Viktor Frankl

Viktor Emil Frankl, M.D., Ph.D., (March 26, 1905 - September 2, 1997) was an Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist. Frankl was the founder of logotherapy and Existential Analysis, the "Third Viennese School" of psychotherapy. His book Man's Search for Meaning (first published in 1946) chronicles his experiences as a concentration camp inmate and describes his psychotherapeutic method of finding a reason to live. He was one of the key figures in existential therapy.

Life

Before 1945

Frankl was born in Viennathe second of three children. He died in 1997 in Vienna, Austria, of heart failure. Frankl's interest for psychology surfaced early in his life. For the final exam (Matura) in high school he wrote a paper on the psychology of philosophical thinking. After he graduated from high school in 1923, he studied medicine at the University of Vienna and later specialized in neurology and psychiatry. From 1933 to 1937 he headed the so-called "Selbstmörderpavillon" (suicide pavilion) of the General Hospital in Vienna and from 1937 to 1940 he privately practiced psychiatry. From 1940 to 1942 he headed the neurological department of the Rothschild hospital (at this point of time this hospital was the only one left in Vienna where Jews were admitted).

In December 1941 he married Tilly Grosser. In Autumn 1942 he, his wife and his parents were deported to the concentration camp of Theresienstadt. In 1944 he was transported to Auschwitz and later to Kaufering and Türkheim, two concentration camps adjunct to the KZ Dachau. When he was sent to Auschwitz, his manuscript for The Doctor and the Soul was found and destroyed. His desire to complete his work (which he did on stolen pieces of paper), and his steadfast hope that he would someday be reunited with his wife and family, kept him from losing hope in a death-drenched environment. He was liberated on April 27th 1945 by the US Army.

Frankl survived the Holocaust, but his wife, father and mother were murdered in concentration camps (among his immediate relatives, only his sister, who had emigrated to Australia, survived). It was due to his (and others') suffering in these camps that he came to the conclusion that even in the most absurd, painful and dehumanised situation, life has meaning and therefore even suffering is meaningful. This conclusion served as a strong basis of Frankl's later creation of logotherapy.

After 1945

Liberated after 3 years of life in concentration camps he returned to Vienna. He finally reconstructed his book The Doctor and the Soul and published it, which earned him a teaching appointment at the University of Vienna Medical School. In only 9 days, he dictated another book, titled "Ein Psychologe erlebt das Konzentrationslager" (English title: Man's Search for Meaning), wherein he tried to objectively describe the life of an ordinary concentration camp inmate from the perspective of a psychiatrist. Before he died, it sold over nine million copies. In 1946 he was appointed to run the Vienna Poliklinik of neurologics, where he worked until 1971. He remarried in 1947 to Eleonore Shwindt and gave birth to a daughter, Gabriele in December of 1947.

Frankl died September 2nd, 1997, in Vienna.

Work

In the post-war years Frankl published more than 30 books and is most notably known as the founder of logotherapy (logos is Greek for word, reason, principle). He gave guest lectures and seminars all over the world and received 29 honorary doctorate degrees. He received numerous awards, including the Oskar Pfister Prize by the American Society of Psychiatry and a nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize.

Logotherapy

Logotherapy is considered the "third Viennese school of psychotherapy" after Freud's psychoanalysis and Adler's individual psychology. It is a type of Existential Analysis that focuses on a "will to meaning" as opposed to Adler's Nietzschian doctrine of "will to power" or Freud's of "will to pleasure". Frankl's theory and therapy grew out of his experiences in Nazi death camps. Observing who did and did not survive, he concluded that the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche had it right: “He who has a why to live for can bear with almost any how." He saw that people who had hopes of being reunited with loved ones, or who had projects they felt a need to complete, or who had great faith, tended to have better chances of survival than those who had lost all hope.

He called his form of therapy logotherapy, from the Greek word logos, which can mean study, word, spirit, God, or meaning. It is this last sense Frankl focusses on, although the other meanings are never far off.

The following list of tenets represents Frankl's basic beliefs regarding the philosophy of Logotherapy:

• Life has meaning under all circumstances even the most miserable ones. Humans are called upon, on the grounds of their freedom and responsibility, to bring forth the possible best in themselves and in the world, by perceiving and realizing the meaning of the moment in each and every situation. Clients are aided in achieving the openness and flexibility that will enable them to shape their day-to-day lives in a meaningful manner.

• Our main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life. When a person cannot realize his or her "Will to Meaning" in their lives they will have an abysmal experience of meaninglessness and emptiness. The frustration of the existential need for meaningful goals will give rise to aggression, addiction, depression and suicidality, and it may engender or increase psychosomatic maladies and neurotic disorders. Logotherapy guides and assistsd in the realization of those meaning possibilities that clients have detected themselves.
• We have freedom to find meaning in what we do, and what we experience, or at least in the stand we take when faced with a situation of unchangeable suffering. This freedom derives from the spiritual dimension of the individual, which is understood as the essentially human realm, over and above the dimensions of body and of psyche. As spiritual beings, humans are not just reacting organisms but autonomous beings capable of actively shaping their lives. This freedom plays an important role in psychotherapy as it allows the individual to cope with their symptoms and regain control and self-determination.

The typical method used in logotherapy is Socratic dialogue. Specific questions are directed at the client to raise into consciousness the possibility to find, and the freedom to fulfill, meaning in one's life. In the historical philosophical setting this technique of guiding by questioning was introduced by Socrates, who characterized it as a sort of "spiritual midwifery".

Man's Search for Meaning

A short introduction to the logotherapy system is introduced in Frankl's most famous book, "Man's Search for Meaning", in which he outlines how his theories helped him to survive his Holocaust experience.

The human spirit is referred to in several of the assumptions of Logotherapy, but it should be noted that the use of the term spirit is not "spiritual" or "religious." In Frankl's view, the spirit is the will of the human being. The emphasis, therefore, is on the search for meaning, not the search for God nor any other supernatural existential being. Frankl also noted the barriers to humanity's quest for meaning in life. He warns against "...affluence, hedonism, [and] materialism..." in the search for meaning.

Viktor Frankl's 1946 book Man's Search for Meaning, used as a standard text in high school and university courses in psychology, philosophy, and theology, is ranked among the ten most influential book in America. This book chronicles his experiences as a concentration camp inmate and describes his psychotherapeutic method of finding a reason to live. According to Frankl, the book intends to answer the question "How was everyday life in a concentration camp reflected in the mind of the average prisoner?" The first section of the book constitutes Frankl's experiences in the concentration camps, while the second half is an introduction to logotherapy.

Experiences in a concentration camp

In this section of the book, Frankl recalls what he has seen and observed while in several Nazi camps. He then goes on to draw conclusions about life and human nature. Frankl asserts that the meaning of life is found in every moment of living; life never ceases to have meaning, even in suffering and death. According to Frankl, someone is always looking down on us, be it a living or dead friend, family member, or even a God; Therefore, we should not disappoint them. The book also concludes that there are only two races of men, decent men and indecent. No society is free of either of them, and thus there were "decent" Nazi guards and "indecent" prisoners, most notably the capo who would betray their fellow prisoners for personal gain. The final chapter concerns the mindset of the prisoners after liberation. While marching through the fields around their former prisons, the prisoners become aware that they are unable to comprehend pleasure. Flowers, kindness, and the sense of freedom given to them after their liberation seems surreal and the prisoners are unable to grasp it. Even when he or she would return to "normal" life, a prisoner would feel disillusion and bitterness. As time passes, the prisoner's experience in a concentration camp seems nothing more than a nightmare.

Key Concepts

On Choosing One's Attitude

"...We who lived in concentration camps can remember the men who walked through the huts comforting others, giving away their last piece of bread. They may have been few in number, but they offer sufficient proof that everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms — to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one's own way..."

On Love

"A thought transfixed me: for the first time in my life I saw the truth as it is set into song by so many poets, proclaimed as the final wisdom by so many thinkers. The truth-that love is the ultimate and the highest goal to which man can aspire. Then I grasped the meaning of the greatest secret that human poetry and human thought and belief have to impart: The salvation of man is through love and is love."

Noös

Frankl uses the Greek word noös, which means mind or spirit. In traditional psychology, he suggests, we focus on “psychodynamics,” which sees people as trying to reduce psychological tension. Instead, or in addition, Frankl says we should pay attention to noödynamics, wherein tension is necessary for health, at least when it comes to meaning. People desire the tension involved in striving for some worthy goal!

Perhaps the original issue with which Frankl was concerned, early in his career as a physician, was the danger of reductionism. Then, as now, the majority of medical schools emphasize the idea that all things come down to physiology. Psychology, too, promoted reductionism: Mind could be best understood as a "side effect" of brain mechanisms. The spiritual aspect of human life was (and is) hardly considered worth mentioning at all! Frankl believed that entire generations of doctors and scientists were being indoctrinated into what could only lead to a certain cynicism in the study of human existence.

He set it as his goal to balance the physiological view with a spiritual perspective, and saw this as a significant step towards developing more effective treatment. As he said, "...the de-neuroticization of humanity requires a re-humanization of psychotherapy."

Conscience

One of Viktor Frankl's major concepts is conscience. He describes conscience as a sort of unconscious spirituality, different from the instinctual unconscious that Freud and other psychologists emphasize. The conscience is not just one factor among many; it is the core of our being and the source of our personal integrity.

He puts it in no uncertain terms: "... (B)eing human is being responsible — existentially responsible, responsible for one's own existence." Conscience is intuitive and highly personalized. He refers to conscience as a "pre-reflective ontological self-understanding" or "the wisdom of the heart," "more sensitive than reason can ever be sensible." It is conscience that "sniffs out" that which gives our lives meaning.

Discovering meaning

"...meaning must be found and cannot be given." Meaning is like laughter, Frankl says: You cannot force someone to laugh, you must tell him a joke! The same applies to faith, hope, and love — they cannot be be brought forth by an act of will, our own or someone else's. Tradition and traditional values are quickly disappearing from many people's lives. But, while that is difficult for us, it need not lead us into despair: Meaning is not tied to society's values. Certainly, each society attempts to summarize meaningfulness in its codes of conduct, but ultimately, meanings are unique to each individual.

Frankl believed it was the job of physicians, therapists, and educators to assist people in developing their individual consciences and finding and fulfilling their unique meanings.

Noögenic neurosis

The striving after meaning can be frustrated, and Frankl believed this frustration can lead to noögenic neurosis, what others might call spiritual or existential neurosis. He observed that people seemed more than ever to be experiencing their lives as empty, meaningless, purposeless, aimless, adrift, and seemed to be responding to these experiences with unusual behaviors that hurt themselves, others, society, or all three.

One of his favorite metaphors is the existential vacuum. If meaning is what we desire, then meaninglessness is a hole, an emptiness, in our lives. Whenever you have a vacuum, of course, things rush in to fill it. Frankl suggests that one of the most conspicuous signs of existential vacuum in our society is boredom. He points out how often people, when they finally have the time to do what they want, don’t seem to want to do anything! Some retirees go into a tailspin when they no longer have to work; many students get drunk every weekend; the majority of Americans come home from work and submerge ourselves in passive entertainment every evening. The "Sunday neurosis," he calls it.

Frankl observed that many attempt to fill their existential vacuums with “stuff” that, because it provides some satisfaction, we hope will provide ultimate satisfaction as well. Many might try to fill their lives with pleasure, eating beyond all necessity, having promiscuous sex, living “the high life”. Others might seek power, especially the power represented by monetary success; or we might fill our lives with “busy-ness,” conformity, conventionality; or we might fill the vacuum with anger and hatred and spend our days attempting to destroy what we think is hurting us. We might also fill our lives with certain neurotic “vicious cycles,” such as obsession with germs and cleanliness, or fear-driven obsession with a phobic object. The defining quality of these vicious cycles is that, whatever we do, it is never enough.

These neurotic vicious cycles are founded on something Frankl refers to as anticipatory anxiety. Someone may be so afraid of getting certain anxiety-related symptoms that getting those symptoms becomes inevitable. The anticipatory anxiety causes the very thing that is feared! Test anxiety is an obvious example. If someone is afraid of doing poorly on tests, the anxiety will prevent the person from doing well on the test, leading the individual to be afraid of tests, and so on.

Quotations

• "It did not really matter what we expected from life, but rather what life expected from us."

• "The salvation of man is through love and in love. I understood how a man who has nothing left in this world still may know bliss, be it only for a brief moment, in the contemplation of his beloved."

• "When we are no longer able to change a situation—just think of an incurable disease such as inoperable cancer—we are challenged to change ourselves"

• "We who lived in concentration camps can remember the men who walked through the huts comforting others, giving away their last piece of bread. They may have been few in number, but they offer sufficient proof that everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms—to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one's own way."

• "Fundamentally, therefore, any man can, even under such circumstances, decide what shall become of him - mentally and spiritually. He may retain his human dignity even in a concentration camp."

• "We can discover this meaning in life in three different ways: (1) by doing a deed; (2) by experiencing a value; and (3) by suffering."

• "It did not really matter what we expected from life, but rather what life expected from us. We needed to stop asking about the meaning of life, and instead to think of ourselves as those who were being questioned by life—daily and hourly. Our answer must consist, not in talk and meditation, but in right action and in right conduct. Life ultimately means taking the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and to fulfill the tasks which it constantly sets for each individual."

• "Since Auschwitz we know what man is capable of. And since Hiroshima we know what is at stake."

• "We must remain aware of the fact that as long as absolute truth is not accessible to us (and it never will be), relative truths have to function as mutual correctives. Approaching the one truth from various sides, sometimes even in opposite directions, we cannot attain it, but we may at least encircle it."

• "Ultimately, man should not ask what the meaning of his life is, but rather must recognize that it is he who is asked. In a word, each man is questioned by life; and he can only answer to life by answering for his own life; to life he can only respond by being responsible."

• "We who lived in concentration camps can remember the men who walked through the huts comforting others, giving away their last piece of bread. They may have been few in number, but they offer sufficient proof that everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms — to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one's own way."

• "If all men were perfect, then every individual would be replaceable by anyone else. From the very imperfection of men follows the indispensability and inexchangeability of each individual" (The Doctor and the Soul)

Legacy

Viktor Frankl wrote over twenty-five books, founded a school of psychotherapy, built an institute bearing his name in Vienna, lectured around the world, and saw Man's Search for Meaning reprinted in twenty-three languages and at least nine million copies. When he was interviewed at 90 years of age, he described logotherapy this way, "Logotherapy sees the human patient in all his humanness. I step up to the core of the patient's being. And that is a being in search of meaning, a being that is transcending himself, a being capable of acting in love for others. . . . You see, any human being is originally-he may forget it, or repress this-but originally he is a being reaching out for meanings to be fulfilled or persons to be loved."

Frankl is the rare intellectual that was called to live out his theories through his experiences in the concentration camps. He commented in this interview that the camps reveal man much as Freud and others had described him-a creature driven by ego and instinct and sublimated drives. But they reveal something even more fundamental-our defining "capacity for self-transcendence." "Man is that being who invented the gas chambers of Auschwitz; however, he is also that being who entered those chambers upright, with the Lord's Prayer or the Shema Yisrael on his lips." Frankl reminded modern psychology of one detail it had overlooked, the patient's soul.

Bibliography

• Frankl, Viktor E. 1955. The Doctor and the Soul. From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, und Souvenir Press, London. Paperback editions: Random House, London, 1986. ISBN 0-394-74317-2.

• Frankl, Viktor E. 1959-1962. From Death-Camp to Existentialism. A Psychiatrist's Path to a New Therapy. Beacon Press, Boston. ASIN: B0006AVXC8.
• Frankl, Viktor E. 1967-1985. Psychotherapy and Existentialism. Selected Papers on Logotherapy, New York: Simon & Schuster
• Frankl, Viktor E. 1969. The Will to Meaning. Foundations and Applications of Logotherapy. New York: New American Library, ISBN 0-452-01034-9.

• Frankl, Viktor E. 1975-1985. The Unconscious God. Psychotherapy and Theology. Simon and Schuster, New York, und Hodder and Stoughton, London.

• Frankl, Viktor E. 1997. Man's Search for Meaning. An Introduction to Logotherapy,. Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-1426-5; and Random House / Rider, London 2004, ISBN 1-8441-3239-0; also: Washington Square Press; ISBN 0-67102-3373 (Softcover, December 1997)

• Frankl, Viktor E.1997. Man's Search for Ultimate Meaning. (A revised and extended edition of The Unconscious God; with a Foreword by Swanee Hunt). Perseus Book Publishing. ISBN 0-306-45620-6.

• Frankl, Viktor E. 1997. Viktor Frankl - Recollections. An Autobiography. Insight Books, Perseus Books Publishing. ISBN 0-306-45410-6.

• Frankl, Viktor E. 2004. On the Theory and Therapy of Mental Disorders. An Introduction to Logotherapy and Existential Analysis, Translated by James M. DuBois. Brunner-Routledge, London-New York 2004. ISBN 0415950295

External links

• Biography at Vienna University
• Biography at Shippensburg University
• Viktor Emil Frankl - Man's Search for Meaning

• Logotherapy Institute at Vienna University
• Forum for Logotherapy

• Man's Search for Meaning
• Viktor Frankl at Ninety: An Interview

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