Difference between revisions of "Treaty of Nanking" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | The '''Treaty of Nanking''' ( | + | {{Claimed}}{{Contracted}} |
| − | + | [[Image:Hong Kong Location.png|thumb|right|Map showing Hing Kong and Macao as Special Administrative Regions of [[China]] since 1999]] The '''Treaty of Nanking''' ( ''Nánjīng Tiáoyuē'') is the agreement which marked the end of the [[First Opium War]] between the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and [[China]]. It was signed on [[29 August]] [[1842]] aboard the British warship [[HMS Cornwallis|HMS ''Cornwallis'']] in [[Nanjing]] (then known as "Nanking"). It is the first of the [[Unequal Treaties (China)|Unequal Treaties]] signed by China with a foreign power. | |
| − | It was signed on [[29 August]] [[1842]] aboard the British warship [[HMS Cornwallis|HMS ''Cornwallis'']] in [[Nanjing]] (then known as "Nanking"). It is the first of the [[Unequal Treaties (China)|Unequal Treaties]] signed by China with a foreign power. | + | It resulted in the creation of the crown colony of Hong Kong, which remained within the [[British Empire]] until 1997, when under treaty agreement it reverted to China. The establishment of Hong Kong and of other Treaty Port settlements, such as the International zone in Shanghai, represented a development in British imperial policy that where possible expanded influence without asserting sovereignty. Similar concession, known as 'capitulations;, were negotiated with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and in such countries as [[Iran]]. China, apart from small European enclaves such as Hong Kong and nearby Portuguese Macao was never colonized although the great powers increasingly exercised political influence, resented by the Chinese. The [[Opium War]] rank among the most immoral of all imperial conflicts (Opium trade was actually prohibited in Great Britain). Although a modestly sized colony, its strategic and economic importance was considerable and it was treasured as a jewel in the East of the [[British Empire]]. For many, its transfer to Chinese control represented a symbolic end of empire and of a colonial way of life. Hong Kong was, and remains, significant as a place where cultures meet, mingle and fuse. |
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[[Image:Hkcolonyprocess.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Great Britain acquired [[Hong Kong Island]] in 1842, [[Kowloon Peninsula]] in 1860, and leased the [[New Territories]] in 1898.]] | [[Image:Hkcolonyprocess.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Great Britain acquired [[Hong Kong Island]] in 1842, [[Kowloon Peninsula]] in 1860, and leased the [[New Territories]] in 1898.]] | ||
| − | The Queen saw the destruction of British products as an insult and sent the first expeditionary force to defend British's ''"ancient rights of commerce"''. | + | ==Historical Background== |
| + | ===The Opium Wars=== | ||
| + | Following its ban on the Opium trade of 1839, the Chinese were accused of attacking and destroying British property, presumably Opium which was ordered confiscated on March 27th. The Queen saw the destruction of British products as an insult and sent the first expeditionary force to defend British's ''"ancient rights of commerce"'' in June, 1840 . The [[First Opium War]] (1839-1842) began at the hands of Captain [[Charles Elliot]] of the [[Royal Navy]] and Capt. [[Anthony Blaxland Stransham]] of the Royal Marines. After a series of Chinese defeats, [[Hong Kong Island]] was occupied by the British on [[January 20]], [[1841]]. Sir [[Edward Belcher]], aboard the [[HMS Sulphur]] landed in Hong Kong, on Jan. 25, 1841.<ref name=lubbock/> [[Possession Street]] still exists to mark the event, although its Chinese name is 水坑口街 ("Mouth of the ditch Street").<ref name=lubbock/> | ||
| + | ===The Birth of Hong Kong=== | ||
Commodore Sir [[Gordon Bremer]] raised the [[Union Jack]] and claimed Hong Kong as a colony on Jan. 26, 1841.<ref name=lubbock>[http://www.lubbockonline.com/news/041197/base.htm Base closure to end Royal Navy's Far East presence], [[Associated Press]], November 4, 1997</ref> It erected naval store sheds there in April 1841.<ref name="quote melson">Cavaliero, Eric "Harbour Bed Holds Memories", The Standard, November 12, 1997 [http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=&art_id=41861&sid=&con_type=1&d_str=19971113&sear_year=1997 Harbour bed holds memories], Retrieved November 3 2007, quoting Melson, P. J ''White Ensign - Red Dragon: the History of the Royal Navy in Hong Kong 1841 to 1997'', Hong Kong: Edinburgh Financial, ISBN 9789627982241</ref> | Commodore Sir [[Gordon Bremer]] raised the [[Union Jack]] and claimed Hong Kong as a colony on Jan. 26, 1841.<ref name=lubbock>[http://www.lubbockonline.com/news/041197/base.htm Base closure to end Royal Navy's Far East presence], [[Associated Press]], November 4, 1997</ref> It erected naval store sheds there in April 1841.<ref name="quote melson">Cavaliero, Eric "Harbour Bed Holds Memories", The Standard, November 12, 1997 [http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=&art_id=41861&sid=&con_type=1&d_str=19971113&sear_year=1997 Harbour bed holds memories], Retrieved November 3 2007, quoting Melson, P. J ''White Ensign - Red Dragon: the History of the Royal Navy in Hong Kong 1841 to 1997'', Hong Kong: Edinburgh Financial, ISBN 9789627982241</ref> | ||
Across the Bay, the Portuguese colony of Macao was already established as the oldest Europen settlement in East Asia. Settled as early as 1552, the territory – a small peninsula and some islands - was technically leased from China from 1670, also resisting Dutch ambitions. Like Hong Kong, it reverted to China at the end of 1999. | Across the Bay, the Portuguese colony of Macao was already established as the oldest Europen settlement in East Asia. Settled as early as 1552, the territory – a small peninsula and some islands - was technically leased from China from 1670, also resisting Dutch ambitions. Like Hong Kong, it reverted to China at the end of 1999. | ||
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The island was first used by the British as a staging post during the war, and while the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] intended to establish a permanent base on the island of [[Zhoushan]], Elliot took it upon himself to claim the island on a permanent basis. The ostensible authority for the occupation was negotiated between Captain Eliot and the Governor of [[Kwangtung]] Province. The [[Convention of Chuenpeh]] was concluded but had not been recognized by the court of Qing Dynasty at Beijing. Subsequently, Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain in [[1842]] under the [[Treaty of Nanking]], at which point in time the territory became a [[Crown Colony]]. | The island was first used by the British as a staging post during the war, and while the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] intended to establish a permanent base on the island of [[Zhoushan]], Elliot took it upon himself to claim the island on a permanent basis. The ostensible authority for the occupation was negotiated between Captain Eliot and the Governor of [[Kwangtung]] Province. The [[Convention of Chuenpeh]] was concluded but had not been recognized by the court of Qing Dynasty at Beijing. Subsequently, Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain in [[1842]] under the [[Treaty of Nanking]], at which point in time the territory became a [[Crown Colony]]. | ||
The Opium War was ostensibly fought to liberalize trade to China. With a base in Hong Kong, British traders, opium dealers, and merchants launched the city which would become the 'free trade' nexus of the East. American opium traders and merchant bankers such as the [[Russell family|Russell]], [[John Perkins Cushing|Perkins]] and the [[Forbes family|Forbes]] family would soon join the trade. Britain was granted a perpetual lease on the [[Kowloon Peninsula]] under the [[1860]] [[Convention of Beijing]], which formally ended hostilities in the [[Second Opium War]] (1856-1858). | The Opium War was ostensibly fought to liberalize trade to China. With a base in Hong Kong, British traders, opium dealers, and merchants launched the city which would become the 'free trade' nexus of the East. American opium traders and merchant bankers such as the [[Russell family|Russell]], [[John Perkins Cushing|Perkins]] and the [[Forbes family|Forbes]] family would soon join the trade. Britain was granted a perpetual lease on the [[Kowloon Peninsula]] under the [[1860]] [[Convention of Beijing]], which formally ended hostilities in the [[Second Opium War]] (1856-1858). | ||
[[Image:Kellet Island and Victoria City.jpg|thumb|right|Hong Kong in the Nineteenth Century]] | [[Image:Kellet Island and Victoria City.jpg|thumb|right|Hong Kong in the Nineteenth Century]] | ||
| − | + | ===Terms of the Treaty=== | |
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Under the [[treaty]], China agreed to cede [[Hong Kong Island]] (together with some small nearby islands) to the [[British Empire]], and open the following [[treaty ports]] of China for foreign trade: | Under the [[treaty]], China agreed to cede [[Hong Kong Island]] (together with some small nearby islands) to the [[British Empire]], and open the following [[treaty ports]] of China for foreign trade: | ||
* Canton ([[Guangzhou]]) | * Canton ([[Guangzhou]]) | ||
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| − | The governments of the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) concluded the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration|Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong]] in 1984, under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with [[Hong Kong Island]] and [[Kowloon Peninsula|Kowloon]] (south of Boundary Street) ceded under the [[Convention of Peking]] (1860), | + | ===Hong King: Jewel in the East=== |
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| + | In [[1898]] the United Kingdom was concerned that Hong Kong could not be defended unless surrounding areas were also under British control. In response a 99-year lease titled the [[Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory|Second Convention of Peking]] was drafted and executed, significantly expanding the size of the Hong Kong via the addition of the [[New Territories]]. The lease would set to expire at midnight, on [[June 30]], [[1997]]. | ||
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| + | ===Integration=== | ||
| + | The establishment of the [[free port]] made Hong Kong a major [[entrepôt]] from the start, attracting people from China and Europe alike. Though the society remained segregated and polarized due to [[language barrier|language barriers]]. A [[de facto]] segregation existed between the European minority and the Chinese majority.<ref name="Wiltshireone" /> Slow rise of a British-educated Chinese upper class of the late [[19th Century]] forced the creation of racial laws such as the [[Peak Reservation Ordinance]], which prevented Chinese from living in upscale [[Victoria Peak]].<ref name="Wiltshiretwo" /> The Chinese society had little to no official governmental influence throughout much of the early years. Some of the small number of Chinese elites that the British governors could rely on included [[Kai Ho|Sir Kai Ho]] and [[Robert Hotung]].<ref name="Wiltshiretwo" /> They understood where Hong Kong was in terms of development, and served as main communicator and mediator between the citizens and the British politicians making the decision. Sir Kai Ho was an unofficial member of the [[Legislative Council of Hong Kong|Legislative Council]]. Robert Hotung wanted Chinese citizens to recognize Hong Kong as the new home after the fall of China's [[Qing dynasty|last dynasty]] in 1911. As a millionaire with financial influence, he emphasized that no part of the demographics was purely [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]].<ref>Carroll, John Mark. Edge of Empires:Chinese Elites and British Colonials in Hong Kong. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005 ISBN 0674017013</ref> | ||
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| + | ===Development of the Colony=== | ||
| + | [[Image:Chinese rice congee.jpg|thumb|left|160px|[[Congee]], a popular colonial era breakfast]] | ||
| + | The east portion of Colonial Hong Kong was mostly dedicated to the British filled with race courses, parade grounds, barracks, [[cricket]] and [[polo]] fields. The west portion was filled with Chinese shops, crowded markets and [[tea house]]s. The [[Hong Kong tea culture]] began in this period and evolved into [[yum cha]]. One of the most common breakfasts was [[congee]] with fish and [[barley]]. | ||
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| + | In the mid 1800s many of the merchants would sell [[silk]], [[jade]] and consult [[feng shui]] to open shops that favour better spiritual arrangements.<ref name="Lim">Lim, Patricia. [2002] (2002). Discovering Hong Hong's Cultural Heritage. Central, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Vol 1 ISBN 0-19-592723-0</ref> Other lower ranked groups like [[coolies]] arrived with the notion that hard work would better position them for the future. And the success of boatmen, merchants, carters and fishermen in Hong Kong, would leapfrog China's most popular port in [[Guangzhou|Canton]]. By [[1880]] Hong Kong's port would handle 27% of the mainland's export and 37% of imports.<ref name="Wiltshireone" /> | ||
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| + | A British traveller, [[Isabella Bird]], described Hong Kong in the 1870s as a colony filled with comforts and entertainment only a Victorian society would be able to enjoy. Other descriptions mentioned courts, hotels, post offices, shops, city hall complexes, museums, libraries and structures in impressive manner for the era.<ref name="Wiltshireone" /> Many European businessmen went to Hong Kong to do business. They were referred to as [[Tai-Pan|tai-pans]] or ''"bigshot"''. One of the more notable Tai-pan hangout spot was the [[Hong Kong Club]] at [[Queen's Road|Queen's Road]].<ref name="Wiltshireone" /> | ||
| + | '''Bold text''' | ||
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| + | Except for the period of Japanese occupation during [[World War II]], the colony remained under British governance until 1997. | ||
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| + | ===End of the Colony: The Sino-Britsh Joint Declaration, 1984=== | ||
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| + | The governments of the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) concluded the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration|Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong]] in 1984, under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with [[Hong Kong Island]] and [[Kowloon Peninsula|Kowloon]] (south of Boundary Street) ceded under the [[Convention of Peking]] (1860), transferred to the PRC on [[July 1]], [[1997]]. Portuguese Maco was transferred at the end of 1999. Provision for the continuance of Hong Kong laws, elected legislature (itself a late development, though established in 1843 it was not an elected chamber until 1991) and capitalist economy were incorporated by a "one country, two systems" policy. | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Opium Wars]] | * [[Opium Wars]] | ||
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==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
Revision as of 07:49, 4 November 2007
The Treaty of Nanking ( Nánjīng Tiáoyuē) is the agreement which marked the end of the First Opium War between the United Kingdom and China. It was signed on 29 August 1842 aboard the British warship HMS Cornwallis in Nanjing (then known as "Nanking"). It is the first of the Unequal Treaties signed by China with a foreign power.
It resulted in the creation of the crown colony of Hong Kong, which remained within the British Empire until 1997, when under treaty agreement it reverted to China. The establishment of Hong Kong and of other Treaty Port settlements, such as the International zone in Shanghai, represented a development in British imperial policy that where possible expanded influence without asserting sovereignty. Similar concession, known as 'capitulations;, were negotiated with the Ottoman Empire and in such countries as Iran. China, apart from small European enclaves such as Hong Kong and nearby Portuguese Macao was never colonized although the great powers increasingly exercised political influence, resented by the Chinese. The Opium War rank among the most immoral of all imperial conflicts (Opium trade was actually prohibited in Great Britain). Although a modestly sized colony, its strategic and economic importance was considerable and it was treasured as a jewel in the East of the British Empire. For many, its transfer to Chinese control represented a symbolic end of empire and of a colonial way of life. Hong Kong was, and remains, significant as a place where cultures meet, mingle and fuse.
Historical Background
The Opium Wars
Following its ban on the Opium trade of 1839, the Chinese were accused of attacking and destroying British property, presumably Opium which was ordered confiscated on March 27th. The Queen saw the destruction of British products as an insult and sent the first expeditionary force to defend British's "ancient rights of commerce" in June, 1840 . The First Opium War (1839-1842) began at the hands of Captain Charles Elliot of the Royal Navy and Capt. Anthony Blaxland Stransham of the Royal Marines. After a series of Chinese defeats, Hong Kong Island was occupied by the British on January 20, 1841. Sir Edward Belcher, aboard the HMS Sulphur landed in Hong Kong, on Jan. 25, 1841.[1] Possession Street still exists to mark the event, although its Chinese name is 水坑口街 ("Mouth of the ditch Street").[1]
The Birth of Hong Kong
Commodore Sir Gordon Bremer raised the Union Jack and claimed Hong Kong as a colony on Jan. 26, 1841.[1] It erected naval store sheds there in April 1841.[2]
Across the Bay, the Portuguese colony of Macao was already established as the oldest Europen settlement in East Asia. Settled as early as 1552, the territory – a small peninsula and some islands - was technically leased from China from 1670, also resisting Dutch ambitions. Like Hong Kong, it reverted to China at the end of 1999.
The island was first used by the British as a staging post during the war, and while the East India Company intended to establish a permanent base on the island of Zhoushan, Elliot took it upon himself to claim the island on a permanent basis. The ostensible authority for the occupation was negotiated between Captain Eliot and the Governor of Kwangtung Province. The Convention of Chuenpeh was concluded but had not been recognized by the court of Qing Dynasty at Beijing. Subsequently, Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain in 1842 under the Treaty of Nanking, at which point in time the territory became a Crown Colony.
The Opium War was ostensibly fought to liberalize trade to China. With a base in Hong Kong, British traders, opium dealers, and merchants launched the city which would become the 'free trade' nexus of the East. American opium traders and merchant bankers such as the Russell, Perkins and the Forbes family would soon join the trade. Britain was granted a perpetual lease on the Kowloon Peninsula under the 1860 Convention of Beijing, which formally ended hostilities in the Second Opium War (1856-1858).
Terms of the Treaty
Under the treaty, China agreed to cede Hong Kong Island (together with some small nearby islands) to the British Empire, and open the following treaty ports of China for foreign trade:
(The first of the romanizations are in Postal map spelling, which were used in the treaty; the second Hanyu Pinyin, the modern spellings.)
Also, Great Britain received:
- 21 million ounces silver for compensation
- Fixed tariffs
- Extraterritoriality for British Citizens on Chinese soil
- Most Favored Nation status
In addition to these indemnities, China allowed British missionaries into the interior of China for the first time, and allowed British merchants to establish "spheres of influence" in and around British ports.
The treaty left several unsettled issues. In particular it did not resolve the status of the opium trade with China, which was profitable for the British and devastating to the Chinese. The equivalent American treaty forbade the opium trade, but, as both the British and American merchants were only subject to the legal control of their consuls, the trade continued.
Hong King: Jewel in the East
In 1898 the United Kingdom was concerned that Hong Kong could not be defended unless surrounding areas were also under British control. In response a 99-year lease titled the Second Convention of Peking was drafted and executed, significantly expanding the size of the Hong Kong via the addition of the New Territories. The lease would set to expire at midnight, on June 30, 1997.
Integration
The establishment of the free port made Hong Kong a major entrepôt from the start, attracting people from China and Europe alike. Though the society remained segregated and polarized due to language barriers. A de facto segregation existed between the European minority and the Chinese majority.[3] Slow rise of a British-educated Chinese upper class of the late 19th Century forced the creation of racial laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance, which prevented Chinese from living in upscale Victoria Peak.[4] The Chinese society had little to no official governmental influence throughout much of the early years. Some of the small number of Chinese elites that the British governors could rely on included Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung.[4] They understood where Hong Kong was in terms of development, and served as main communicator and mediator between the citizens and the British politicians making the decision. Sir Kai Ho was an unofficial member of the Legislative Council. Robert Hotung wanted Chinese citizens to recognize Hong Kong as the new home after the fall of China's last dynasty in 1911. As a millionaire with financial influence, he emphasized that no part of the demographics was purely indigenous.[5]
Development of the Colony
The east portion of Colonial Hong Kong was mostly dedicated to the British filled with race courses, parade grounds, barracks, cricket and polo fields. The west portion was filled with Chinese shops, crowded markets and tea houses. The Hong Kong tea culture began in this period and evolved into yum cha. One of the most common breakfasts was congee with fish and barley.
In the mid 1800s many of the merchants would sell silk, jade and consult feng shui to open shops that favour better spiritual arrangements.[6] Other lower ranked groups like coolies arrived with the notion that hard work would better position them for the future. And the success of boatmen, merchants, carters and fishermen in Hong Kong, would leapfrog China's most popular port in Canton. By 1880 Hong Kong's port would handle 27% of the mainland's export and 37% of imports.[3]
A British traveller, Isabella Bird, described Hong Kong in the 1870s as a colony filled with comforts and entertainment only a Victorian society would be able to enjoy. Other descriptions mentioned courts, hotels, post offices, shops, city hall complexes, museums, libraries and structures in impressive manner for the era.[3] Many European businessmen went to Hong Kong to do business. They were referred to as tai-pans or "bigshot". One of the more notable Tai-pan hangout spot was the Hong Kong Club at Queen's Road.[3] Bold text
Except for the period of Japanese occupation during World War II, the colony remained under British governance until 1997.
End of the Colony: The Sino-Britsh Joint Declaration, 1984
The governments of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China (PRC) concluded the Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong in 1984, under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with Hong Kong Island and Kowloon (south of Boundary Street) ceded under the Convention of Peking (1860), transferred to the PRC on July 1, 1997. Portuguese Maco was transferred at the end of 1999. Provision for the continuance of Hong Kong laws, elected legislature (itself a late development, though established in 1843 it was not an elected chamber until 1991) and capitalist economy were incorporated by a "one country, two systems" policy.
See also
Notes
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Base closure to end Royal Navy's Far East presence, Associated Press, November 4, 1997
- ↑ Cavaliero, Eric "Harbour Bed Holds Memories", The Standard, November 12, 1997 Harbour bed holds memories, Retrieved November 3 2007, quoting Melson, P. J White Ensign - Red Dragon: the History of the Royal Navy in Hong Kong 1841 to 1997, Hong Kong: Edinburgh Financial, ISBN 9789627982241
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedWiltshireone - ↑ 4.0 4.1 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedWiltshiretwo - ↑ Carroll, John Mark. Edge of Empires:Chinese Elites and British Colonials in Hong Kong. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005 ISBN 0674017013
- ↑ Lim, Patricia. [2002] (2002). Discovering Hong Hong's Cultural Heritage. Central, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Vol 1 ISBN 0-19-592723-0
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Keay, John. Empire's End A History of the Far East from High Colonialism to Hong Kong. New York: Scribner, 1997 ISBN 9780684815923
- Hanes, William Travis, and Frank Sanello. Opium Wars The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another. Naperville, Ill: Sourcebooks, 2002 ISBN 9781570719318
- Murphey, Rhoads. The Outsiders The Western Experience in India and China. Michigan studies on China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977 ISBN 9780472086795
- Wood, R Derek. 1996. "The Treaty of Nanking: Form and the Foreign Office, 1842-43". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 24, no. 2: 181. ISSN 0308-6534
- Young, Leonard Kenneth. British Policy in China, 1895-1902. Oxford: Clarendon, 1970 ISBN 9780198223160
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