Shaivism

This article is about the religion Shaivism. For information about the deity, see: Shiva

File:LordShiva.jpg

Lord Shiva

Shaivism (also spelled "Saivism"), refers to the religious traditions of Hinduism practiced widely across all of India that are devoted to worship of the god Shiva. Shaivism has many different schools showing both regional variations and differences in philosophy. It also has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism (bhedābheda) perspectives. Followers of the tradition are called Shaiva(s), sometimes Shaivite in English worship Shiva as the supreme God. The name is an English formation from the Sanskrit Shaiva ( IAST Śaiva), meaning belonging to, or derived from, Shiva.

History

Indus Valley Civilization

File:Pashupati.gif

An Indus Valley seal with the seated figure termed pashupati

It is very difficult to determine the early history of Shaivism. Artifacts from Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and other archaeological sites of northwestern India and Pakistan have been interpreted to suggest that an early form of Shiva worship was practiced in the Indus Valley Civilization. These artifacts include lingams and the "Pashupati seal" that has been the subject of much study. The Indus Valley civilization reached its peak around 2300-2000 B.C.E., when trade links with Mesopotamia existed, was in decline by 1800 B.C.E., and faded away by 1500 B.C.E.

A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.

File:1008linga.jpg

1008 Lingas carved on a rock surface. Photograph is taken at the shore of the river Tungabhadra, Hampi, India

This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati) seal shows a large central figure that is surrounded by animals. The central figure is often described as a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals. Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head are often interpreted as two horns. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.

Vedic Period

During the Vedic period Shiva became connected to Rudra. In Sanskrit, Shiva (Devanagari शिव) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious. As a proper name, Shiva means "The Auspicious One", and was originally used as a euphimistic name for Rudra. In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. The Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 - 200 B.C.E.) is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism. As explained by Gavin Flood, the text proposes:

... a theology which elevates Rudra to the status of supreme being, the Lord (Sanskrit: Īśa) who is transcendent yet also has cosmological functions, as does Śiva in later traditions.

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.

The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700–1100 B.C.E. based on linguistic and philological evidence. A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods.

The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:

To what extent Śiva's origins are in fact to be sought in Rudra is extremely unclear. The tendency to consider Śiva an ancient god is based on this identification, even though the facts that justify such a far-reaching assumption are meager.

Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: Śarva) and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra. This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv- which means "to injure" or "to kill" and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness". The names Dhanvin ("Bowman") and Bāṇahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands") also refer to archery.

The documentation of formal religious history, as opposed to archaeological evidence or scriptural mentions, is marked by Gavin Flood's remark that:

The formation of Śaiva traditions as we understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 B.C.E. to 100 C.E.

The two great epics of India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, deal extensively with stories of both Shiva and Vishnu, and there are references to early Shiva ascetics in the Mahabharata.

In the grammarian Patanjali's "Great Commentary" (Sanskrit: Mahābhasya) on Panini's Sanskrit grammar (second century B.C.E.), he describes a devotee of Shiva as clad in animal skins and carrying an iron lance as the symbol of his god, perhaps a precursor of Shiva's trident.

During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 B.C.E.) both were gaining ascendance. By the Puranic period both deities had major cults that competed with one another for devotees. Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities.

Puranic Shaivism

It is with the Puranas that Shaivism spread rapidly, eventually throughout the subcontinent, through the singers and composers of the Puranic narratives. The Puranic literature developed during the Gupta dynasty (c. 320-500 C.E.) along with Smarta brahmin forms of worship. The convergence of various Shaiva and Vaishnava trends, as well as their growing popularity, may have been partly the outcome of dominant dynasties like the Guptas assimilating the resources and cultural elements of their conquered territories.

The bulk of the material contained in the Puranas was established during the reign of the Guptas, with incremental additions taking place to the texts up to later medieval times. There are eighteen major Puranas, and these are traditionally classified into three groups of six each, with Shiva considered to be the central deity in the Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Matsya Purana, Kurma purana, Skanda Purana, and Agni Purana. However this traditional grouping is inexact, for while the Shiva Purana is strongly sectarian in its focus on Shiva, others are not so clearly sectarian and include material about other deities as well, particularly Vishnu.

The Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults, as Gavin Flood explains:

lthough these texts are related to each other, and material in one is found in another, they nevertheless each present a view of ordering of the world from a particular perspective. They must not be seen as random collections of old tales, but as highly selective and crafted expositions and presentations of worldviews and soteriologies, compiled by particular groups of Brahmins to propagate a particular vision, whether it be focused on Viṣṇu, Śiva, or Devī, or, indeed, any number of deities.

For example, the Vishnu Purana (4th century CE) presents a Vaisnava viewpoint in which Vishnu awakens, becomes the creator god Brahma to create the universe, sustains it, and then destroys it as Rudra (Shiva).

Sectarian forces each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva. The Vishnu Purana (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both Brahmā to create the world, and Shiva to destroy it. Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the Bhagavata Purana. In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world. In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and Brahmā are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame. The Śatarudrīya, a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu". Rivalry between the two cults is apparent in the story of Śarabha (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as Narasimha, the man-lion, who killed Hiranyakashipu, an ardent devotee of Shiva.

Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. Harihara is a the name of a combined deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara). This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the Mahabharata. An example of a collaboration story is one given to explain Shiva's epithet Mahābaleśvara, "Lord of Great Strength" (Maha = great, Bala = strength, Īśvara = Lord). This name refers to story in which Rāvaṇa was given a linga as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present Deoghar in Bihar to purify himself and asked Vishnu in the guise of a Brahmin to hold the linga for him, but after some time Vishnu put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the linga, and it is said to remain there ever since. A number of lingas in southern India are associated with this story, including the famous Mahābaleśvara linga at Gokarna.

6th-7th century CE.

Shaiva theism was expounded in the Agamas, which number two hundred including the Upagamas (the "Lesser" Agamas), which were composed before the 7th century AD. In the 7th century AD, Banabhatta included the worship of Shiva in his account of the prominent religious sects of that time.

In the 7th century AD the great Chinese traveller Xuanzang (Huen Tsang) toured India and wrote in Chinese about the prevalence of Shiva worship at that time, describing Shiva temples at Kanoj, Karachi, Malwa, Gandhar (Kandahar), and especially at Varanasi (Benares) where he saw twenty large temples dedicated to Shiva.

Adi Shankara's impact

Smartism is a denomination of Hinduism that places emphasis on a group of five deities rather than just a single deity. The "worship of the five forms" (pañcāyatana pūjā) system, which was popularized by the philosopher Adi Shankara (also known as Śaṅkarācārya) (between 650 and 800 C.E., traditionally 788 – 820 C.E.) among orthodox Brahmins of the Smārta tradition, invokes the five deities Shiva, Ganesha, Vishnu, Devī, and Sūrya. This system was instituted by Śaṅkarācārya primarily to unite the principal deities of the five major sects on an equal status. The monistic philosophy preached by Śaṅkarācārya made it possible to choose one of these as a preferred principal deity and at the same time worship the other four deities as different forms of the same all-pervading Brahman.

Shankara's Dig-vijaya mentions six Shaivite sects that were in existence at his time, but their existence in an organized way is not clearly established.

Shaiva Siddhanta

The Shaiva Siddhanta tradition provides a fundamental basis for the ritual and theology of all other Shaiva groups within its heritage. It is the most important normative form of Shaivism in South India. The tradition may have originated in Kashmir, where it developed a sophisticated theology propagated by theologians such as Sajyojoti, Bhatta, Narayanakantha, and his son Bhatta Ramakantha (c. 950-1000 C.E.). The Shaivasiddhantins date as early as the sixth century AD, with Kashmiri Shaivism clearly identifiable from the tenth century. By the eleventh century AD Shaiva Siddhanta had faded in Kashmir but developed in Tamilnadu, where it exists to the present time. By the eleventh or twelfth century AD Shaiva Siddhanta was well-established in the South.

By the thirteenth century the Shaiva Siddhanta give theological and ritual expression to the devotional hymns of the Nayanars. In Tamilnadu the tradition incorporated an emotional devotion (bhakti) expressed in the hymns of these Tamil saints.

The Shaiva Siddhanta is a dualist system, maintaining that there is a distinction between the Lord (Sanskrit īśvara) and the soul, in contrast to the monistic Kasmir Shaivism which viewed the Lord and the soul as one.

Shaiva Siddhanta is considered an orthoprax Shaiva tradition. In contrast to the orthoprax Shaiva Siddhanta, a separate major division is represented by the Bhairava Tantras and their various subdivisions.

Nayanars

By the seventh century CE, the Nayanars, a tradition of poet-saints in the bhakti tradition developed in South India with a focus on Shiva by the comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars.

Tirumular, also spelled (Tirumūlār or Tirumūlar) the author of the Tirumantiram (also spelled Tirumandiram) is considered by Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas. Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century AD by Maurice Winternitz. The Tirumantiram is a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon.

The devotional poems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven collections together with a Tamil Purana called the Periya Puranam. The first seven collections are known as the Thevaram and are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to the Vedas. They were composed in the 7th century CE by Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar.

The Tiruvacakam by Manikkavacagar is an important collection of hymns of which Sir Charles Eliot wrote, "In no literature with which I am acquainted, has the individual religious life, its struggles and dejections, its hopes and fears, its confidence and its triumph received a delineation more frank and more profound." The Tiruvacakam praises Siva as belonging to the southern country yet worshipped by people of all countries.

Tamil areas

There are numerous Siva temples in Tamilnadu, most located in the Thanjavur region which was a major part of the Chola empire between 800 and 1200 C.E. A particular branch of Shaivism, the philosophy of Siddhanta Saivam, is particularly popular in southern India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and every other country where Tamils are living.^{[citation needed]}

V.S. Pathak, in his book Shaivism in Early Medieval India as known from Archaeological Sources: Rajendra Chola writes that Rajendra saw the best of the Shaivas in northern India when he went to worship at the Ganges, and brought them to settle in his own country in Kanchi.^{[citation needed]}

During the Gupta Dynasty (c. 320 - 500 C.E.) Puranic religion developed and Shaivism spread rapidly, eventually throughout the subcontinent, spread by the singers and composers of the Puranic narratives.

Orders and Lineages

Shaivism has many different schools showing both regional variations and differences in philosophy. Shaivism has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism (bhedābheda) perspectives.

Alexis Sanderson's review of Shaivite groups makes a broad distinction into two groups, with futher subdivisions within each group:

• Vedic, Puranic.
• Non-Puranic. These devotees are distinguished by undergoing initiation (dīkṣa) into a specific cult affiliation for the dual purposes of obtaining liberation in this life (mukti) and/or obtaining other aims (bhukti). Sanderson subdivides this group further into two subgroups:

• Those which follow the outer or higher path (atimārga), seeking only liberation. Among the atimārga groups two are particularly important, the Pāśupatas and a sub-branch, the Lākula, from whom another important sect, the Kālāmukhas, developed.
• Those which follow the path of mantras (mantramārga), seeking both liberation and worldly objectives.

The following are concise summaries of some of the major schools of Shaivism, along with maps showing the primary areas of origin or present-day influence and concentration of each school in areas of the Indian subcontinent.

Pashupata Shaivism influence in India

Pashupata Shaivism: The Pashupatas (Sanskrit: Pāśupatas) are the oldest named Shaivite group. The Pashupatas were ascetics. Noted areas of influence (clockwise) include Gujarat, Kashmir and Nepal.^{[citation needed]}

Kashmir Shaivism influence in India

Kashmir Shaivism: Codified by Vasugupta (ca 800), this abheda—intensely monistic school—known as Pratyabhijna Darshana, explains the creation of soul and world as God Shiva's shining forth in His dynamic first impulse. As the Self of all, Shiva is immanent and transcendent, a real but abstract creator-preserver-destroyer. Founded in Kashmir. Abhinavagupta was an important figure in Kashmir Saivism.

Shaiva Siddhanta influence in India

Shaiva Siddhanta: In Rishi Tirumular's monistic theism (ca -200), Shiva is material and efficient cause, immanent and transcendent. The soul, created by Shiva, is destined to merge in Him. In Meykandar's pluralistic realism (ca 1200), God, souls and world are beginningless and eternally coexistent. Shiva is efficient but not material cause. Highlighted are Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Jaffna. Thirugnana Sambanthar, Thirunavukkarasar, Sundaramoorthy Nayanar and Manikkavasagar are considered the gurus of Shaivism. The hymns sung by the first three are collected into a book called Thevaram. The work of Manikkavasagar is called Thiruvasagam. These books are reverentially worshipped and recited by the devotees. The first three form part of the 63 Nayanmars, staunch devotees of Siva.^{[citation needed]} Nayanars (or Nayanmars), saints from Tamil Nadu, and the Vira Shaivas or Lingayats from Karnataka lead a multi-caste mass movement that explained the devotional upsurge of Shaivite worship in early medieval South India.

Siddha Siddhanta influence in India

Siddha Siddhanta: Expounded by Rishi Gorakshanatha (ca 950), this monistic theism is known as bhedabheda, embracing both transcendent Shiva Being and immanent Shiva Becoming. Shiva is efficient and material cause. The creation and final return of soul and cosmos to Shiva are likened to bubbles arising and returning to water. Influential in Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.

Vira Shaivism influence in India

Lingayatism: Made popular by Basavanna (1105-1167), this version of qualified nondualism, Shakti Vishishtadvaita, accepts both difference and nondifference between soul and God, like rays are to the sun. Shiva and the cosmic force are one, yet Shiva is beyond His creation, which is real, not illusory. God is efficient and material cause. Influential primarily in Karnataka.

Shiva Advaita influence in India

Shiva Advaita: This monistic theism, formulated by Srikantha (ca 1050), is called Shiva Vishishtadvaita. The soul does not ultimately become perfectly one with Brahman, but shares with the Supreme all excellent qualities. Appaya Dikshita (1554-1626) attempted to resolve this union in favor of an absolute identity—Shuddhadvaita. Its area of origin and influence covers most of Karnataka state.

Temples of Shaivam

There can be found almost innumerable Shaivite temples and shrines, with many shrines accompanied as well by murtis dedicated to Ganesha, Lord of the Ganas, followers of Shiva, and son of Shiva and Śakti.

The twelve Jyotirlinga shrines are among the most esteemed in Śaivism.

There are many temples in Tamilnadu dedicated to Siva, but the holiest of all Siva shrines is Chidambaram's famous Nataraja Temple. Siva's consort, Parvathi is also worshipped in temples to Siva, as are his sons Ganapathi and Murugan.

File:Srirangam temple kopuram.jpg

The gopuram of the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam, Tamilnadu.

The Agamas are a set of twenty-eight books, written in Sanskrit. Each temple follows its own Agama. The architecture and layout, the locations of the images, and directions for methods of worship are all prescribed, and no deviation is allowed. Shiva temples have a tall multi-storied gopuram at the entrance and are enclosed in a high wall. The lingam resides deep within the temple compound of buildings, courtyards and gardens. The lingam and the special structure that houses it are placed in such a way as to face the compound entrance directly; only the sivacharya may enter this sanctum sanctorum but worshippers gather around to witness the rituals of ablution, decoration and offerings, to pray and sing, and to receive the ceremonial blessing. Around the sanctum sanctorum every Siva temple has at least one circumambulatory path, and a procession around this path is part of the devotional service. A stone statue of Siva as Teacher, the Dakshinamurthy faces south. Dakshinamurthy literally means "on the southern part of an outer perimeter path of the sanctum sanctorum".^{[citation needed]}

"Shivacharyas" conduct Shiva worship services. Only the sivacharyas may enter the sanctum sanctorum, while worshippers gather at the entrance to watch. Unlike Catholic priests, sivacharyas are dedicated solely to worship and do not perform marriages or other civil rites of passage. In Chidambaram and a few other places adhisaivas are allowed to perform the ceremonies.^{[citation needed]} Services are held daily, as many as six each day depending on the resources and the popularity of the temple. The usual service consists of the following: first, the figure of the deity is anointed with oil, water, milk, ghee, honey, curd, various juices, sandalwood paste, and others before being showered with blossoms. Then it is dressed in the traditional way of Tamilnadu, adorned with jewels and flower garlands. Incense is burned, followed by a food offering (usually a rice preparation). Beautiful lamps of various designs are lit and presented to the image of the deity. Camphor is lit and presented. The burning camphor is then carried to the congregation. The worshippers reverentially show their palms over it before placing their palms over their eyes, some say this gesture signifies that the devotion is as precious to the worshipper as his or her own sight. Finally sacred ash and kungumam are distributed into the upraised palms of the worshippers, who touch it onto their foreheads. The worshippers then process along the circumambulation at least once before bowing low in prayer before the sanctum sanctorum, singing and reciting verses from the Vedic hymns, the Thevaram and others.^{[citation needed]}

Symbols

Sacred ash came to be used as a sign of Shaivism. Devotees of Shiva wear it as a sectarian mark on their foreheads and other parts of their bodies with reverence. The Sanskrit words bhasma and vibhuti can both be translated as "sacred ash".

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Home worship

People also worship Shiva at home. They have natural lingam-shaped stones to which they perform ablution flower-worship and Nivedhanam. (food offering)

Beyond India

It left a major imprint on the intellectual life of classical Cambodia, Champa in what is today south Vietnam, Java, Kashmir and the Tamil land. The wave of Saivite devotionalism that swept through late classical and early medieval India redefined Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Shaivite worship legitimized several ruling dynasties in pre-modern India be they the Chola, the Rajput or tribal. A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the Majapahit empire and pre-Islamic Malaya.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

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• Winternitz, Maurice (1972). History of Indian Literature. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.  Second revised reprint edition. Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta.
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• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. 
• Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5. 
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External links

• Sadhus and Yogis of India Retrieved Aug 9, 2007.

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