using such questionnaires because of how language changes. For example, one study using a single questionnaire to measure 13,737 college students between 1979 and 2009 found that empathy scores fell substantially over that time. A critic noted these results could be because the wording of the questionnaire had become anachronistically quaint (it used idioms no longer in common use, like "tender feelings," "ill at ease," "quite touched," or "go to pieces," that today's students might not identify with).<ref name=Breithaupt/>
 == Influence on helping behavior ==
-{{See also|Empathy-altruism}}
+Investigators into the social response to natural disasters researched the characteristics associated with individuals who help victims. Researchers found that cognitive empathy, rather than emotional empathy, predicted helping behavior towards victims.<ref> Zdravko Marjanovic, C. Ward Struthers, and Esther R. Greenglass, [https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2011.01262.x Who Helps Natural-Disaster Victims? Assessment of Trait and Situational Predictors] ''Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy'' 12(1) (August 8, 2011):245–267. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref> Taking on the perspectives of others (cognitive empathy) may allow these helpers to better empathize with victims without as much discomfort, whereas sharing the emotions of the victims (emotional empathy) can cause emotional distress, helplessness, and [[victim-blaming]], and may lead to avoidance rather than helping.<ref>Christopher J. Einolf, [https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2012.01281.x Is Cognitive Empathy More Important than Affective Empathy? A Response to 'Who Helps Natural-Disaster Victims?'] ''Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy'' 12(1) (March 13, 2012):268–271. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref>
-Investigators into the social response to natural disasters researched the characteristics associated with individuals who help victims. Researchers found that cognitive empathy, rather than emotional empathy, predicted helping behavior towards victims.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Marjanovic Z, Struthers G |title=Who Helps Natural-Disaster Victims? Assessment of Trait and Situational Predictors|journal=Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy|date=August 8, 2011|volume=12|issue=1|pages=245–67|doi=10.1111/j.1530-2415.2011.01262.x}}</ref> Taking on the perspectives of others (cognitive empathy) may allow these helpers to better empathize with victims without as much discomfort, whereas sharing the emotions of the victims (emotional empathy) can cause emotional distress, helplessness, and [[victim-blaming]], and may lead to avoidance rather than helping.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Einolf C |title=Is Cognitive Empathy More Important than Affective Empathy? A Response to 'Who Helps Natural-Disaster Victims?'|journal=Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy|date=March 13, 2012|volume=12|issue=1|pages=268–71|doi=10.1111/j.1530-2415.2012.01281.x}}</ref>
-Individuals who expressed concern for the vulnerable (i.e. affective empathy) were more willing to accept the [[COVID-19]] pandemic lockdown measures that create distress.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petrocchi |first1=Serena |last2=Bernardi |first2=Sheila |last3=Malacrida |first3=Roberto |last4=Traber |first4=Rafael |last5=Gabutti |first5=Luca |last6=Grignoli |first6=Nicola|name-list-style=vanc |title=Affective empathy predicts self-isolation behaviour acceptance during coronavirus risk exposure |journal=Scientific Reports |date=December 2021 |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=10153 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-89504-w|pmid=33980946 |pmc=8115029 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1110153P }}</ref>
-People who understand how empathic feelings evoke altruistic motivation may adopt strategies for suppressing or avoiding such feelings. Such numbing, or loss of the capacity to feel empathy for clients, is a possible factor in the experience of burnout among case workers in helping professions. People can better cognitively control their actions the more they understand how altruistic behavior emerges, whether it is from minimizing sadness or the arousal of mirror neurons.
+Empathy-induced [[altruism]] may not always produce pro-social effects. For example, it could lead one to exert oneself on behalf of those for whom empathy is felt at the expense of other potential pro-social goals, thus inducing a type of bias. Researchers suggest that individuals are willing to act against the greater collective good or to violate their own moral principles of fairness and justice if doing so will benefit a person for whom empathy is felt.<ref>C. Daniel Batson and and Tecia Moran, [https://archive.org/details/sim_european-journal-of-social-psychology_1999-11_29_7/page/908/mode/2up Empathy-induced altruism in a prisoner's dilemma] ''European Journal of Social Psychology'' 29(7) (1999):909–924. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref>
-Empathy-induced altruism may not always produce pro-social effects. For example, it could lead one to exert oneself on behalf of those for whom empathy is felt at the expense of other potential pro-social goals, thus inducing a type of bias. Researchers suggest that individuals are willing to act against the greater collective good or to violate their own moral principles of fairness and justice if doing so will benefit a person for whom empathy is felt.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Batson CD, Moran T | year = 1999 | title = Empathy-induced altruism in a prisoner's dilemma | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_european-journal-of-social-psychology_1999-11_29_7/page/909 | journal = Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. | volume = 29 | issue = 7| pages = 909–24 | doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-0992(199911)29:7<909::aid-ejsp965>3.0.co;2-l}}</ref>
+Therapeutic programs to foster altruistic impulses by encouraging perspective-taking and empathic feelings might enable individuals to develop more satisfactory interpersonal relations, especially in the long-term. Empathy-induced altruism can improve attitudes toward stigmatized groups, racial attitudes, and actions toward people with AIDS, the homeless, and convicts. Such resulting altruism also increases cooperation in competitive situations.<ref> C.R. Snyder and Shane J. Lopez, ''Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology'' (Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0195187243).</ref>
-Empathy-based socialization differs{{how|date=July 2023}} from inhibition of egoistic impulses through shaping, modeling, and internalized guilt. Therapeutic programs to foster altruistic impulses by encouraging perspective-taking and empathic feelings might enable individuals to develop more satisfactory interpersonal relations, especially in the long-term. Empathy-induced altruism can improve attitudes toward stigmatized groups, racial attitudes, and actions toward people with AIDS, the homeless, and convicts. Such resulting altruism also increases cooperation in competitive situations.<ref>{{cite book | veditors = Snyder CR, Lopez SJ | year = 2009 | title = Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. | url = https://archive.org/details/handbookpositive00lope | edition = Second | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = [https://archive.org/details/handbookpositive00lope/page/n261 243]–4 | isbn = 978-0-19-518724-3 }}</ref>
+Empathy is good at prompting prosocial behaviors that are informal, unplanned, and directed at someone who is immediately present, but is not as good at prompting more abstractly-considered, long-term prosocial behavior.<ref>Christopher J Einolf, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19227702/ Empathic concern and prosocial behaviors: A test of experimental results using survey data] ''Social Science Research'' 37(4) (2008):1267–1279.</ref>
-Empathy is good at prompting prosocial behaviors that are informal, unplanned, and directed at someone who is immediately present, but is not as good at prompting more abstractly-considered, long-term prosocial behavior.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Christopher J. |last=Einolf|name-list-style=vanc|title=Empathic concern and prosocial behaviors: A test of experimental results using survey data|journal=Social Science Research |volume=37 |year=2008 |issue=4 |pages=1267–79|doi=10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.06.003 |pmid=19227702 |s2cid=205236870 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24025626}}</ref>
-Empathy can not only be a precursor to one's own helpful acts, but can also be a way of inviting help from others. If you mimic the posture, facial expressions, and vocal style of someone you are with, you can thereby encourage them to help you and to form a favorable opinion of you.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal|first1=R.B.|last1= van Baaren|first2=R.W. |last2=Holland|first3= K.|last3= Kawakami|first4= A. |last4=van Knippenberg|name-list-style=vanc |title=Mimicry and prosocial behavior|journal=Psychological Science|volume= 15 |year=2004|issue= 1|pages= 71–4|doi= 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01501012.x|pmid= 14717835|s2cid= 3681430}}
-|2={{cite journal|first1=B.C.N. |last1=Müller|first2= A.J. |last2=Maaskant|first3= R.B.|last3= van Baaren|first4=A.|last4= Dijksterhuis|name-list-style=vanc |title=Prosocial consequences of imitation|journal=Psychological Reports|volume= 110 |year=2012|issue=3 |pages=891–8|doi=10.2466/07.09.21.PR0.110.3.891-898 |pmid=22897091 |s2cid=13528009 }}
-|3={{cite journal|first1=R.B. |last1=van Baaren|first2=R. |last2=Janssen| first3=T.L.|last3= Chartrand| first4=A. |last4=Dijksterhuis|name-list-style=vanc |title=Where is the love? The social aspects of mimicry| journal= Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume= 364 |year=2009|issue=1528 |pages=2381–9|doi=10.1098/rstb.2009.0057 |pmid=19620109 |pmc=2865082}}
-}}</ref>
 == Development ==
 === Ontogenetic development ===
-By the age of two, children normally begin to exhibit fundamental behaviors of empathy by having an emotional response that corresponds with another person's emotional state.<ref name=Hoffman2000>{{cite book| vauthors = Hoffman ML |year=2000|title=Empathy and Moral Development|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521580342}}</ref> Even earlier, at one year of age, infants have some rudiments of empathy; they understand that, as with their own actions, other people's actions have goals.<ref>{{multiref2
+By the age of two, children normally begin to exhibit fundamental behaviors of empathy by having an emotional response that corresponds with another person's emotional state.<ref name=Hoffman2000>Martin L. Hoffman, ''Empathy and Moral Development'' (Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0521580342).</ref> Even earlier, at one year of age, infants have some rudiments of empathy; they understand that, as with their own actions, other people's actions have goals.<ref> Melanie Killen and Judith G. Smetana (eds.), ''Handbook of Moral Development'' (Routledge, 2022, ISBN 978-0367497545).</ref> Toddlers sometimes comfort others or show concern for them. Although children as young as 18 months to two years are capable of showing some signs of empathy, including attempting to comfort a crying baby, most do not demonstrate a full [[theory of mind]] until around the age of four. Theory of mind involves the ability to understand that other people may have beliefs that are different from one's own, and is thought to involve the cognitive component of empathy.<ref name="Baron-Cohen 2003"/>
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Decety J, Meyer M | title = From emotion resonance to empathic understanding: a social developmental neuroscience account | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_development-and-psychopathology_fall-2008_20_4/page/1053 | journal = Development and Psychopathology | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 1053–80 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18838031 | doi = 10.1017/S0954579408000503 | s2cid = 8508693 }}
-|2={{cite book | vauthors = Eisenberg N, Spinrad TL, Sadovsky A | year = 2006 | chapter = Empathy-related responding in children. | veditors = Killen M, Smetana J | title = Handbook of Moral Development | url = https://archive.org/details/handbookmoraldev00kill | pages = [https://archive.org/details/handbookmoraldev00kill/page/n535 517]–49 | location = Mahwah, New Jersey | publisher = Lawrence Erlbaum Associates | isbn = 9780805847512 }}
-|3={{cite journal | vauthors = Falck-Ytter T, Gredebäck G, von Hofsten C | title = Infants predict other people's action goals | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 9 | issue = 7 | pages = 878–9 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16783366 | doi = 10.1038/nn1729 | s2cid = 2409686}}
-}}</ref> Toddlers sometimes comfort others or show concern for them. During their second year, they play games of falsehood or pretend in an effort to fool others. Such actions require that the child knows what others believe in order that the child can manipulate those beliefs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zahn-Waxler C, Radke-Yarrow M | year = 1990 | title = The origins of empathic concern | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1232472| journal = Motivation and Emotion | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 107–30 | doi = 10.1007/BF00991639 |s2cid=143436918 }}</ref>
-According to researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] who used [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI), children between the ages of seven and twelve, when seeing others being injured, experience brain activity similar that which would occur if the child themself had been injured.<ref name="Decety 2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Decety J, Michalska KJ, Akitsuki Y | title = Who caused the pain? An fMRI investigation of empathy and intentionality in children | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 46 | issue = 11 | pages = 2607–14 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18573266 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.05.026 | s2cid = 19428145 }}</ref> Their findings are consistent with previous fMRI studies of [[pain empathy]] with adults, and previous findings that vicarious experiencing, particularly of others' distress, is hardwired and present early in life.<ref name="Decety 2008"/> The research found additional areas of the brain, associated with social and moral cognition, were activated when young people saw another person intentionally hurt by somebody, including regions involved in moral reasoning.<ref name="Decety 2008"/>
+According to researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] who used [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI), children between the ages of seven and twelve, when seeing others being injured, experience brain activity similar that which would occur if the child themself had been injured.<ref name="Decety 2008">Jean Decety, Kalina J Michalska, and Yuko Akitsuki, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18573266/ Who caused the pain? An fMRI investigation of empathy and intentionality in children] ''Neuropsychologia'' 46(11) (September 2008):2607–2614. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref> Their findings are consistent with previous fMRI studies of [[pain empathy]] with adults, and previous findings that vicarious experiencing, particularly of others' distress, is hardwired and present early in life. The research also found additional areas of the brain, associated with social and moral cognition, were activated when young people saw another person intentionally hurt by somebody, including regions involved in moral reasoning.<ref name="Decety 2008"/>
-Although children are capable of showing some signs of empathy, including attempting to comfort a crying baby, from as early as 18 months to two years, most do not demonstrate a full [[theory of mind]] until around the age of four.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wimmer H, Perner J | title = Beliefs about beliefs: representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_cognition_1983-01_13_1/page/103 | journal = Cognition | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 103–28 | date = January 1983 | pmid = 6681741 | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5 | s2cid = 17014009 }}</ref> Theory of mind involves the ability to understand that other people may have beliefs that are different from one's own, and is thought to involve the cognitive component of empathy.<ref name="Baron-Cohen 2003"/> Children usually can pass false-belief tasks (a test for a theory of mind) around the age of four. It is theorised that people with [[autism]] find using a theory of mind to be very difficult (e.g. the [[Sally–Anne test]]).<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Baron-Cohen S, Leslie AM, Frith U | title = Does the autistic child have a "theory of mind"? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_cognition_1985-10_21_1/page/37 | journal = Cognition | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 37–46 | date = October 1985 | pmid = 2934210 | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8 | s2cid = 14955234 }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Leslie AM, Frith U | title = Autistic children's understanding of seeing, knowing and believing | journal = [[British Journal of Developmental Psychology]] | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 315–24 | doi = 10.1111/j.2044-835X.1988.tb01104.x | date = November 1988}}
-}}</ref>
-Empathic maturity is a cognitive-structural theory developed at the Yale University School of Nursing. It addresses how adults conceive or understand the personhood of patients. The theory, first applied to nurses and since applied to other professions, postulates three levels of cognitive structures. The third and highest level is a meta-ethical theory of the moral structure of care. Adults who operate with level-III understanding synthesize systems of justice and care-based ethics.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Olsen DP | title = Empathetic maturity: theory of moral point of view in clinical relations | journal = Advances in Nursing Science | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–46 | date = September 2001 | pmid = 11554532 | doi = 10.1097/00012272-200109000-00006 | url = https://www.nursingcenter.com/journalarticle?Article_ID=430999 | url-status = live | df = mdy-all | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090907234403/http://www.nursingcenter.com/library/JournalArticle.asp?Article_ID=430999 | archive-date = September 7, 2009 }}</ref>
-=== Individual differences ===
-The Empathic Concern scale assesses other-oriented feelings of sympathy and concern and the Personal Distress scale measures self-oriented feelings of personal anxiety and unease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis MH | year = 1983 | title = Measuring Individual Differences in Empathy: Evidence for a Multidimensional Approach | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1983-01_44_1/page/113 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 44 | issue = 1| pages = 113–26 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113| hdl = 10983/25968 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Researchers have used behavioral and neuroimaging data to analyze extraversion and agreeableness. Both are associated with [[empathic accuracy]] and increased brain activity in two brain regions that are important for empathic processing (medial prefrontal cortex and [[temporoparietal junction]]).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haas BW, Brook M, Remillard L, Ishak A, Anderson IW, Filkowski MM | title = I know how you feel: the warm-altruistic personality profile and the empathic brain | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | page = e0120639 | year = 2015 | pmid = 25769028 | pmc = 4359130 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0120639 | bibcode = 2015PLoSO..1020639H | doi-access = free }}</ref>
 === Sex differences ===
+It has been found that, on average, females score higher than males on measures of empathy, such as the [[Empathy Quotient]] (EQ)<ref name="Bosson">Jennifer Katherine Bosson, Camille E. Buckner, and Joseph Alan Vandello, ''The Psychology of Sex and Gender'' (SAGE Publications, Inc, 2021, ISBN 978-1544393995).</ref> However, other studies show no significant sex differences, and instead suggest that gender differences could be the result of motivational differences, such as upholding [[stereotype]]s.<ref name="Bosson"/><ref name=Ickes>William Ickes (ed.), ''Empathic Accuracy'' (The Guilford Press, 1997, ISBN 978-1572301610).</ref>
-On average, females score higher than males on measures of empathy,<ref name="Bosson">{{Cite book|last1=Bosson|first1=Jennifer K.|last2=Buckner|first2=Camille E.|last3=Vandello|first3=Joseph A.|name-list-style=vanc|title=The Psychology of Sex and Gender|year=2021|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-1-54-439403-9|page=330|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B74IEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT330}}</ref> such as the [[Empathy Quotient]] (EQ), while males tend to score higher on the [[Systemizing Quotient]] (SQ). Both males and females with [[Autism spectrum|autistic spectrum disorders]] usually score lower on the EQ and higher on SQ ([[#Autism|see below]] for more detail on autism and empathy).<ref name="Baron-Cohen 2003"/>
-Other studies show no significant sex differences, and instead suggest that gender differences are the result of motivational differences, such as upholding stereotypes.<ref name="Bosson"/><ref name="Ickes, W. 1997">{{cite book | vauthors = Ickes W | year = 1997 | title = Empathic accuracy | location = New York | publisher = The Guilford Press }}</ref> [[Gender stereotypes]] about men and women can affect how they express emotions. The sex difference is small to moderate, somewhat inconsistent, and is often influenced by the person's motivations or social environment.<ref name="Bosson"/> Bosson ''et al.'' say "physiological measures of emotion and studies that track people in their daily lives find no consistent sex differences in the experience of emotion", which "suggests that women may amplify certain emotional expressions, or men may suppress them".<ref name="Bosson"/>
-However, a 2014 review from ''[[Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews]]'' reported that there is evidence that "sex differences in empathy have [[phylogenetic]] and [[ontogenetic]] roots in biology and are not merely cultural byproducts driven by socialization."<ref name="Christov-Moore">{{cite journal | vauthors = Christov-Moore L, Simpson EA, Coudé G, Grigaityte K, Iacoboni M, Ferrari PF | title = Empathy: gender effects in brain and behavior | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 46 Pt 4 | pages = 604–27 | date = October 2014 | issue = Pt 4 | pmid = 25236781 | pmc = 5110041 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001 | url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265859585| url-status = live | df = mdy-all | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170814055810/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265859585_Empathy_Gender_Effects_in_Brain_and_Behavior | archive-date = August 14, 2017 }}</ref> The review found sex differences in empathy from birth, growing larger with age, and consistent and stable across lifespan.<ref name="Christov-Moore" /> Females, on average, had higher empathy than males, while children with higher empathy, regardless of gender, continue to be higher in empathy throughout development.<ref name="Christov-Moore" /> Analysis of brain event-related potentials found that females who saw human suffering tended to have higher [[Event-related potential|ERP]] waveforms than males.<ref name="Christov-Moore"/> An investigation of [[N400 (neuroscience)|N400]] amplitudes found, on average, higher N400 in females in response to social situations, which positively correlated with self-reported empathy.<ref name="Christov-Moore"/> Structural fMRI studies also found females to have larger [[grey matter]] volumes in posterior [[Inferior frontal gyrus|inferior frontal]] and anterior [[Inferior parietal lobule|inferior parietal cortex]] areas which are correlated with [[mirror neuron]]s in [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] literature.<ref name="Christov-Moore"/> Females also tended to have a stronger link between emotional and cognitive empathy.<ref name="Christov-Moore"/> The researchers believe that the stability of these sex differences in development are unlikely to be explained by environmental influences but rather by human evolution and inheritance.<ref name="Christov-Moore"/> Throughout prehistory, women were the primary nurturers and caretakers of children; so this might have led to an evolved neurological adaptation for women to be more aware and responsive to non-verbal expressions. According to the "Primary Caretaker Hypothesis", prehistoric men did not have such selective pressure as primary caretakers. This might explain modern day sex differences in emotion recognition and empathy.<ref name="Christov-Moore"/>
-A review published in ''[[Neuropsychologia]]'' found that females tended to be better at recognizing facial affects, expression processing, and emotions in general.<ref name="Kret 2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kret ME, De Gelder B | title = A review on sex differences in processing emotional signals | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 50 | issue = 7 | pages = 1211–21 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22245006 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.12.022 | url = https://dare.uva.nl/search?identifier=3aea49a9-7521-4aae-863d-6f351a012b88 | s2cid = 11695245 }}</ref> Males tended to be better at recognizing specific behaviors such as anger, aggression, and threatening cues.<ref name="Kret 2012" /> A 2014 meta-analysis, in ''Cognition and Emotion'', found a small female advantage in non-verbal emotional recognition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thompson AE, Voyer D | title = Sex differences in the ability to recognise non-verbal displays of emotion: a meta-analysis | journal = Cognition & Emotion | volume = 28 | issue = 7 | pages = 1164–95 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24400860 | doi = 10.1080/02699931.2013.875889 | s2cid = 5402395 }}</ref>
 === Environmental influences ===
-Some research theorizes that environmental factors, such as [[parenting style]] and relationships, affect the development of empathy in children. Empathy promotes [[pro-social]] relationships<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Decety|first1=Jean|last2=Bartal|first2=Inbal Ben-Ami|last3=Uzefovsky|first3=Florina|last4=Knafo-Noam|first4=Ariel|name-list-style=vanc|date=2016-01-19|df=mdy-all|title=Empathy as a driver of prosocial behaviour: highly conserved neurobehavioural mechanisms across species|journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]]|volume=371|issue=1686|page=20150077|doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0077|issn=0962-8436|pmc=4685523|pmid=26644596}}</ref> and helps mediate aggression.
+Some researchers have theorized that environmental factors, such as [[parenting]] style and relationships, affect the development of empathy in children.
-Caroline Tisot studied how environmental factors like parenting style, parent empathy, and prior social experiences affect the development of empathy in young children. The children studied were asked to complete an effective empathy measure, while the children's parents completed a questionnaire to assess parenting style and the Balanced Emotional Empathy scale. The study found that certain parenting practices, as opposed to parenting style as a whole, contributed to the development of empathy in children. These practices include encouraging the child to imagine the perspectives of others and teaching the child to reflect on his or her own feelings. The development of empathy varied based on the gender of the child and parent. Paternal warmth was significantly positively related to empathy in children, especially boys. Maternal warmth was negatively related to empathy in children, especially girls.<ref>{{cite thesis|degree=PhD| vauthors = Tisot CM |year=2003|title=Environmental contributions to empathy development in young children|publisher=[[Temple University]]|oclc=56772472}}</ref>
+[[Learning by teaching]] helps to develop empathy. The method of having students teach other students has been present since antiquity, often due to lack of resources. In the early nineteenth century, the [[Monitorial System]] was developed in parallel by Scotsman [[Andrew Bell (educationalist)|Andrew Bell]] who had worked in [[Madras]] and [[Joseph Lancaster]] who worked in London; each attempted to educate masses of poor children with scant resources by having older children teach younger children what they had already learned.<ref> Frank Pierrepont Graves, ''A Student's History of Education'' (Legare Street Press, 2023 (original 1915), ISBN 978-1020355608).</ref> When students transmit new content to their classmates, they have to reflect continuously on those classmates' mental processes. Thus, they develop cognitive empathy as they attempt to transmit their learning, and in many cases affective empathy is also developed as the students spend quality time together.
-Empathy may be disrupted due to brain trauma such as [[stroke]]. In most cases, empathy is impaired if a [[lesion]] or stroke occurs on the right side of the brain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leigh R, Oishi K, Hsu J, Lindquist M, Gottesman RF, Jarso S, Crainiceanu C, Mori S, Hillis AE | display-authors = 6 | title = Acute lesions that impair affective empathy | journal = Brain | volume = 136 | issue = Pt 8 | pages = 2539–49 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23824490 | pmc = 3722353 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awt177 | df = mdy-all | author-link5 = Rebecca Gottesman }}</ref> Damage to the [[frontal lobe]], which is primarily responsible for emotional regulation, can profoundly impact a person's capacity to experience empathy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Sousa A, McDonald S, Rushby J | title = Changes in emotional empathy, affective responsivity, and behavior following severe traumatic brain injury | journal = Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology | volume = 34 | issue = 6 | pages = 606–23 | date = 2012-07-01|df=mdy-all | pmid = 22435955 | doi = 10.1080/13803395.2012.667067 | s2cid = 44373955 }}</ref> People with an acquired brain injury also show lower levels of empathy. More than half of those people with a traumatic brain injury self-report a deficit in their empathic capacity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Sousa A, McDonald S, Rushby J, Li S, Dimoska A, James C | title = Why don't you feel how I feel? Insight into the absence of empathy after severe traumatic brain injury | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 48 | issue = 12 | pages = 3585–95 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20713073 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.08.008 | s2cid = 25275909 }}</ref>
+===Genetics===
+The basic capacity to recognize emotions in others may be innate.<ref> James D. Baird and Laurie Nadel, ''Happiness Genes: Unlock the Positive Potential Hidden in Your DNA'' (Weiser, 2010, ISBN 978-1601631053).</ref>
-There is some evidence that empathy is a skill that one can improve in with training.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=E. Teding |last1=van Berkhout |first2=J.M. |last2=Malouff|name-list-style=vanc |title=The efficacy of empathy training: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|journal= Journal of Counseling Psychology |volume=63 |year=2016|issue=1 |pages= 32–41|doi=10.1037/cou0000093 |pmid=26191979 }}</ref>
+Measures of empathy show evidence of being genetically influenced.<ref>Mark H. Davis, Carol Luce, and Stephen J. Kraus , [https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality_1994-09_62_3/page/368/mode/2up The heritability of characteristics associated with dispositional empathy] ''Journal of Personality'' 62(3) (September 1994):369–391. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref> For example, a gene located near LRRN1 on chromosome 3 influences the human ability to read, understand, and respond to emotions in others.<ref>V. Warrier  et al., [https://www.nature.com/articles/mp2017122 Genome-wide meta-analysis of cognitive empathy: heritability, and correlates with sex, neuropsychiatric conditions and cognition] ''Molecular Psychiatry'' 23(6) (June 2018):1402–1409. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref>
-===Genetics===
-Measures of empathy show evidence of being genetically influenced.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis MH, Luce C, Kraus SJ | title = The heritability of characteristics associated with dispositional empathy | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality_1994-09_62_3/page/369 | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | pages = 369–91 | date = September 1994 | pmid = 7965564 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00302.x }}</ref> For example, carriers of the deletion variant of [[ADRA2B]] show more activation of the amygdala when viewing emotionally arousing images.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Todd RM, Anderson AK | title = The neurogenetics of remembering emotions past | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 106 | issue = 45 | pages = 18881–2 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19889977 | pmc = 2776429 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0910755106 | bibcode = 2009PNAS..10618881T | doi-access = free }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Todd RM, Ehlers MR, Müller DJ, Robertson A, Palombo DJ, Freeman N, Levine B, Anderson AK | display-authors = 6 | title = Neurogenetic variations in norepinephrine availability enhance perceptual vividness | journal = The Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 35 | issue = 16 | pages = 6506–16 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25904801 | pmc = 6605217 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4489-14.2015}}
-}}</ref> The gene [[5-HTTLPR]] seems to influence sensitivity to negative emotional information and is also attenuated by the deletion variant of ADRA2b.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Naudts KH, Azevedo RT, David AS, van Heeringen K, Gibbs AA | title = Epistasis between 5-HTTLPR and ADRA2B polymorphisms influences attentional bias for emotional information in healthy volunteers | journal = The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 15 | issue = 8 | pages = 1027–36 | date = September 2012 | pmid = 21854681 | doi = 10.1017/S1461145711001295 | doi-access = free |url=https://sussex.figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Epistasis_between_5-HTTLPR_and_ADRA2B_polymorphisms_influences_attentional_bias_for_emotional_information_in_healthy_volunteers/23316200 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023232342/http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/7218/1/IJNP_proof.pdf |archive-date=October 23, 2017 }}</ref> Carriers of the double G variant of the [[Oxytocin receptor|OXTR]] gene have better social skills and higher self-esteem.{{clarify|reason=how is this connected to empathy specifically?|date=March 2022}}<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Saphire-Bernstein S, Way BM, Kim HS, Sherman DK, Taylor SE | title = Oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) is related to psychological resources | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 108 | issue = 37 | pages = 15118–22 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21896752 | pmc = 3174632 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1113137108 | bibcode = 2011PNAS..10815118S | doi-access = free }}</ref> A gene located near LRRN1 on chromosome 3 influences the human ability to read, understand, and respond to emotions in others.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Warrier V, Grasby KL, Uzefovsky F, Toro R, Smith P, Chakrabarti B, Khadake J, Mawbey-Adamson E, Litterman N, Hottenga JJ, Lubke G, Boomsma DI, Martin NG, Hatemi PK, Medland SE, Hinds DA, Bourgeron T, Baron-Cohen S | display-authors = 6 | title = Genome-wide meta-analysis of cognitive empathy: heritability, and correlates with sex, neuropsychiatric conditions and cognition | journal = Molecular Psychiatry | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | pages = 1402–9 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 28584286 | pmc = 5656177 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2017.122 }}</ref>
 === Neuroscientific basis of empathy ===
-Contemporary neuroscience offers insights into the neural basis of the mind's ability to understand and process emotion. Studies of [[mirror neuron]]s attempt to measure the neural basis for human mind-reading and emotion-sharing abilities and thereby to explain the basis of the empathy reaction.<ref name="Keen Suzanne 2006 207–36">{{cite journal | vauthors = Keen S | year = 2006 | title = A Theory of Narrative Empathy | journal = Narrative | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 207–36 | doi=10.1353/nar.2006.0015| s2cid = 52228354 }}</ref> People who score high on empathy tests have especially busy mirror neuron systems.<ref name="Gazzola_2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gazzola V, Aziz-Zadeh L, Keysers C | title = Empathy and the somatotopic auditory mirror system in humans | journal = Current Biology | volume = 16 | issue = 18 | pages = 1824–9 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16979560 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2006.07.072 | s2cid = 5223812 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Empathy is a spontaneous sharing of affect, provoked by witnessing and sympathizing with another's emotional state. The empathic person mirrors or mimics the emotional response they would expect to feel if they were in the other person's place. Unlike personal distress, empathy is not characterized by aversion to another's emotional response. This distinction is vital because empathy is associated with the moral emotion sympathy, or empathic concern, and consequently also prosocial or altruistic action.<ref name="Keen Suzanne 2006 207–36"/>
+Contemporary [[neuroscience]] offers insights into the neural basis of the mind's ability to understand and process emotion. Empathy is a spontaneous sharing of affect, provoked by witnessing and sympathizing with another's emotional state. The empathic person mirrors or mimics the emotional response they would expect to feel if they were in the other person's place. Studies of [[mirror neuron]]s attempt to measure the neural basis for human mind-reading and emotion-sharing abilities and thereby to explain the basis of the empathy reaction.<ref>Suzanne Keen, [https://english.as.uky.edu/sites/default/files/zunshineTheory%20of%20Narrative%20Empathy.pdf A Theory of Narrative Empathy] ''Narrative'' 14(3) (October 2006):207–236. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref> People who score high on empathy tests have especially busy mirror neuron systems.<ref>Valeria Gazzola, Lisa Aziz-Zadeh, and Christian Keysers, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16979560/ Empathy and the somatotopic auditory mirror system in humans] ''Current Biology'' 16(18) (September 2006):1824–1829. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref>
-A person empathizes by feeling what they believe to be the emotions of another, which makes empathy both affective and cognitive.{{clarify|reason=seems to contradict the next paragraph which states that affective empathy and cognitive empathy are distinct|date=March 2022}}<ref name="Pijnenborg2012"/> For social beings, negotiating interpersonal decisions is as important to survival as being able to navigate the physical landscape.<ref name="Bartlett, M. 2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bartlett MY, DeSteno D | title = Gratitude and prosocial behavior: helping when it costs you | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 319–25 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16623689 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01705.x | s2cid = 6491264 }}</ref>
+fMRI has been employed to investigate the functional anatomy of empathy. Observing another person's emotional state activates parts of the neuronal network that are involved in processing that same state in oneself, whether it is disgust, touch, or pain.<ref name="Lamm"/> As these emotional states are being observed, the brain is able activate a network of the brain that is involved in empathy.
-Meta-analysis of fMRI studies of empathy confirms that different brain areas are activated during affective-perceptual empathy than during cognitive-evaluative empathy. Affective empathy is correlated with increased activity in the [[Insular cortex|insula]] while cognitive empathy is correlated with activity in the mid [[cingulate cortex]] and adjacent dorsomedial [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref>{{multiref2
+Meta-analysis of fMRI studies of empathy confirms that different brain areas are activated during affective-perceptual empathy than during cognitive-evaluative empathy. Affective empathy is correlated with increased activity in the [[Insular cortex|insula]] while cognitive empathy is correlated with activity in the mid [[cingulate cortex]] and adjacent dorsomedial [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref>Yan Fan, Niall W. Duncan, Moritz de Greck, and Georg Northoff, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20974173/ Is there a core neural network in empathy? An fMRI based quantitative meta-analysis] ''Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews'' 35(3) (January 2011):903-911. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref> A study with patients who experienced different types of brain damage also confirmed this distinction between emotional and cognitive empathy. Specifically, the [[inferior frontal gyrus]] appears to be responsible for emotional empathy, and the [[Ventromedial prefrontal cortex|ventromedial prefrontal gyrus]] seems to mediate cognitive empathy.<ref name="Shamay-Tsoory"> Simone G. Shamay-Tsoory, Judith Aharon-Peretz, and Daniella Perry, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18971202/ Two systems for empathy: a double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy in inferior frontal gyrus versus ventromedial prefrontal lesions] ''Brain'' 132(Pt 3) (March 2009):617–627. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref>
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Fan Y, Duncan NW, de Greck M, Northoff G | title = Is there a core neural network in empathy? An fMRI based quantitative meta-analysis | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 903–11 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 20974173 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.10.009 | s2cid = 20965340 }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Eres R, Decety J, Louis WR, Molenberghs P | title = Individual differences in local gray matter density are associated with differences in affective and cognitive empathy | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 117 | pages = 305–10 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26008886 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.05.038 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277251990 | url-status = live | s2cid = 15373798 | df = mdy-all | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170908154545/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277251990_Individual_differences_in_local_gray_matter_density_are_associated_with_differences_in_affective_and_cognitive_empathy | archive-date = September 8, 2017}}
-}}</ref> A study with patients who experienced different types of brain damage confirmed the distinction between emotional and cognitive empathy.<ref name="Shamay-Tsoory">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shamay-Tsoory SG, Aharon-Peretz J, Perry D | title = Two systems for empathy: a double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy in inferior frontal gyrus versus ventromedial prefrontal lesions | journal = Brain | volume = 132 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 617–27 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 18971202 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awn279 | df = mdy-all | doi-access = free }}</ref> Specifically, the [[inferior frontal gyrus]] appears to be responsible for emotional empathy, and the [[Ventromedial prefrontal cortex|ventromedial prefrontal gyrus]] seems to mediate cognitive empathy.<ref name="Shamay-Tsoory" />
-fMRI has been employed to investigate the functional anatomy of empathy.<ref>{{multiref2
+Mirroring-behavior in motor neurons during empathy may help duplicate feelings. Such sympathetic action may afford access to sympathetic feelings and, perhaps, trigger emotions of kindness and forgiveness.<ref>Jason Marsh, [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/do_mirror_neurons_give_empathy Do mirror neurons give us empathy?] ''Greater Good Magazine'' (March 29, 2012). Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref><ref> V.S. Ramachandran, ''The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist's Quest for What Makes Us Human'' (W.W. Norton & Company, 2011, ISBN 978-0393077827).</ref>
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Keysers C, Gazzola V | title = Expanding the mirror: vicarious activity for actions, emotions, and sensations | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 19 | issue = 6 | pages = 666–71 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19880311 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2009.10.006 | s2cid = 2692907 }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Decety J, Moriguchi Y | title = The empathic brain and its dysfunction in psychiatric populations: implications for intervention across different clinical conditions | journal = BioPsychoSocial Medicine | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | page = 22 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 18021398 | pmc = 2206036 | doi = 10.1186/1751-0759-1-22 | doi-access = free}}
-}}</ref> Observing another person's emotional state activates parts of the neuronal network that are involved in processing that same state in oneself, whether it is disgust,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wicker B, Keysers C, Plailly J, Royet JP, Gallese V, Rizzolatti G | title = Both of us disgusted in My insula: the common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust | journal = Neuron | volume = 40 | issue = 3 | pages = 655–64 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14642287 | doi = 10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00679-2 | doi-access = free }}</ref> touch,<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Keysers C, Wicker B, Gazzola V, Anton JL, Fogassi L, Gallese V | title = A touching sight: SII/PV activation during the observation and experience of touch | journal = Neuron | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 335–46 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15091347 | doi = 10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00156-4 | doi-access = free }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Blakemore SJ, Bristow D, Bird G, Frith C, Ward J | title = Somatosensory activations during the observation of touch and a case of vision-touch synaesthesia | journal = Brain | volume = 128 | issue = Pt 7 | pages = 1571–83 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15817510 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awh500 | doi-access = free}}
-}}</ref> or pain.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Morrison I, Lloyd D, di Pellegrino G, Roberts N | title = Vicarious responses to pain in anterior cingulate cortex: is empathy a multisensory issue? | journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 270–8 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15460933 | doi = 10.3758/cabn.4.2.270 | doi-access = free }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Jackson PL, Meltzoff AN, Decety J | title = How do we perceive the pain of others? A window into the neural processes involved in empathy | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 771–9 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15652312 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.09.006 | s2cid = 10691796 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.391.8127 }}
-|3={{cite journal | vauthors = Singer T, Seymour B, O'Doherty J, Kaube H, Dolan RJ, Frith CD | title = Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain | journal = Science | volume = 303 | issue = 5661 | pages = 1157–62 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14976305 | doi = 10.1126/science.1093535 | bibcode = 2004Sci...303.1157S | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 14727944 | hdl = 21.11116/0000-0001-A020-5}}
-}}</ref><ref name="Lamm"/> As these emotional states are being observed, the brain is able activate a network of the brain that is involved in empathy. There are two separate systems of the brain involved with the feeling of empathy: a cognitive system and an emotional system. The cognitive system helps an individual understand another's perspective while the emotional system enables our ability to empathize emotionally.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shamay-Tsoory |first=Simone G. |date=February 2011 |title=The Neural Bases for Empathy |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1073858410379268 |journal=The Neuroscientist |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=18–24 |doi=10.1177/1073858410379268 |issn=1073-8584}}</ref> The neuronal network that is activated controls the observers response to these emotional states thus prompting an empathetic response.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Riess |first=Helen |date=2017 |title=The Science of Empathy |journal=Journal of Patient Experience |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=74–77 |doi=10.1177/2374373517699267 |pmid=28725865 |pmc=5513638 }}</ref>
-The study of the neural underpinnings of empathy received increased interest following a paper published by S.D. Preston and [[Frans de Waal]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Preston SD, de Waal FB | title = Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_2002-02_25_1/page/1 | journal = The Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–20; discussion 20–71 | date = February 2002 | pmid = 12625087 | doi = 10.1017/s0140525x02000018 }}</ref> after the discovery of mirror neurons in monkeys that fire both when the creature watches another perform an action and when they themselves perform it. Researchers suggest that paying attention to perceiving another individual's state activates neural representations, and that this activation primes or generates the associated autonomic and somatic responses (perception-action coupling), unless inhibited.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gutsell JN, Inzlicht M | title = Empathy constrained: Prejudice predicts reduced mental simulation of actions during observation of outgroups | journal = Journal of Experimental Social Psychology | year = 2010 | doi= 10.1016/j.jesp.2010.03.011 | volume=46 |issue= 5 | pages=841–5}}</ref> This mechanism resembles the [[common coding theory]] between perception and action.
-Another study provides evidence of separate neural pathways activating reciprocal suppression in different regions of the brain associated with the performance of "social" and "mechanical" tasks. These findings suggest that the [[cognition]] associated with reasoning about the "state of another person's mind" and "causal/mechanical properties of inanimate objects" are neurally suppressed from occurring at the same time.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Jack AI, Dawson AJ, Begany KL, Leckie RL, Barry KP, Ciccia AH, Snyder AZ | title = fMRI reveals reciprocal inhibition between social and physical cognitive domains | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 66 | pages = 385–401 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23110882 | pmc = 3602121 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.10.061 }}
-|2={{cite news | author = Case Western Reserve University | author-link = Case Western Reserve University | title = Empathy represses analytic thought, and vice versa: Brain physiology limits simultaneous use of both networks | url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121030161416.htm | work = [[Science Daily]] | date = October 30, 2012 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095451/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121030161416.htm | archive-date = October 24, 2017 | df = mdy-all}}
-}}</ref>
-Mirroring-behavior in motor neurons during empathy may help duplicate feelings.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Thomas B | title = What's so special about mirror neurons? (guest blog) | url = https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/whats-so-special-about-mirror-neurons/ | work = [[Scientific American]] | location = New York | date = November 6, 2012 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150521030923/http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/whats-so-special-about-mirror-neurons/ | archive-date = May 21, 2015 | df = mdy-all }}</ref> Such sympathetic action may afford access to sympathetic feelings and, perhaps, trigger emotions of kindness and forgiveness.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite news | vauthors = Marsh J | title = Do mirror neurons give us empathy? | url = https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/do_mirror_neurons_give_empathy | work = [[Greater Good Science Center#Print magazine|Greater Good Magazine]] | publisher = [[Greater Good Science Center]] | date = March 29, 2012 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095502/https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/do_mirror_neurons_give_empathy | archive-date = October 24, 2017 | df = mdy-all }}
-|2={{cite book | vauthors = Ramachandran VS | author-link = Vilayanur S. Ramachandran | title = The tell-tale brain: a neuroscientist's quest for what makes us human | publisher = W.W. Norton | location = New York | year = 2011 | isbn = 9780393077827 | title-link = The Tell-Tale Brain}}
-}}</ref>
 === Evolution across species ===
-Studies in [[ethology|animal behavior]] and [[neuroscience]] indicate that empathy is not restricted to humans (however the interpretation of such research depends in part on how expansive a definition of empathy researchers adopt<ref name="Coplan2011" />).
+There is strong evidence that empathy is not exclusive to humans. Empathy has deep evolutionary, biochemical, and neurological underpinnings, and that even the most advanced forms of empathy in humans are built on more basic forms and remain connected to core mechanisms associated with affective communication, social [[attachment theory|attachment]], and [[parental care]].<ref>Jean Decety, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21651564/ The neuroevolution of empathy] ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' 1231(1) (August 2011):35–45. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref>
-Empathy-like behaviors have been observed in [[primate]]s, both in captivity and in the wild, and in particular in [[bonobo]]s, perhaps the most empathic primate.<ref>{{multiref2
+Empathy-like behaviors have been observed in [[primate]]s, both in captivity and in the wild, and in particular in [[bonobo]]s, perhaps the most empathic primate.<ref>Jo Sandin, ''Bonobos: Encounters in Empathy'' (Zoological Society of Milwaukee & The Foundation for Wildlife Conservation, Inc., 2007, ISBN 978-0979415104).</ref> Bonobos seek out body contact with one another as a coping mechanism, and have been found to seek out more body contact after watching other bonobos in distress than after their individually experienced stressful event. <ref> Frans de Waal, ''The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society'' (Souvenir Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0285638907).</ref>
-|1={{cite book| vauthors = Sandin J |title=Bonobos: Encounters in Empathy|year=2007|publisher=Zoological Society of Milwaukee & The Foundation for Wildlife Conservation, Inc.|location=Milwaukee|isbn=978-0-9794151-0-4|page=109|df=mdy-all}}
-|2={{cite book | title = The age of empathy: nature's lessons for a kinder society | url = https://archive.org/details/ageofempathynatu0000waal | vauthors = de Waal FB | publisher = Harmony Books | year = 2009 | isbn = 9780307407764}}
-}}</ref>
-One study demonstrated [[prosocial behavior]] elicited by empathy in rodents.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ben-Ami Bartal I, Decety J, Mason P | title = Empathy and pro-social behavior in rats | journal = Science | volume = 334 | issue = 6061 | pages = 1427–30 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22158823 | pmc = 3760221 | doi = 10.1126/science.1210789 | bibcode = 2011Sci...334.1427B }}</ref> Rodents demonstrate empathy for cagemates (but not strangers) in pain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Langford DJ, Crager SE, Shehzad Z, Smith SB, Sotocinal SG, Levenstadt JS, Chanda ML, Levitin DJ, Mogil JS | display-authors = 6 | title = Social modulation of pain as evidence for empathy in mice | journal = Science | volume = 312 | issue = 5782 | pages = 1967–70 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16809545 | doi = 10.1126/science.1128322 | url = https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/articles/76537484n?locale=en | author8-link = Daniel Levitin | s2cid = 26027821 | bibcode = 2006Sci...312.1967L }}</ref>
+Empathic-like behavior has been observed in [[chimpanzee]]s in different aspects of their natural behaviors. For example, chimpanzees spontaneously contribute comforting behaviors to victims of aggressive behavior in both natural and unnatural settings. This behavior is also found in humans, particularly in human infants. Another similarity found between chimpanzees and humans is that empathic-like responding was disproportionately provided to kin. Although comforting towards non-family chimpanzees was also observed, as with humans, chimpanzees showed the majority of comfort and concern to close/loved ones.
-An influential study on the evolution of empathy by Stephanie Preston and Frans de Waal<ref name="DeWaal" /> discusses a neural perception-action mechanism and postulates a bottom-up model of empathy that ties together all levels,{{clarify|reason=what is a "level" in this context, what are these levels, what is the bottom in "bottom-up"?|date=March 2022}} from state matching{{clarify|reason=what is "state matching"?|date=March 2022}} to perspective-taking.
+==Empathy between species ==
+Humans can empathize with other species and vice versa.
-University of Chicago neurobiologist Jean Decety agrees that empathy is not exclusive to humans, but that empathy has deep evolutionary, biochemical, and neurological underpinnings, and that even the most advanced forms of empathy in humans are built on more basic forms and remain connected to core mechanisms associated with affective communication, social [[attachment theory|attachment]], and [[parental care]].<ref name="Decety, J">{{cite journal | vauthors = Decety J | title = The neuroevolution of empathy | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1231 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–45 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21651564 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06027.x | s2cid = 9895828 | bibcode = 2011NYASA1231...35D }}</ref> Neural circuits involved in empathy and caring include the [[brainstem]], the [[amygdala]], [[hypothalamus]], [[basal ganglia]], [[insular cortex|insula]], and [[orbitofrontal cortex]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Decety J, Svetlova M | title = Putting together phylogenetic and ontogenetic perspectives on empathy | journal = Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–24 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22682726 | pmc = 6987713 | doi = 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.05.003 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+For example, [[Dog|canines]] appear to share empathic-like responding towards human species. Researchers Custance and Mayer adapted an experimental protocol first used with human infants to investigate empathy in domestic dogs. Individual dogs were placed in an enclosure with their owner and a stranger. When the participants were talking and appeared content, the dog showed no behavioral changes; however when the participants were pretending to cry, the dogs oriented their behavior toward the person in distress whether it be the owner or stranger. The dogs approached the apparently distressed participants in a submissive fashion, by sniffing, licking, and nuzzling them rather than approaching in the usual form of excitement, tail wagging, or panting. Since the dogs did not direct their empathic-like responses only towards their owner, it was hypothesized that dogs generally seek out humans showing distressed behavior.<ref>Deborah Custance and Jennifer Mayer, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22644113/ Empathic-like responding by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to distress in humans: an exploratory study] ''Animal Cognition'' 15(5) (September 2012):851–859. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref>
-=== Other animals and empathy between species ===
-{{See also|Emotion in animals}}
-Researchers Zanna Clay and [[Frans de Waal]] studied the socio-emotional development of the [[bonobo]] chimpanzee.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Clay Z, de Waal FB | title = Development of socio-emotional competence in bonobos | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 110 | issue = 45 | pages = 18121–6 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24127600 | pmc = 3831480 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1316449110 | bibcode = 2013PNAS..11018121C | doi-access = free }}</ref> They focused on the interplay of numerous skills such as empathy-related responding, and how different rearing backgrounds of the juvenile bonobo affected their response to stressful events—events related to themselves (e.g. loss of a fight) as well as stressful events of others. They found that bonobos sought out body contact with one another as a coping mechanism. Bonobos sought out more body contact after watching an event distress other bonobos than after their individually experienced stressful event. Mother-reared bonobos sought out more physical contact than orphaned bonobos after a stressful event happened to another. This finding shows the importance of mother-child attachment and bonding in successful socio-emotional development, such as empathic-like behaviors.
-Empathic-like behavior has been observed in [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzees]] in different aspects of their natural behaviors. For example, chimpanzees spontaneously contribute comforting behaviors to victims of aggressive behavior in both natural and unnatural settings, a behavior recognized as{{who|date=March 2022}} consolation. Researchers led by Teresa Romero observed these empathic and sympathetic-like behaviors in chimpanzees in two separate {{clarify|text=outdoor housed|reason=oxymoronic|date=March 2022}} groups.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Romero T, Castellanos MA, de Waal FB | title = Consolation as possible expression of sympathetic concern among chimpanzees | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = 27 | pages = 12110–5 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20547864 | pmc = 2901437 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1006991107 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..10712110R | doi-access = free }}</ref> Acts of consolation were observed in both groups. This behavior is also found in humans, particularly in human infants. Another similarity found between chimpanzees and humans is that empathic-like responding was disproportionately provided to kin. Although comforting towards non-family chimpanzees was also observed, as with humans, chimpanzees showed the majority of comfort and concern to close/loved ones. Another similarity between chimpanzee and human expression of empathy is that females provided more comfort than males on average. The only exception to this discovery was that high-ranking males showed as much empathy-like behavior as their female counterparts. This is believed to be because of policing-like behavior and the authoritative status of high-ranking male chimpanzees.
-[[Dog|Canines]] have been hypothesized to share empathic-like responding towards human species. Researchers Custance and Mayer put individual dogs in an enclosure with their owner and a stranger.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Custance D, Mayer J | title = Empathic-like responding by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to distress in humans: an exploratory study | journal = Animal Cognition | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = 851–9 | date = September 2012 | pmid = 22644113 | doi = 10.1007/s10071-012-0510-1 | url = https://research.gold.ac.uk/id/eprint/7074/2/Custance_and_Mayer_draft_prior_to_publication.pdf | s2cid = 15153091 }}</ref> When the participants were talking or humming, the dog showed no behavioral changes; however when the participants were pretending to cry, the dogs oriented their behavior toward the person in distress whether it be the owner or stranger. The dogs approached the participants when crying in a submissive fashion, by sniffing, licking, and nuzzling the distressed person. The dogs did not approach the participants in the usual form of excitement, tail wagging, or panting. Since the dogs did not direct their empathic-like responses only towards their owner, it is hypothesized that dogs generally seek out humans showing distressing body behavior. Although this could suggest that dogs have the cognitive capacity for empathy, it could also mean that domesticated dogs have learned to comfort distressed humans through generations of being rewarded for that specific behavior.
-When witnessing chicks in distress, domesticated hens (''[[Gallus gallus domesticus]]'') show emotional and physiological responding. Researchers found that in conditions where the chick was susceptible to danger, the mother hen's heart rate increased, it sounded vocal alarms, it decreased its personal preening, and its body temperature increased.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Edgar JL, Paul ES, Nicol CJ |title=Protective Mother Hens: Cognitive influences on the avian maternal response|journal=British Journal of Animal Behaviour|date=August 2013|volume=86|issue=2|pages=223–9|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.05.004|s2cid=53179718}}</ref> This responding happened whether or not the chick felt as if it were in danger. Mother hens experienced stress-induced hyperthermia only when the chick's behavior correlated with the perceived threat. Animal maternal behavior may be perceived as empathy, however, {{clarify|text=it could be guided by the evolutionary principles of survival and not emotionality|reason=unclear why these things are necessarily in opposition|date=March 2022}}.
-Humans can empathize with other species. One study of a sample of organisms showed that the strength of human empathic perceptions (and compassionate reactions) toward an organism is negatively correlated with how long ago our species' had a common ancestor. In other words, the more phylogenetically close a species is to us, the more likely we are to feel empathy and compassion towards it.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Miralles A, Raymond M, Lecointre G | title = Empathy and compassion toward other species decrease with evolutionary divergence time | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | page = 19555 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 31862944 | pmc = 6925286 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-019-56006-9 | bibcode = 2019NatSR...919555M }}</ref>
 == Impairment ==
-A difference in distribution between affective and cognitive empathy has been observed in various conditions. [[Psychopathy]] and [[narcissism]] are associated with impairments in affective but not cognitive empathy, whereas [[bipolar disorder]] is associated with deficits in cognitive but not affective empathy. People with Borderline personality disorder may suffer from impairments in cognitive empathy as well as fluctuating affective empathy, although this topic is controversial.<ref name="Cox" /> [[Autism spectrum disorder]]s are associated with various combinations, including deficits in cognitive empathy as well as deficits in both cognitive and affective empathy.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Shamay-Tsoory" /><ref name="Cox" /><ref name="response" /><ref name="Caldwell" /><ref name="zero degrees">{{cite book | vauthors = Baron-Cohen S |title=Zero Degrees of Empathy: A New Theory of Human Cruelty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5QUPgbxY4C4C |access-date=August 8, 2013 |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn= 9780713997910}}</ref> [[Schizophrenia]], too, is associated with deficits in both types of empathy.<ref name="10.1016/j.psychres.2007.05.017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bora E, Gökçen S, Veznedaroglu B | title = Empathic abilities in people with schizophrenia | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 160 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–9 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18514324 | doi = 10.1016/j.psychres.2007.05.017 | s2cid = 20896840 }}</ref> However, even in people without conditions such as these, the balance between affective and cognitive empathy varies.<ref name="Cox" />
+Empathy may be disrupted due to brain trauma such as [[stroke]]. In most cases, empathy is impaired if a [[lesion]] or stroke occurs on the right side of the brain. Damage to the [[frontal lobe]], which is primarily responsible for emotional regulation, can profoundly impact a person's capacity to experience empathy. People with an acquired brain injury also show lower levels of empathy. More than half of those people with a traumatic brain injury self-report a deficit in their empathic capacity.<ref>Arielle de Sousa, Skye McDonald, Jacqueline Rushby, Sophie Li, Aneta Dimoska, and Charlotte James, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20713073/ Why don't you feel how I feel? Insight into the absence of empathy after severe traumatic brain injury] ''Neuropsychologia'' 48(12) (October 2010):3585–3595. Retrieved December 27, 2023. </ref>
-Atypical empathic responses are associated with [[autism spectrum|autism]] and particular [[personality disorders]] such as psychopathy, [[borderline personality disorder|borderline]], [[narcissistic personality disorder|narcissistic]], and [[schizoid personality disorder|schizoid]] personality disorders; [[conduct disorder]];<ref name="Decety_BiologicalPsy2008" /> schizophrenia; bipolar disorder;<ref name="Cox" /> and [[depersonalization]].<ref name="Grossman 1996">{{Cite book | vauthors = Grossman D |title=On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society |publisher=Back Bay Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-316-33000-8}}</ref> Sex offenders who had been raised in an environment where they were shown a lack of empathy and had endured abuse of the sort they later committed, felt less affective empathy for their victims.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Simons D, Wurtele SK, Heil P |date=2002-12-01|df=mdy-all|title=Childhood Victimization and Lack of Empathy as Predictors of Sexual Offending Against Women and Children| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-interpersonal-violence_2002-12_17_12/page/1291 |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|language=en|volume=17|issue=12|pages=1291–1307|doi=10.1177/088626002237857|s2cid=145525384|issn=0886-2605}}</ref>
-=== Autism ===
+A difference in distribution between affective and cognitive empathy has been observed in various conditions. [[Psychopathy]] and [[narcissism]] are associated with impairments in affective but not cognitive empathy, whereas [[bipolar disorder]] is associated with deficits in cognitive but not affective empathy. People with [[Borderline personality disorder]] may suffer from impairments in cognitive empathy as well as fluctuating affective empathy, although this topic is controversial.<ref name="Cox" /> [[Autism spectrum disorder]]s are associated with various combinations, including deficits in cognitive empathy as well as deficits in both cognitive and affective empathy.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Shamay-Tsoory" /> [[Schizophrenia]], too, is associated with deficits in both types of empathy. However, even in people without conditions such as these, the balance between affective and cognitive empathy varies.<ref name="Cox" />
-The interaction between empathy and [[autism spectrum|autism]] is a complex and ongoing field of research. Several different factors are proposed to be at play.
-A study of [[high-functioning autism|high-functioning adults with autistic spectrum disorders]] found an increased prevalence of [[alexithymia]],<ref name="Hill et al.">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hill E, Berthoz S, Frith U | title = Brief report: cognitive processing of own emotions in individuals with autistic spectrum disorder and in their relatives | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 229–35 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15162941 | doi = 10.1023/B:JADD.0000022613.41399.14 | url = http://eprints.gold.ac.uk/2585/1/hill_berth_frith_jadd04.pdf | url-status = dead | s2cid = 776386 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130619122446/http://eprints.gold.ac.uk/2585/1/hill_berth_frith_jadd04.pdf | archive-date = June 19, 2013 }}</ref> a personality construct characterized by the inability to recognize and articulate emotional arousal in oneself or others.<ref name="Hill et al." /><ref>{{multiref2
+Atypical empathic responses are associated with [[autism spectrum|autism]] and particular [[personality disorders]] such as psychopathy, [[borderline personality disorder|borderline]], [[narcissistic personality disorder|narcissistic]], and [[schizoid personality disorder|schizoid]] personality disorders; schizophrenia; bipolar disorder;<ref name="Cox" /> and [[depersonalization]].<ref>Dave Grossman, ''On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society'' (Back Bay Books, 2009, ISBN 978-0316040938).</ref>
-|1={{cite book|vauthors=Taylor GJ, Bagby RM, Parker JD|title=Disorders of Affect Regulation: Alexithymia in Medical and Psychiatric Illness|year=1997|publisher=Cambridge Uni. Press.}}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Sifneos PE | title = The prevalence of 'alexithymic' characteristics in psychosomatic patients | journal = Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 255–62 | year = 1973 | pmid = 4770536 | doi = 10.1159/000286529}}
-}}</ref> Some fMRI research indicates that alexithymia contributes to a lack of empathy.<ref name="Moriguchi_2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moriguchi Y, Decety J, Ohnishi T, Maeda M, Mori T, Nemoto K, Matsuda H, Komaki G | title = Empathy and judging other's pain: an fMRI study of alexithymia | journal = Cerebral Cortex | location = New York, N.Y. | volume = 17 | issue = 9 | pages = 2223–34 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17150987 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhl130 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The lack of empathic attunement inherent to alexithymic states may reduce quality<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Brackett MA, Warner RM, Bosco JS |year=2005 |title=Emotional Intelligence and Relationship Quality Among Couples |url=http://research.yale.edu/heblab/pub_pdf/pub70_BrackettWarnerBosco2005_EIrelationshipquality.pdf |journal=Personal Relationships |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=197–212 |doi=10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00111.x |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927085247/http://research.yale.edu/heblab/pub_pdf/pub70_BrackettWarnerBosco2005_EIrelationshipquality.pdf |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |citeseerx=10.1.1.385.3719 }}</ref> and satisfaction<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yelsma P, Marrow S | title = An examination of couples' difficulties with emotional expressiveness and their marital satisfaction | journal = The Journal of Family Communication | date = January 2003 | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–62 | doi = 10.1207/S15327698JFC0301_03 | s2cid = 144200365 }}</ref> of relationships. Empathy deficits associated with the autism spectrum may be due to significant comorbidity between alexithymia and autism spectrum conditions rather than a result of social impairment.<ref name="Empathic brain responses">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bird G, Silani G, Brindley R, White S, Frith U, Singer T | title = Empathic brain responses in insula are modulated by levels of alexithymia but not autism | journal = Brain | volume = 133 | issue = Pt 5 | pages = 1515–25 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20371509 | pmc = 2859151 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awq060 }}</ref>
-Relative to typically developing children, high-functioning autistic children showed reduced [[mirror neuron]] activity in the brain's [[inferior frontal gyrus]] (''pars opercularis'') while imitating and observing emotional expressions in neurotypical children.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dapretto M, Davies MS, Pfeifer JH, Scott AA, Sigman M, Bookheimer SY, Iacoboni M | title = Understanding emotions in others: mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 28–30 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16327784 | pmc = 3713227 | doi = 10.1038/nn1611 }}</ref> EEG evidence revealed significantly greater ''mu'' suppression in the sensorimotor cortex of autistic individuals. Activity in this area was inversely related to symptom severity in the social domain, suggesting that a dysfunctional mirror neuron system may underlie social and communication deficits observed in autism, including impaired [[theory of mind]] and cognitive empathy.<ref name="pmid15993757">{{cite journal | vauthors = Oberman LM, Hubbard EM, McCleery JP, Altschuler EL, Ramachandran VS, Pineda JA | title = EEG evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders | journal = Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 190–8 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15993757 | doi = 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.014 }}</ref> The mirror neuron system is essential for emotional empathy.<ref name="Shamay-Tsoory" />
+== Benefits of empathy ==
+The capacity to empathize is a revered trait in society.<ref name="Rogers" /> Empathy is considered a motivating factor for unselfish, prosocial behavior, whereas a lack of empathy is related to antisocial behavior.<ref name=Segal/>
-Studies have suggested that autistic individuals have an impaired theory of mind.<ref name="Rogers" /> Theory of mind relies on structures of the temporal lobe and the pre-frontal cortex; empathy relies on the sensorimotor cortices as well as limbic and para-limbic structures.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Iacoboni M|year=2005|chapter=Understanding others: Imitation, language, empathy|title=Perspectives on imitation: From cognitive neuroscience to social science|veditors=Hurley S, Chater N|volume=1|pages=77–99}}</ref> The lack of clear distinctions between theory of mind and cognitive empathy may have caused an incomplete understanding of the empathic abilities of those with Asperger syndrome; many reports on the empathic deficits of individuals with Asperger syndrome are actually based on impairments in theory of mind.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref>{{multiref2
+Empathy can bring us pleasure:
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Gillberg CL | title = The Emanuel Miller Memorial Lecture 1991. Autism and autistic-like conditions: subclasses among disorders of empathy | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-child-psychology-and-psychiatry-and-allied-disciplines_1992-07_33_5/page/813 | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | pages = 813–42 | date = July 1992 | pmid = 1634591 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1992.tb01959.x }}
+<blockquote>by widening the scope of that which we experience... by providing us with more than one perspective of a situation, thereby multiplying our experience... and... by intensifying that experience.<ref name=Breithaupt/></blockquote>
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Roeyers H, Buysse A, Ponnet K, Pichal B | title = Advancing advanced mind-reading tests: empathic accuracy in adults with a pervasive developmental disorder | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 271–8 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11280423 | doi = 10.1017/s0021963001006680}}
-}}</ref> Although autistic people have difficulties in recognizing and articulating emotions, some studies have reported that while they may lack cognitive empathy (the ability to assume another's emotions), they have higher than average levels of affective empathy (feeling the emotions that another is feeling, once they are known).<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith A|title=The empathy imbalance hypothesis of autism: A theoretical approach to cognitive and emotional empathy in autistic development |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-16727-009 |journal=The Psychological Record|volume=59|number=3|year=2009|pages=489–510|doi=10.1007/BF03395675 |s2cid=186225916 |language=en}}</ref>
-Individuals on the autistic spectrum self-report lower levels of empathic concern, show less or absent comforting responses toward someone who is suffering, and report equal or higher levels of personal distress compared to controls.<ref name="response" /> The combination of reduced empathic concern and increased personal distress may lead to the overall reduction in empathy.<ref name="response" /> Professor [[Simon Baron-Cohen]] suggests that those with classic autism often lack both cognitive and affective empathy.<ref name="zero degrees" /> However, other research found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals' ability to understand other people's basic intentions or goals; instead, data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others' viewpoints.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamilton AF | title = Goals, intentions and mental states: challenges for theories of autism | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 50 | issue = 8 | pages = 881–92 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19508497 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02098.x | citeseerx = 10.1.1.621.6275 }}</ref> People with Asperger syndrome may have problems understanding others' perspectives in terms of theory of mind, but the average person with the condition demonstrates equal empathic concern as, and higher personal distress than, controls.<ref name="Rogers" /> The existence of individuals with heightened personal distress on the autism spectrum is a possible explanation for why some people with autism appear to have heightened emotional empathy.<ref name="response" /><ref name="Caldwell">{{cite news|vauthors=Caldwell P|title=Letters|newspaper=London Times|date=December 30, 2005}}</ref> Although increased personal distress may be an effect of heightened egocentrism, emotional empathy depends on mirror neuron activity (which, as described previously, has been found to be reduced in those with autism), and empathy in people on the autism spectrum is generally reduced.<ref name="Shamay-Tsoory" /><ref name="response" />
+People can use empathy to borrow joy from the joy of children discovering things or playing make-believe, or to satisfy our curiosity about other people's lives.<ref name=Bloom>Paul Bloom, ''Against Empathy: The Case for Rational Compassion'' (Ecco, 2018, ISBN 978-0062339348).</ref>
-The [[empathizing–systemizing theory]] (E-S) classifies people by testing their capabilities along two independent dimensions—empathizing (E) and systemizing (S)—to establish their Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ). Five "brain types" can be distinguished based on such scores, which are theorized to correlate with differences at the neural level. In E-S theory, autism and Asperger syndrome are associated with below-average empathy and average or above-average systemizing.<ref name="e-s theory">{{cite journal | vauthors = Baron-Cohen S | title = Autism: the empathizing-systemizing (E-S) theory | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1156 | issue = The Year in Cognitive Neuroscience 2009 | pages = 68–80 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19338503 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04467.x | s2cid = 1440395 | bibcode = 2009NYASA1156...68B }}</ref>
+People who score more highly on empathy questionnaires also report having more positive relationships with other people. They report "greater life satisfaction, more positive affect, less negative affect, and less depressive symptoms than people who had lower empathy scores."<ref>Daniel Grühn, Kristine Rebucal, Manfred Diehl, Mark Lumley, and Gisela Labouvie-Vief, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2669929/ Empathy across the adult lifespan: Longitudinal and experience-sampling findings] ''Emotion'' 8(6) (2008):753–765. Retrieved December 28, 2023.</ref> Empathy can be called the "fundamental people skill."<ref name=Goleman/> It not only facilitates relationship development, it also helps form the basis of morality, compassion, forgiveness, and caring for others. Higher levels of empathy have been found to be a hallmark of resilience.<ref>Bonnie Bernard, ''Resiliency: What We Have Learned'' (WestEd, 2004, ISBN 978-0914409182).</ref>
-The E-S theory has been extended into the extreme male brain (EMB) theory, which suggests that people with an autism spectrum condition are more likely to have an "Extreme Type S" brain type, corresponding with above-average systemizing but challenged empathy. EMB theory proposes that individuals on the autistic spectrum are characterized by impairments in empathy due to sex differences in the brain: specifically, people with autism spectrum conditions show an exaggerated male profile. Some aspects of autistic neuroanatomy seem to be extrapolations of typical male neuroanatomy, which may be influenced by elevated levels of [[Prenatal testosterone transfer|fetal testosterone]] rather than gender itself.<ref name="e-s theory" /><ref name="fetal testosterone">{{cite journal | vauthors = Auyeung B, Baron-Cohen S, Ashwin E, Knickmeyer R, Taylor K, Hackett G | title = Fetal testosterone and autistic traits | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 100 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 1–22 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 18547459 | doi = 10.1348/000712608X311731 | url = https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/16383524/Fetal_testosterone_and_autistic_traits.pdf | access-date = November 21, 2018 | url-status = live | df = mdy-all | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181122005527/https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/16383524/Fetal_testosterone_and_autistic_traits.pdf | archive-date = November 22, 2018 | hdl = 20.500.11820/3012e64e-48e9-46fb-b47e-8a8a7853b4de | s2cid = 6344484 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
-The [[double empathy problem]] theory proposes that prior studies on autism and empathy may have been misinterpreted and that autistic people show the same levels of cognitive empathy towards one another as non-autistic people do.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Milton |first=Damian E.M.|name-list-style=vanc |author-link = Damian Milton |date=August 16, 2012 |title=On the ontological status of autism: the 'double empathy problem' |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09687599.2012.710008 |journal=Disability & Society |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=883–7 |doi=10.1080/09687599.2012.710008 |s2cid=54047060 |issn=0968-7599}}</ref>
-Empathy deficits present in autism spectrum disorders may be more indicative of impairments in the ability to take the perspective of others, while the empathy deficits in psychopathy may be more indicative of impairments in responsiveness to others' emotions. These "disorders of empathy" further highlight the importance of the ability to empathize, by the way they illustrate some of the consequences of disrupted empathy development.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McDonald|first1=Nicole M.|first2=Daniel S.|last2=Messinger|name-list-style=vanc|chapter=The development of empathy: How, when, and why|title=Moral Behavior and Free Will: A Neurobiological and Philosophical Aprroach|year=2011|pages=341–68}}</ref>
-=== Psychopathy ===
-Psychopathy is a personality disorder partly characterized by antisocial and aggressive behaviors, as well as emotional and interpersonal deficits including shallow emotions and a lack of [[remorse]] and empathy.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite book| vauthors = Cleckly HC |year=1941|title=The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Reinterpret the So-Called Psychopathic Personality |location=St. Louis, Mo. |publisher=Mosby}}
-|2={{cite book| vauthors = Hare RD |year=1991|title=The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised|location=Toronto |publisher=Multi Health Systems}}
-}}</ref> The ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) and ''[[International Classification of Diseases]]'' (ICD) list [[antisocial personality disorder]] (ASPD) and [[dissocial personality disorder]], stating that these have been referred to as or include what is referred to as psychopathy.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Skeem JL, Polaschek DL, Patrick CJ, Lilienfeld SO | title = Psychopathic Personality: Bridging the Gap Between Scientific Evidence and Public Policy | journal = Psychological Science in the Public Interest | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 95–162 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 26167886 | doi = 10.1177/1529100611426706 | url = https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/journals/pspi/psychopathy.html | url-status = live | s2cid = 8521465 | df = mdy-all | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160222023333/http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/journals/pspi/psychopathy.html | archive-date = February 22, 2016 }}
-|2={{cite book | vauthors = Patrick C |title=Handbook of Psychopathy |year=2005 |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-60623-804-2}}
-|3={{cite book | vauthors = Andrade J |date=23 Mar 2009|df=mdy-all |title=Handbook of Violence Risk Assessment and Treatment: New Approaches for Mental Health Professionals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_zxz3XqE8MkC |location=New York, N.Y. |publisher=Springer Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-8261-9904-1 |access-date=January 5, 2014}}
-|4={{citation|url=https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/bluebook.pdf|url-status=dead|author=World Health Organization|year=2010|title=ICD-10: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines: Disorders of adult personality and behavior|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323025330/http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/bluebook.pdf |archive-date=March 23, 2014}}
-}}</ref>
-Psychopathy is associated with atypical responses to distress cues (e.g. facial and vocal expressions of fear and [[sadness]]), including decreased activation of the [[Fusiform gyrus|fusiform]] and [[Extrastriate cortex|extrastriate cortical]] regions, which may partly account for impaired recognition of and reduced autonomic responsiveness to expressions of fear, and impairments of empathy.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite book | vauthors = Decety J, Skelly L | year = 2013 | chapter = The neural underpinnings of the experience of empathy: Lessons for psychopathy. | veditors = Ochsner KN, Kosslyn SM | title = The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 2 | pages = 228–43 | location = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Kiehl KA | title = A cognitive neuroscience perspective on psychopathy: evidence for paralimbic system dysfunction | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 142 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 107–28 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16712954 | pmc = 2765815 | doi = 10.1016/j.psychres.2005.09.013 }}
-|3={{cite journal | vauthors = Blair RJ | title = A cognitive developmental approach to mortality: investigating the psychopath | journal = Cognition | volume = 57 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–29 | date = October 1995 | pmid = 7587017 | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00676-p | url = http://www.unc.edu/~knobe/PHIL109/blair.pdf | url-status = dead | s2cid = 16366546 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130721140948/http://www.unc.edu/~knobe/PHIL109/blair.pdf | archive-date = July 21, 2013 }}
-|4={{cite journal | vauthors = Blair RJ | title = Neurobiological basis of psychopathy | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 182 | pages = 5–7 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12509310 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.182.1.5 | df = mdy-all | doi-access = free}}
-}}</ref><ref name="Quinton">"Psychopathy" by Quinton 2006{{full citation needed|date=July 2023}}</ref> Studies on children with psychopathic tendencies have also shown such associations.<ref name="Blair 2001a">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blair RJ, Colledge E, Mitchell DG | title = Somatic markers and response reversal: is there orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in boys with psychopathic tendencies? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-abnormal-child-psychology_2001-12_29_6/page/499 | journal = Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology | volume = 29 | issue = 6 | pages = 499–511 | date = December 2001 | pmid = 11761284 | doi = 10.1023/A:1012277125119 | s2cid = 1951812 }}</ref><ref name="Blair 2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blair RJ, Mitchell DG, Richell RA, Kelly S, Leonard A, Newman C, Scott SK | title = Turning a deaf ear to fear: impaired recognition of vocal affect in psychopathic individuals | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 111 | issue = 4 | pages = 682–6 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12428783 | doi = 10.1037/0021-843x.111.4.682 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1231468 }}</ref><ref name="Stevens 2001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stevens D, Charman T, Blair RJ | title = Recognition of emotion in facial expressions and vocal tones in children with psychopathic tendencies | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-genetic-psychology_2001-06_162_2/page/201 | journal = The Journal of Genetic Psychology | volume = 162 | issue = 2 | pages = 201–11 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11432605 | doi = 10.1080/00221320109597961 | s2cid = 42581610 }}</ref> The underlying {{clarify|text=biological surfaces|reason=jargon? needs to be explained.|date=March 2022}} for processing expressions of happiness are functionally intact in psychopaths, although less responsive than in those of controls.<ref name="Quinton" /><ref name="Blair 2001a" /><ref name="Blair 2002" /><ref name="Stevens 2001" /> The neuroimaging literature is unclear as to whether deficits are specific to particular emotions such as fear. Some fMRI studies report that emotion perception deficits in psychopathy are pervasive across emotions (positives and negatives).<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Decety J, Skelly L, Yoder KJ, Kiehl KA | title = Neural processing of dynamic emotional facial expressions in psychopaths | journal = Social Neuroscience | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–49 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24359488 | pmc = 3970241 | doi = 10.1080/17470919.2013.866905 }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Dawel A, O'Kearney R, McKone E, Palermo R | title = Not just fear and sadness: meta-analytic evidence of pervasive emotion recognition deficits for facial and vocal expressions in psychopathy | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 36 | issue = 10 | pages = 2288–304 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22944264 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.08.006 | s2cid = 2596760 | hdl = 1885/19765}}
-}}</ref>
-One study on psychopaths found that, under certain circumstances, they could willfully empathize with others, and that their empathic reaction initiated the same way it does for controls. Psychopathic criminals were brain-scanned while watching videos of a person harming another individual. The psychopaths' empathic reaction initiated the same way it did for controls when they were instructed to empathize with the harmed individual, and the area of the brain relating to pain was activated when the psychopaths were asked to imagine how the harmed individual felt. The research suggests psychopaths can switch empathy on at will, which would enable them to be both callous and charming. The team who conducted the study say they do not know how to transform this willful empathy into the spontaneous empathy most people have, though they propose it might be possible to rehabilitate psychopaths by helping them to activate their "empathy switch". Others suggested that it remains unclear whether psychopaths' experience of empathy was the same as that of controls, and also questioned the possibility of devising therapeutic interventions that would make the empathic reactions more automatic.<ref name="empathy switch">{{multiref2
-|1={{cite news |title=Psychopathic criminals have empathy switch | vauthors = Hogenboom M |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-23431793 |newspaper=BBC News |date=July 25, 2013 |access-date=July 28, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727080108/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-23431793 |archive-date=July 27, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}
-|2={{cite web | vauthors = Lewis T | title = Cold-hearted Psychopaths Feel Empathy Too | work = Live Science | date = July 24, 2013 | url = https://www.livescience.com/38421-psychopaths-feel-empathy-when-they-try.html}}
-}}</ref>
-One problem with the theory that the ability to turn empathy on and off constitutes psychopathy is that such a theory would classify socially sanctioned violence and [[punishment]] as psychopathy, as these entail suspending empathy towards certain individuals and/or groups. The attempt to get around this by standardizing tests of psychopathy for cultures with different norms of punishment is criticized in this context for being based on the assumption that people can be classified in discrete cultures while cultural influences are in reality mixed and every person encounters a mosaic of influences. Psychopathy may be an artefact of psychiatry's standardization along imaginary sharp lines between cultures, as opposed to an actual difference in the brain.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite book | title = How Emotions are Made: The Secret Life of the Brain | year = 2017 | vauthors = Barrett LF |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt}}
-|2={{cite thesis | title = The Role of Culture in Empathy: The Consequences and Explanations of Cultural Differences in Empathy at the Affective and Cognitive Levels | year = 2014 | vauthors = Atkins D |degree=PhD|publisher=University of Kent}}
-}}</ref>
-Work conducted by Professor [[Jean Decety]] with large samples of incarcerated psychopaths offers additional insights. In one study, psychopaths were scanned while viewing video clips depicting people being intentionally hurt. They were also tested on their responses to seeing short videos of facial expressions of pain. The participants in the high-psychopathy group exhibited significantly less activation in the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]], [[amygdala]], and [[periaqueductal gray]] parts of the brain, but more activity in the [[striatum]] and the [[insular cortex|insula]] when compared to control participants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Decety J, Skelly LR, Kiehl KA | title = Brain response to empathy-eliciting scenarios involving pain in incarcerated individuals with psychopathy | journal = JAMA Psychiatry | volume = 70 | issue = 6 | pages = 638–45 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23615636 | pmc = 3914759 | doi = 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.27 }}</ref> In a second study, individuals with psychopathy exhibited a strong response in pain-affective brain regions when taking an imagine-self perspective, but failed to recruit the neural circuits that were activated in controls during an imagine-other perspective—in particular the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala—which may contribute to their lack of empathic concern.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Decety J, Chen C, Harenski C, Kiehl KA | title = An fMRI study of affective perspective taking in individuals with psychopathy: imagining another in pain does not evoke empathy | journal = Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | volume = 7 | page = 489 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24093010 | pmc = 3782696 | doi = 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00489 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
-Researchers have investigated whether people who have high levels of psychopathy have sufficient levels of cognitive empathy but lack the ability to use affective empathy. People who score highly on psychopathy measures are less likely to exhibit affective empathy. There was a strong negative correlation, showing that psychopathy and lack of affective empathy correspond strongly. {{clarify|text=The DANVA-2|date=March 2022}} found those who scored highly on the psychopathy scale do not lack in recognising emotion in facial expressions. Therefore, such individuals do not lack in perspective-talking ability but do lack in compassion {{clarify|text=and the negative incidents that happen to others|date=March 2022}}.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mullins-Nelson JL, Salekin RT, Anne-Marie RT, Leistico RL | year = 2006 | title = Psychopathy, Empathy, and Perspective -Taking Ability in a Community Sample: Implications for the Successful Psychopathy Concept | url = https://philpapers.org/rec/MULPEA-7| journal = International Journal of Forensic Mental Health | volume = 5 | issue = 2| pages = 133–49 | doi = 10.1080/14999013.2006.10471238 | s2cid = 143760402 }}</ref>
-Neuroscientist [[Antonio R. Damasio]] and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] lack the ability to empathically feel their way to moral answers, and that when confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with "end-justifies-the-means" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue – in this case as whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city – these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains. According to [[Adrian Raine]], a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: "Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse. Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets. Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?"<ref>{{cite news
-|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701056.html
-|title=If It Feels Good to Be Good, It Might Be Only Natural
-|newspaper=The Washington Post
-|date=May 28, 2007
-|first=Shankar
-|last=Vedantam|name-list-style=vanc
-|access-date=23 April 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
-Despite studies suggesting psychopaths have deficits in emotion perception and imagining others in pain, professor Simon Baron-Cohen claims psychopathy is associated with intact cognitive empathy, which would imply an intact ability to read and respond to behaviors, social cues, and what others are feeling. Psychopathy is, however, associated with impairment in the other major component of empathy—affective (emotional) empathy—which includes the ability to feel the suffering and emotions of others ([[emotional contagion]]), and those with the condition are therefore not distressed by the suffering of their victims. Such a dissociation of affective and cognitive empathy has been demonstrated for aggressive offenders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Winter K, Spengler S, Bermpohl F, Singer T, Kanske P | title = Social cognition in aggressive offenders: Impaired empathy, but intact theory of mind | language = en | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 670 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28386118 | pmc = 5429629 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-00745-0 | bibcode = 2017NatSR...7..670W }}</ref>
-=== Other conditions ===
-Atypical empathic responses are also correlated with a variety of other conditions.
-[[Borderline personality disorder]] is characterized by extensive behavioral and interpersonal difficulties that arise from emotional and cognitive dysfunction.<ref name="Minzenberg et al., 2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Minzenberg MJ, Fisher-Irving M, Poole JH, Vinogradov S | title = Reduced Self-Referential Source Memory Performance is Associated with Interpersonal Dysfunction in Borderline Personality Disorder | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages = 42–54 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16563078 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.2006.20.1.42 | url = http://ucdirc.ucdavis.edu/people/papers/minzenberg_fisher_etal_JPD2006.pdf | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130516001713/http://ucdirc.ucdavis.edu/people/papers/minzenberg_fisher_etal_JPD2006.pdf | archive-date = May 16, 2013 }}</ref> Dysfunctional social and interpersonal behavior plays a role in the emotionally intense way people with borderline personality disorder react.<ref name=Harari>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harari H, Shamay-Tsoory SG, Ravid M, Levkovitz Y | title = Double dissociation between cognitive and affective empathy in borderline personality disorder | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 175 | issue = 3 | pages = 277–9 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20045198 | doi = 10.1016/j.psychres.2009.03.002 | s2cid = 27303466 }}</ref> While individuals with borderline personality disorder may show their emotions excessively, their ability to feel empathy is a topic of much dispute with contradictory findings. Some studies assert impairments in cognitive empathy in BPD patients yet no affective empathy impairments, while other studies have found impairments in both affective and cognitive empathy. Fluctuating empathy, fluctuating between normal range of empathy, reduced sense of empathy, and a lack of empathy has been noted to be present in BPD patients in multiple studies, although more research is needed to determine its prevalence, although it is believed to be at least not uncommon and may be a very common phenomenon. BPD is a very heterogenous disorder, with symptoms including empathy ranging wildly between patients.
-One diagnostic criterion of [[narcissistic personality disorder]] is a lack of empathy and an unwillingness or inability to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others.<ref name="DSM-IV-TR npd">{{citation|chapter-url=https://www.behavenet.com/diagnostic-criteria-30181-narcissistic-personality-disorder|chapter=Diagnostic criteria for 301.81 Narcissistic Personality Disorder|title=[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] |edition=Fourth (DSM-IV-TR) |publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |year=2000}}</ref>
-Characteristics of [[schizoid personality disorder]] include emotional coldness, detachment, and impaired [[Affect (psychology)|affect]] corresponding with an inability to be empathic and sensitive towards others.<ref name="DSM-IV-TR spd">{{multiref2
-|1={{cite book | chapter-url = https://www.behavenet.com/diagnostic-criteria-30120-schizoid-personality-disorder | chapter = Diagnostic criteria for 301.20 Schizoid Personality Disorder | title = [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] | edition = Fourth (DSM-IV-TR) | publisher = [[American Psychiatric Association]] | year = 2000 }}
-|2={{cite book | vauthors = Guntrip H | title = Schizoid Phenomena, Object-Relations, and The Self | location = New York|publisher= International Universities Press | year = 1969 }}
-|3={{cite book|first=Ralph|last=Klein|name-list-style=vanc|pages=13–23|title=Disorders of the Self: New Therapeutic Horizons|publisher=Brunner/Mazel|year=1995}}
-}}</ref>
-A study conducted by [[Jean Decety]] and colleagues at the [[University of Chicago]] demonstrated that subjects with aggressive [[conduct disorder]] demonstrate atypical empathic responses when viewing others in pain.<ref name="Decety_BiologicalPsy2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Decety J, Michalska KJ, Akitsuki Y, Lahey BB | title = Atypical empathic responses in adolescents with aggressive conduct disorder: a functional MRI investigation | journal = Biological Psychology | volume = 80 | issue = 2 | pages = 203–11 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 18940230 | pmc = 2819310 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.09.004 }}</ref> Subjects with conduct disorder were at least as responsive as [[Scientific control|controls]] to the pain of others but, unlike controls, subjects with conduct disorder showed strong and specific activation of the [[amygdala]] and [[ventral striatum]] (areas that enable a general arousing effect of [[Reward system|reward]]), yet impaired activation of the [[Biological neural network|neural]] regions involved in self-regulation and [[metacognition]] (including [[moral reasoning]]), in addition to diminished processing between the amygdala and the [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref name="Decety_BiologicalPsy2008" />
-[[Schizophrenia]] is characterized by impaired affective empathy,<ref name="Pijnenborg2012"/><ref name="Cox" /> as well as severe cognitive and empathy impairments as measured by the Empathy Quotient (EQ).<ref name="10.1016/j.psychres.2007.05.017"/> These empathy impairments are also associated with impairments in social cognitive tasks.<ref name="10.1016/j.psychres.2007.05.017" />
-[[Bipolar disorder|Bipolar]] individuals have impaired cognitive empathy and theory of mind, but increased affective empathy.<ref name="Cox" /><ref name="10.1176/jnp.2009.21.1.59">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shamay-Tsoory S, Harari H, Szepsenwol O, Levkovitz Y | title = Neuropsychological evidence of impaired cognitive empathy in euthymic bipolar disorder | journal = The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–67 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19359453 | doi = 10.1176/jnp.2009.21.1.59 }}<!--|access-date=October 30, 2013 —></ref> Despite cognitive flexibility being impaired, planning behavior is intact. Dysfunctions in the [[prefrontal cortex]] could result in the impaired cognitive empathy, since impaired cognitive empathy has been related with neurocognitive task performance involving cognitive flexibility.<ref name="10.1176/jnp.2009.21.1.59" />
-[[Dave Grossman (author)|Dave Grossman]], in his book ''[[On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society|On Killing]]'', reports on how military training artificially creates depersonalization in soldiers, suppressing empathy and making it easier for them to kill other people.<ref name="Grossman 1996"/>
-A deadening of empathic response to workmates, customers and the like is one of the three key components of [[occupational burnout]], according to the conceptualisation behind its primary diagnostic instrument, the [[Maslach Burnout Inventory]].
-The term Empathy Deficit Disorder (EDD) has gained popularity online, but it is not a diagnosis under the DSM-5. The term was coined in an article by Douglas LaBier.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |first=Douglas| last=LaBier|name-list-style=vanc|title=Are You Suffering From Empathy Deficit Disorder? |website=Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-new-resilience/201004/are-you-suffering-empathy-deficit-disorder |access-date=2022-03-18|df=mdy-all |language=en}}</ref> In the article, he acknowledges that he "made it up, so you won't find it listed in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" and that his conclusions are derived from personal experience alone.<ref name=":0" /> His conclusions have not been validated through clinical studies, nor have studies identified EDD as a separate disorder rather than a symptom associated with previously established diagnoses that do appear in the DSM-5.
-== Practical issues ==
-The capacity to empathize is a revered trait in society.<ref name="Rogers" /> Empathy is considered a motivating factor for unselfish, prosocial behavior,<ref name="Eisenberg et al.">{{cite journal | vauthors = Eisenberg N, Miller PA | title = The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1987-01_101_1/page/91 | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 101 | issue = 1 | pages = 91–119 | date = January 1987 | pmid = 3562705 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.91 }}</ref> whereas a lack of empathy is related to [[Anti-social behaviour|antisocial behavior]].<ref name="Rogers" /><ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Bjorkqvist K, Osterman K, Kaukiainen A | year = 2000 | title = Social intelligence - empathy = aggression? | journal = Aggression and Violent Behavior | volume = 5 | issue = 2| pages = 191–200 | doi=10.1016/s1359-1789(98)00029-9}}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Geer JH, Estupinan LA, Manguno-Mire GM | year = 2000 | title = Empathy, social skills, and other relevant cognitive processes in rapists and child molesters | journal = Aggression and Violent Behavior | volume = 5 | issue = 1| pages = 99–126 | doi=10.1016/s1359-1789(98)00011-1}}
-|3={{cite book| vauthors = Segal SA, Gerdes KE, Lietz CA |title=Assessing Empathy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1MwdDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT79|year=2017|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-54388-0|pages=79–81}}
-}}</ref>
-Apart from the automatic tendency to recognize the emotions of others, one may also deliberately engage in empathic reasoning. Such empathic engagement helps an individual understand and anticipate the behavior of another. Two general methods have been identified: An individual may mentally simulate fictitious versions of the beliefs, desires, character traits, and context of another individual to see what emotional feelings this provokes. Or, an individual may simulate an emotional feeling and then analyze the environment to discover a suitable reason for the emotional feeling to be appropriate for that specific environment.<ref name="DeWaal">{{cite journal | vauthors = de Waal FB | title = Putting the altruism back into altruism: the evolution of empathy | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 279–300 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17550343 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 }}</ref>
-An empathizer's emotional background may affect or distort how they perceive the emotions in others.<ref name="Goleman 2005 p.">{{cite book | vauthors = Goleman D | title=Emotional intelligence | url=https://archive.org/details/emotionalintelli00dani | url-access=registration | publisher=Bantam Books | location=New York | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-553-38371-3 | oclc=61770783 | language=da }}</ref> Societies that promote individualism have lower ability for empathy{{clarify|reason=in what sense do societies have ability for empathy; is this a sort of average of the individuals in the society?|date=March 2022}}.<ref name="WeinerCraighead2010">{{cite book| vauthors = Weiner IB, Craighead WE |title=The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pa5vKqntwikC&pg=PA810|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-17026-7|page=810}}</ref> The judgments that empathy provides about the emotional states of others are not certain ones. Empathy is a skill that gradually develops throughout life, and which improves the more contact we have with {{clarify|text=the person with whom one empathizes|reason=why "the person", singular?|date=March 2022}}.
-Empathizers report finding it easier to take the perspective of another person in a situation when they have experienced a similar situation,<ref name=Gerace2015>{{cite journal| vauthors = Gerace A, Day A, Casey S, Mohr P |title=Perspective taking and empathy: Does having similar past experience to another person make it easier to take their perspective?|journal=Journal of Relationships Research|year=2015|volume=6|pages=e10, 1–14|doi=10.1017/jrr.2015.6|hdl=2328/35813|s2cid=146270695|url=https://dspace.flinders.edu.au/xmlui/bitstream/2328/35813/1/Gerace_Perspective_AM2015.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and that they experience greater empathic understanding.<ref name=Hodges2010>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hodges SD, Kiel KJ, Kramer AD, Veach D, Villanueva BR | title = Giving birth to empathy: the effects of similar experience on empathic accuracy, empathic concern, and perceived empathy | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-social-psychology-bulletin_2010-03_36_3/page/398 | journal = Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 398–409 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 19875825 | doi = 10.1177/0146167209350326 | s2cid = 23104368 }}</ref> Research regarding whether similar past experience makes the empathizer more accurate is mixed.<ref name="Gerace2015" /><ref name="Hodges2010" />
-The extent to which a person's emotions are publicly observable, or mutually recognized as such has significant social consequences. Empathic recognition may or may not be welcomed or socially desirable.{{example needed|date=February 2022}} This is particularly the case when we recognize the emotions that someone has towards us during real time interactions. Based on a metaphorical affinity with touch, philosopher Edith Wyschogrod claims that the proximity entailed by empathy increases the potential vulnerability of either party.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wyschogrod E | title = Empathy and sympathy as tactile encounter | journal = The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 25–43 | date = February 1981 | pmid = 7229562 | doi = 10.1093/jmp/6.1.25 }}</ref>
 === In educational contexts ===
-Another growing focus of investigation is how empathy manifests in [[education]] between teachers and learners.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McAlinden M | contribution = Can teachers know learners' minds? Teacher empathy and learner body language in English language teaching | veditors = Dunworth K, Zhang G | title = Critical perspectives on language education: Australia and the Asia Pacific | pages = 71–100 | publisher = Springer | location = Cham, Switzerland | year = 2014 | isbn = 9783319061856 }}</ref> Although there is general agreement that empathy is essential in educational settings, research found that it is difficult to develop empathy in trainee teachers.<ref name="Tettegah, S. 2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tettegah S, Anderson CJ | year = 2007 | title = Pre-service teachers' empathy and cognitions: Statistical analysis of text data by graphical models | journal = [[Contemporary Educational Psychology]] | volume = 32 | issue = 1| pages = 48–82 | doi=10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.10.010}}</ref>
+A growing focus of investigation is how empathy manifests in [[education]] between teachers and learners.<ref> Katie Dunworth and Grace Zhang (eds.), ''Critical Perspectives on Language Education: Australia and the Asia Pacific'' (Springer, 2014, ISBN 978-3319061849).</ref>
-[[Learning by teaching]] is one method used to teach empathy. Students transmit new content to their classmates, so they have to reflect continuously on those classmates' mental processes. This develops the students' feeling for group reactions and networking. [[Carl R. Rogers]] pioneered research in effective psychotherapy and teaching which espoused that empathy coupled with unconditional positive regard or caring for students and authenticity or congruence were the most important traits for a therapist or teacher to have. Other research and meta-analyses corroborated the importance of these person-centered traits.<ref>{{multiref2
+[[Carl Rogers]] pioneered research in effective [[psychotherapy]] and [[teaching]] which espoused that empathy coupled with unconditional positive regard or caring for students and authenticity or congruence were the most important traits for a therapist or teacher to have. Other research and meta-analyses corroborated the importance of these person-centered traits.<ref>Carl Rogers, Harold C. Lyon, and Reinhard Tausch, ''On Becoming an Effective Teacher'' (Routledge, 2013, ISBN 978-0415816984).</ref>
-|1={{cite book | vauthors = Cornelius-White JH, Harbaugh AP | year = 2010 | title = Learner-Centered Instruction | location = Thousand Oaks, Calif., London, New Delhi, Singapore | publisher = SAGE Publications }}
-|2={{cite book | vauthors = Rogers CR, Lyon Jr HC, Tausch R | year = 2013 | title = On Becoming an Effective Teacher — Person-centered teaching, psychology, philosophy, anddialogues | location = London | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 978-0-415-81698-4}}
-}}</ref>
-Within medical education, a [[hidden curriculum]] appears to dampen or even reduce medical student empathy.{{how|date=July 2023}}<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Howick J, Dudko M, Feng SN, Ahmed A, Alluri N, Nockels K, Winter R, Holland R | title = Why might medical student empathy change throughout medical school? a systematic review and thematic synthesis of qualitative studies | journal = BMC Medical Education | volume = 23 | issue = 270 | date = April 2023 | page = 270 | pmid = 37088814 | doi = 10.1186/s12909-023-04165-9| pmc = 10124056 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
 === In intercultural contexts ===
-{{Main|Ethnocultural empathy}}
+Research shows that people experience more difficulty empathizing with others who are different from them in characteristics such as status, culture, religion, language, skin color, gender, and age.<ref>Sharon Tettegah and Carolyn J. Anderson, [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0361476X06000609 Pre-service teachers' empathy and cognitions: Statistical analysis of text data by graphical models] ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'' 32(1) (January 2007):48–82. Retrieved December 28, 2023. </ref>
-According to one theory, empathy is one of seven components involved in the effectiveness of intercultural communication. This theory also states that empathy is learnable. However, research also shows that people experience more difficulty empathizing with others who are different from them in characteristics such as status, culture, religion, language, skin colour, gender, and age.<ref name="Tettegah, S. 2007"/>
+Empathy can be increased towards other cultures through frequent positive experiences,<ref name=Ickes/> allowing a person to interpret experiences or perspectives from more than one worldview.<ref>William H. Weeks, Paul B. Pedersen, and Richard W. Brislin (eds.), ''Manual of Structured Experiences for Cross-Cultural Learning'' (Intercultural Press, 1979, ISBN 978-0933662056).</ref>
-To build intercultural empathy in others, psychologists employ empathy training. Researchers William Weeks, Paul Pedersen, ''et al.'' state that people who develop intercultural empathy can interpret experiences or perspectives from more than one worldview.<ref>{{cite book|first1=William|last1=Weeks|first2=Paul|last2=Pedersen|first3=Richard|last3=Brislin|name-list-style=vanc|year=1979|title=A Manual of Structured Experiences for Cultural Learning|location=La Grange Park, Ill.|publisher=Intercultural Network}}</ref> Intercultural empathy can also improve self-awareness and critical awareness of one's own interaction style as conditioned by one's cultural views and promote a view of self-as-process.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Sue|last1=Brown|first2=Joyce|last2=Osland|name-list-style=vanc|year=2016|title=Developing Cultural Diversity Competency|publisher=University of Portland}}</ref>
+==Problems with empathy==
+The judgments that empathy provides about the emotional states of others are not necessarily accurate. One's emotional background may affect or distort how they perceive the emotions in others.<ref name=Goleman>Daniel Goleman, ''Emotional intelligence'' (Bantam Books, 2005, ISBN 978-0553383713).</ref>
-=== Benefits of empathizing ===
+People report finding it easier to take the perspective of another person in a situation when they have experienced a similar situation, and that they experience greater empathic understanding. However results on whether similar past experience makes the empathizer more accurate are mixed.<ref>Sara D. Hodges, Kristi J. Kiel, Adam D. Kramer, Darya Veach, and B. Renee Villanueva, [https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-social-psychology-bulletin_2010-03_36_3/page/398/mode/2up Giving birth to empathy: the effects of similar experience on empathic accuracy, empathic concern, and perceived empathy] ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'' 36(3) (March 2010):398–409. Retrieved December 28, 2023. </ref>
-People who score more highly on empathy questionnaires also report having more positive relationships with other people. They report "greater life satisfaction, more positive affect, less negative affect, and less depressive symptoms than people who had lower empathy scores".<ref>{{cite journal|first=D.|last= Grühn|name-list-style=vanc|title=Empathy across the adult lifespan: Longitudinal and experience-sampling findings|journal= Emotion |volume=8 |year=2008|issue= 6|pages= 753–65|doi= 10.1037/a0014123|pmid= 19102586|pmc= 2669929|url=https://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC2669929&blobtype=pdf}}</ref>
-Children who exhibit more empathy also have more resilience.<ref>{{cite book|first=B.|last= Bernard|name-list-style=vanc |title=Resiliency: What we have learned |year=2004}}</ref>
-Empathy can be an aesthetic pleasure, "by widening the scope of that which we experience... by providing us with more than one perspective of a situation, thereby multiplying our experience... and... by intensifying that experience."{{r|Breithaupt|at=Epilogue}} People can use empathy to borrow joy from the joy of children discovering things or playing make-believe, or to satisfy our curiosity about other people's lives.<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul| last=Bloom|name-list-style=vanc |title=Against Empathy: The Case for Rational Compassion |year=2016 |at=chapter 6}}</ref>
 === Empathic inaccuracy ===
-People can severely overestimate how much they understand others.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=B.K.Y. |last1=Lau|first2= J.|last2= Geipel|first3= Y. |last3=Wu|first4= B. |last4=Keysar|name-list-style=vanc| year=2022|title=The extreme illusion of understanding.| journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=151 |issue=11 |pages=2957–62 |doi=10.1037/xge0001213 |pmid=35377705 |s2cid=247954809 |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fxge0001213|hdl=10871/128740|hdl-access=free}}</ref> When people empathize with another, they may oversimplify that other person in order to make them more legible.<ref name="Breithaupt" /> It may improve empathic accuracy for the empathizer to explicitly ask the person empathized with for confirmation of the empathic hypothesis.<ref>{{cite book|first=Karla |last=McLaren|name-list-style=vanc|title= The Art of Empathy: A Complete Guide to Life's Most Essential Skill |year=2013|publisher=Sounds True|page=32}}</ref> However, people may be reluctant to abandon their empathic hypotheses even when they are explicitly denied.<ref name="Breithaupt" />
+People can severely overestimate how much they understand others. When people empathize with another, they may oversimplify that other person in order to make them more legible.<ref name="Breithaupt" /> It may improve empathic accuracy for the empathizer to explicitly ask the person empathized with for confirmation of the empathic hypothesis.<ref name=McLaren/> However, people may be reluctant to abandon their empathic hypotheses even when they are explicitly denied.<ref name="Breithaupt" />
-Because we oversimplify people in order to make them legible enough to empathize with, we can come to misapprehend how cohesive other people are. We may come to think of ourselves as lacking a strong, integral self in comparison. Fritz Breithaupt calls this the "empathic endowment effect". Because the empathic person must temporarily dampen their own sense of self in order to empathize with the other, and because the other seems to have a magnified and extra-cohesive sense of self, the empathic person may suffer from this and may "project onto others the self that they are lacking" and envy "that which they must give up in order to be able to feel empathy: a strong self".<ref name="Breithaupt" />
+===Loss of self===
+The empathic person must temporarily dampen their own sense of [[self]] in order to empathize with the other, experiencing a weaker sense of their own self. Because we oversimplify people in order to make them legible enough to empathize with, the other seems to have a magnified and extra-cohesive sense of self, the empathic person may suffer from this and may "project onto others the self that they are lacking" and envy "that which they must give up in order to be able to feel empathy: a strong self."<ref name="Breithaupt" />
-=== Problems ===
+=== Bias ===
+People are more able and willing to empathize with those most similar to themselves. In particular, empathy increases with similarities in culture and living conditions. Empathy is also more likely to occur between individuals whose interaction is more frequent.<ref name=Ickes/><ref name=Hoffman2000/>
-Some research suggests that people are more able and willing to empathize with those most similar to themselves.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=S.G.|last1= Young |first2= K.|last2= Hugenberg|name-list-style=vanc |title=Mere socialization categorization modulates identification of facial expressions of emotion|journal= Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=99|year=2010|issue= 6 |pages=964–77|doi= 10.1037/a0020400 |pmid= 20919774 }}</ref> In particular, empathy increases with similarities in culture and living conditions. Empathy is more likely to occur between individuals whose interaction is more frequent.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Levenson RW, Ruef AM |title=Empathic Accuracy |chapter=Physiological aspects of emotional knowledge and rapport. | veditors = Ickes WJ |location=New York, N.Y. |publisher=The Guilford Press |year=1997 |pages=44–72 |isbn=978-1-57230-161-0 }}</ref>{{r|Hoffman2000|page=62}} {{clarify|text=A measure of how well a person can infer the specific content of another person's thoughts and feelings was developed by William Ickes.|reason=without any description or details, this sentence isn't very helpful|date=March 2022}}<ref name="Ickes, W. 1997"/> In one experiment, researchers gave two groups of men wristbands according to which football team they supported. Each participant received a mild electric shock, then watched another go through the same pain. When the wristbands matched, both {{clarify|text=brains flared|date=March 2022}}: with pain, and empathic pain. If they supported opposing teams, the observer was found to have little empathy.<ref name="HeinSilani2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hein G, Silani G, Preuschoff K, Batson CD, Singer T | title = Neural responses to ingroup and outgroup members' suffering predict individual differences in costly helping | journal = Neuron | volume = 68 | issue = 1 | pages = 149–60 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20920798 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.09.003 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+This bias can result in [[tribalism]] and violent responses in the name of helping people of the same "tribe" or social group. Improper use of empathy and [[social intelligence]] can lead to shortsighted actions and parochialism. Thus, empathy can encourage unethical behavior when it causes people to care more about people similar to themselves.<ref name=Bloom/>
-Psychologist [[Paul Bloom (psychologist)|Paul Bloom]], author of ''[[Against Empathy]]'', points out that this bias can result in [[tribalism]] and violent responses in the name of helping people of the same "tribe" or social group, for example when empathic bias is exploited by [[demagogue]]s.<ref name="Think!" /> He proposes "rational compassion" as an alternative; one example is using [[effective altruism]] to decide on charitable donations rationally, rather than by relying on emotional responses to images in the media.<ref name="Think!" /> Empathy can also be exploited by sympathetic [[beggar]]s. Bloom points to the example of street children in India, who can get many donations because they are adorable but this results in their enslavement by organized crime. Bloom says that though someone might feel better about themselves and {{clarify|text=find more meaning|date=March 2022}} when they give to the person in front of them, in some cases they would do less harm and in many cases do more good in the world by giving to an effective charity through an impersonal website.<ref name="Think!" />
-Bloom believes improper use of empathy and [[social intelligence]] can lead to shortsighted actions and parochialism.<ref name="Bloom2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bloom P | title = Empathy and Its Discontents | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–31 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 27916513 | doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2016.11.004 | s2cid = 3863278 }}</ref>
-Bloom says that although [[psychopath]]s have low empathy, the correlation between low empathy and violent behavior as documented in scientific studies is "zero".<ref name="Think!" /> Other measures are much more predictive of violent behavior, such as lack of [[self-control]].<ref name="Think!" /> People with [[Asperger syndrome]] and [[autism]] also have low empathy, but are more often the victim of violent attacks than the perpetrators.<ref name="Think!" />
-Bloom points out that parents who have too much short-term empathy might create long-term problems for their children, by neglecting discipline, [[helicopter parenting]], or deciding not to get their children [[vaccinated]] because of the short-term discomfort.<ref name="Think!">{{cite podcast |url=https://think.kera.org/2017/01/05/the-case-against-empathy/ |title=The Case Against Empathy |website=Think! |publisher=[[KERA (FM)|KERA]] |date=January 5, 2017}}</ref> People experiencing too much empathy after a disaster may continue to send donations like canned goods or used clothing even after being asked to stop or to send cash instead, and this can make the situation worse by creating the need to dispose of useless donations and taking resources away from helpful activities.<ref name="Think!" /> Bloom also finds empathy can encourage unethical behavior when it causes people to care more about attractive people than ugly people, or people of one's own race vs. people of a different race.<ref name="Think!" /> The attractiveness bias can also affect [[wildlife conservation]] efforts, increasing the amount of money devoted and laws passed to protect cute and photogenic animals, while taking attention away from species that are more ecologically important.<ref name="Think!" />
-=== Empathy and power ===
-People tend to empathize less when they have more social or political power. For example, people from lower-class backgrounds exhibit better empathic accuracy than those from upper-class backgrounds.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=M.W.|last1= Kraus|first2= S.|last2= Côté|first3=D.|last3= Keltner|name-list-style=vanc|title=Social class, contextualism, and empathic accuracy|journal=Psychological Science |volume=2|year=2010|issue= 11|pages=1716–23|doi= 10.1177/0956797610387613|pmid= 20974714|s2cid= 7306762}}</ref>
-In a variety of [[Priming (psychology)|"priming"]] experiments, people who were asked to recall a situation in which they had power over someone else then demonstrated reduced ability to mirror others, to comprehend their viewpoints, or to learn from their perspectives.<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite journal|first1=J.|last1=Hogeveen|first2=M.|last2=Inzlicht|first3=S.S.|last3= Obhi|name-list-style=vanc |title=Power changes how the brain responds to others|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology |volume=143 |year=2014|issue=2 |pages=755–62|doi=10.1037/a0033477 |pmid=23815455 }}
-|2={{cite journal|first=A.D.|last=Galinksy|name-list-style=vanc|title=Power and perspectives not taken|journal=Psychological Science |volume=17|year=2006|issue=12 |pages=1068–74|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01824.x |pmid=17201789 |s2cid=3524097 }}
-|3={{cite journal|first=G.A.|last= Van Kleef|name-list-style=vanc|title=Power gets you high: The powerful are more inspired by themselves than by others|journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science|volume= 6 |year=2015|pages=472–80|doi= 10.1177/1948550614566857|s2cid= 8686513|url= https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/2496853/167297_486126.pdf}}
-}}</ref>
 === Empathic distress fatigue ===
-{{See also|Compassion fatigue}}
+Excessive empathy can lead to "empathic distress fatigue," especially if it is associated with [[pathological altruism]]. The risks are [[fatigue]], [[occupational burnout]], [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]], [[shame]], [[anxiety]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]].<ref>Barbara Oakley, Ariel Knafo, Guruprasad Madhavan, and David Sloan Wilson (eds.), ''Pathological Altruism'' (Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0199738571).</ref> [[Health care]] workers and [[caregiver]]s are particularly at risk.
-Excessive empathy can lead to "empathic distress fatigue", especially if it is associated with [[Altruism#Pathological altruism|pathological altruism]]. The {{clarify|text=medical|reason=are e.g. "guilt" and "shame" medical?|date=March 2022}} risks are [[fatigue]], [[occupational burnout]], [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]], [[shame]], [[anxiety]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]].<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite book | vauthors = Klimecki O, Singer T | author-link2 = Tania Singer | chapter = Empathic distress fatigue rather than compassion fatigue? Integrating findings from empathy research in psychology and social neuroscience | veditors = Oakley B, Knafo A, Madhavan G, Wilson DS | author-link1 = Barbara Oakley | title = [[Pathological Altruism]] | publisher = Oxford University Press| location = U.S. | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-0-19-973857-1 | chapter-url = https://legiochristi.com/static/lit/Pathological_Altruism.pdf#page=77 | pages = 368–83 }}
-|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Tone EB, Tully EC | title = Empathy as a 'risky strength': a multilevel examination of empathy and risk for internalizing disorders | journal = Development and Psychopathology | volume = 26 | issue = 4 Pt 2 | pages = 1547–65 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25422978 | pmc = 4340688 | doi = 10.1017/S0954579414001199}}
-}}</ref>
-[[Tania Singer]] says that [[health care worker]]s and [[caregiver]]s must be objective regarding the emotions of others. They should not over-invest their own emotions in the other, at the risk of [[compassion fatigue|draining away]] their own resourcefulness.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-07/12/tania-singer-compassion-burnout|title=Compassion over empathy could help prevent emotional burnout|magazine=Wired UK|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515020421/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-07/12/tania-singer-compassion-burnout|archive-date=May 15, 2016|df=mdy-all|date=July 12, 2012| vauthors = Solon O }}</ref> Paul Bloom points out that high-empathy nurses tend to spend less time with their patients, to avoid feeling negative emotions associated with witnessing suffering.<ref name="Think!" />
+Breithaupt emphasizes the importance of empathy ''suppression'' mechanisms in healthy empathy.<ref name=Breithaupt>Fritz Breithaupt, ''The Dark Sides of Empathy'' (Cornell University Press, 2019, ISBN 978-1501721649).</ref> People who understand how empathic feelings evoke altruistic motivation may adopt strategies for suppressing or avoiding such feelings. People can better cognitively control their actions the more they understand how altruistic behavior emerges, whether it is from minimizing sadness or the arousal of mirror neurons.
-=== Empathy backfire ===
-Despite empathy being often portrayed as a positive attribute, whether or not the people who express empathy are viewed favorably depends on who they show empathy for. Such is the case in which a third party observes a subject showing empathy for someone of questionable character or generally viewed as unethical; that third party might not like or respect the subject for it. This is called "empathy backfire".<ref>{{cite web | vauthors=Robinson BE|date=December 6, 2020|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-right-mindset/202012/when-empathy-backfires | title=When Empathy Backfires |website=Psychology Today }}</ref>
 ==In fiction==
-{{blockquote|“The greatest benefits we owe to the artist, whether painter, poet, or novelist, is the extension of our sympathies. Appeals founded on generalizations and statistics require a sympathy ready-made, a moral sentiment already in activity; but a picture of human life such as a great artist can give, surprises even the trivial and the selfish into that attention to what is apart from themselves, which may be called the raw material of moral sentiment.… Art is the nearest thing to life; it is a mode of amplifying experience and extending our contact with our fellow-men beyond the bounds of our personal lot.”|George Eliot<ref>{{cite journal|first=George|last=Eliot|name-list-style=vanc|title=The Natural History of German Life|journal=Westminster Review|volume=LXVI|date=July 1856|pages=28–44}}</ref>}}
+[[George Eliot]] wrote in her essay in 1856:
+<blockquote>The greatest benefits we owe to the artist, whether painter, poet, or novelist, is the extension of our sympathies. Appeals founded on generalizations and statistics require a sympathy ready-made, a moral sentiment already in activity; but a picture of human life such as a great artist can give, surprises even the trivial and the selfish into that attention to what is apart from themselves, which may be called the raw material of moral sentiment.… Art is the nearest thing to life; it is a mode of amplifying experience and extending our contact with our fellow-men beyond the bounds of our personal lot.<ref>Michelle Legro, [https://www.themarginalian.org/2014/02/11/my-life-in-middlemarch-george-eliot-rebecca-mead/ Beauty, Aging, and the Expansion of Our Sympathies: What George Eliot Teaches Us About the Rewards of Middle Age] ''The Marginalian''. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</ref></blockquote>
-Lynn Hunt argued in ''Inventing Human Rights: A History'' that the concept of [[human rights]] developed how it did and when it did in part as a result of the influence of mid-eighteenth-century European novelists, particularly those whose use of the [[epistolatory novel]] form gave readers a more vivid sense that they were gaining access to the candid details of a real life. "The epistolatory novel did not just reflect important cultural and social changes of the time. Novel reading actually helped create new kinds of feelings including a recognition of shared psychological experiences, and these feelings then translated into new cultural and social movements including human rights."<ref>{{multiref2
-|1={{cite book|first=Lynn|last= Hunt|name-list-style=vanc|title= Inventing Human Rights: A History |year=2007}}
-|2=See also: {{cite video|first=Lynn|last= Hunt|name-list-style=vanc|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZVD1G4q0bA|title="Inventing Human Rights" (lecture, March 2008)|website=YouTube}}
-}}</ref>
-The power of empathy has become a frequent ability in [[fiction]], specifically in that of [[Superhero fiction|superhero media]]. "Empaths" have the ability to sense/feel the emotions and bodily sensations of others and, in some cases, influence or control them. Although sometimes a specific power held by specific characters such as the [[Marvel Comics]] character [[Empath (comics)|Empath]], the power has also been frequently linked to that of [[telepathy]] such as in the case of [[Jean Grey]].
-The rebooted television series ''[[Charmed (2018 TV series)|Charmed]]'' portrays the character Maggie Vera as a witch with the power of empathy. Her powers later expand to allow her to control the emotions of others as well as occasionally concentrate emotion into pure energy. In season four she learns to replicate people's powers by empathically understanding them.
+It has been suggested the concept of [[human rights]] developed how it did and when it did in part as a result of the influence of mid-eighteenth-century European novelists, particularly those whose use of the [[epistolatory novel]] form, written as a series of letters between the fictional characters, gave readers a more vivid sense that they were gaining access to the candid details of a real life:
+The epistolatory novel did not just reflect important cultural and social changes of the time. Novel reading actually helped create new kinds of feelings including a recognition of shared psychological experiences, and these feelings then translated into new cultural and social movements including human rights.<ref>Lynn Hunt, ''Inventing Human Rights: A History'' (W.W. Norton & Company, 2008, ISBN 978-0393331998).</ref>
+The power of empathy has become a popular ability in [[fiction]], specifically in that of [[Superhero fiction|superhero media]]. "Empaths" have the ability to sense/feel the emotions and bodily sensations of others and, in some cases, influence or control them. Although sometimes a specific power held by specific characters such as the [[Marvel Comics]] character [[Empath (comics)|Empath]], the power has also been frequently linked to that of [[telepathy]] such as in the case of [[Jean Grey]].
 ==Notes==
@@ Line 449: / Line 183: @@
 == References ==
+* Baird, James D., and Laurie Nadel. ''Happiness Genes: Unlock the Positive Potential Hidden in Your DNA''. Weiser, 2010. ISBN 978-1601631053
+* Baron-Cohen, Simon. ''The Essential Difference: The Truth About The Male And Female Brain''. Basic Books, 2003. ISBN 978-0738208442
+* Bar-On, Reuven, and James D. A. Parker (eds.). ''The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence : Theory, Development, Assessment, and Application at Home, School and in the Workplace''. Jossey-Bass, 2000. ISBN 978-0787949846
+* Bernard, Bonnie. ''Resiliency: What We Have Learned''. WestEd, 2004. ISBN 978-0914409182
+* Bloom, Paul. ''Against Empathy: The Case for Rational Compassion''. Ecco, 2018. ISBN 978-0062339348
+* Bosson, Jennifer Katherine, Camille E. Buckner, and Joseph Alan Vandello. ''The Psychology of Sex and Gender''. SAGE Publications, Inc, 2021. ISBN 978-1544393995
+* Breithaupt, Fritz,  Andrew B. B. Hamilton (trans.). ''The Dark Sides of Empathy''. Cornell University Press, 2019. ISBN 978-1501721649
+* de Waal, Frans. ''The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society''. Souvenir Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0285638907
+* Decety, Jean, and Williams Icles (eds.). ''The Social Neuroscience of Empathy''. MIT Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0262012973
+* Dunworth, Katie, and Grace Zhang (eds.). ''Critical Perspectives on Language Education: Australia and the Asia Pacific''. Springer, 2014. ISBN 978-3319061849
+* Goleman, Daniel. ''Emotional intelligence''. Bantam Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0553383713
+* Graves, Frank Pierrepont. ''A Student's History of Education''. Legare Street Press, 2023 (original 1915). ISBN 978-1020355608
+* Hoffman, Martin L. ''Empathy and Moral Development''. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0521580342
+* Hunt, Lynn. ''Inventing Human Rights: A History''. W.W. Norton & Company, 2008. ISBN 978-0393331998
+* Ickes, William (ed.). ''Empathic Accuracy''. The Guilford Press, 1997. ISBN 978-1572301610
+* Killen, Melanie, and Judith G. Smetana (eds.). ''Handbook of Moral Development''. Routledge, 2022. ISBN 978-0367497545
+* Lanzoni, Susan. ''Empathy: A History''. Yale University Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0300222685
+* McLaren, Karla. ''The Art of Empathy: A Complete Guide to Life's Most Essential Skill''. Sounds True, 2013. ISBN 978-1622030613
+* Oakley, Barbara, Ariel Knafo, Guruprasad Madhavan, and David Sloan Wilson (eds.). ''Pathological Altruism''. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0199738571
+* Ramachandran, V.S. ''The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist's Quest for What Makes Us Human''. W.W. Norton & Company, 2011. ISBN 978-0393077827
+* Rogers, Carl, Harold C. Lyon, and Reinhard Tausch. ''On Becoming an Effective Teacher''. Routledge, 2013. ISBN 978-0415816984
+* Rothschild, Babette, and Marjorie Rand. ''Help for the Helper: The psychophysiology of compassion fatigue and vicarious trauma''. W. W. Norton & Company, 2006. ISBN 978-0393704228
+* Sandin, Jo. ''Bonobos: Encounters in Empathy''. Zoological Society of Milwaukee & The Foundation for Wildlife Conservation, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0979415104
 * Segal, Elizabeth A., Karen E. Gerdes, Cynthia A. Lietz, M. Alex Wagaman, and Jennifer M. Geiger. ''Assessing Empathy''. Columbia University Press, 2017. ISBN 9780231181914
+* Snyder, C.R., and Shane J. Lopez. ''Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology''. Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0195187243
 * Titchener, Edward Bradford. ''Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes''. Legare Street Press, 2022 (original 1909). ISBN 1015885470
+* Weeks, William H., Paul B. Pedersen, and Richard W. Brislin (eds.). ''Manual of Structured Experiences for Cross-Cultural Learning''. Intercultural Press, 1979. ISBN 978-0933662056
 == External links ==
-All links retrieved
+All links retrieved December 28, 2023.
 * [https://iep.utm.edu/empathy-sympathy-in-ethics/ Empathy and Sympathy in Ethics] ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''
 * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empathy/ Empathy] ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''