Difference between revisions of "Sexual abuse" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Sexual abuse''' (also referred to as '''molestation''') is defined by the forcing of undesired sexual acts by one person to another or sexual activity with someone that is defined as improper such as child molestation.
  
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Different types of sexual abuse involve non-consensual, forced physical sexual behavior such as [[rape]] or [[sexual assault]], psychological forms of abuse, such as verbal sexual behavior or [[stalking]], or the use of a [[position of trust]] for sexual purposes.
  
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'''Sexual abuse''' (also referred to as '''molestation''') is defined by the forcing of undesired sexual acts by one person to another. The term [[incest]] is defined as sexual abuse between family members, and the euphemism "bad touch" is used to describe such abuse.<ref>Renvoizé, Jean (1982). ''Incest: A Family Pattern'', London:  Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-71009-073-0.</ref>
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==Types==
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===Spousal sexual abuse===
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Different types of sexual abuse involve:
 
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*Non-consensual, forced physical sexual behavior such as [[rape]] or [[sexual assault]]
 
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*Psychological forms of abuse, such as verbal sexual behavior or [[stalking]].
 
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*The use of a [[position of trust]] for sexual purposes.
 
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The most visible signs of sexual abuse are signs of injury to parts of the body that can be covered by a bathing suit. Pregnancy may also result.
 
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==Spousal sexual abuse==
 
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'''Spousal abuse''' is the term applied to the specific form of [[domestic violence]], where [[physical abuse|physical]] or sexual abuse is perpetrated by one spouse upon another. Frequently this involves forced sex (spousal rape) upon a spouse without their consent. [http://endabuse.org/]
 
'''Spousal abuse''' is the term applied to the specific form of [[domestic violence]], where [[physical abuse|physical]] or sexual abuse is perpetrated by one spouse upon another. Frequently this involves forced sex (spousal rape) upon a spouse without their consent. [http://endabuse.org/]
  
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==Students and sexual harassment ==
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===Sexual abuse of minors===
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Students may be the victims of unwanted sexual attention by teachers and professors, see [[Sexual harassment in education#Sexual harassment and abuse of students by teachers|Sexual harassment by teachers]].<ref>Sorenson,Susan B. (1997). ''Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home: Current Issues in Spousal Battering and Child Maltreatment'', New York:  Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56024-681-2.</ref>
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In the majority of cultures and countries, sex is legal and acceptable only if both parties give [[consent (criminal)|consent]]. The age of consent, that is, the age at which the law presumes a person has the physical, emotional and sexual maturity to make an informed adult decision to enter into sexual activity, differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, from a low teenage in [[Italy]] and [[Spain]] to a mid to high teens age elsewhere, for example 16 in the [[United Kingdom]], 17 in [[Ireland]], 18 in [[India]]. (Some states also provide different ages of consent for homosexual boys as against heterosexual boys and girls.) Yet separately the law may specify a different age where a teenager ceases to be a child and becomes an adult. As a result, where a difference exists, it may be perfectly legal to have sex with a child where the individual, though still deemed a child in law, is above the age of consent specified in local legislation.  In most cases, the age of consent and statutory rape laws aim at protecting children and teenagers from [[exploitation]], particularly physical or psychological exploitation involving sexual behavior.
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Because students and faculty members have unequal power and authority, flirtatious and sexual behavior by a faculty member toward a student is often classified as a misuse of power, and may carry serious consequences such as the filing of charges of [[sexual harassment]] and/or  termination of employment.
 
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For a famous example of a teacher-student [[statutory rape]], see [[Mary Kay Letourneau]].
 
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==Sexual abuse of minors==
 
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In the majority of cultures and countries, sex is legal and acceptable only if both parties give [[consent (criminal)|consent]].  
 
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The age of consent, that is, the age at which the law presumes a person has the physical, emotional and sexual maturity to make an informed adult decision to enter into sexual activity, differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, from a low teenage in [[Italy]] and [[Spain]] to a mid to high teens age elsewhere, for example 16 in the [[United Kingdom]], 17 in [[Ireland]], 18 in [[India]]. (Some states also provide different ages of consent for homosexual boys as against heterosexual boys and girls.) Yet separately the law may specify a different age where a teenager ceases to be a child and becomes an adult. As a result, where a difference exists, it may be perfectly legal to have sex with a child where the individual, though still deemed a child in law, is above the age of consent specified in local legislation.  In most cases, the age of consent and statutory rape laws aim at protecting children and teenagers from [[exploitation]], particularly physical or psychological exploitation involving sexual behavior.
 
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{{totally disputed}}
 
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'''Child sexual abuse''' is an umbrella term describing criminal and civil offenses in which an [[adult]] engages in sexual activity with a [[minor]] or exploits a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification.<ref> ''The Sexual Exploitation of Children,'' University of Pennsylvania Center for Youth Policy Studies, U.S. National Institute of Justice, August 2001.</ref> This term includes a variety of sexual offenses, including:
 
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* ''[[rape|sexual assault]]'' – a term defining offenses in which an adult touches a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, rape, [[sodomy]], and sexual penetration with an object.)<ref>''Child Abuse Reported to the Police,'' Juvenile Justice Bulletin, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, May 2001.</ref>  Most U.S. states include, in their definitions of sexual assault, any penetrative contact of a minor’s body, however slight, if the contact is performed for the purpose of sexual gratification.<ref>''Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect, Summary of State Laws,'' National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.</ref>
 
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* ''sexual molestation'' – a term defining offenses in which an adult engages in non-penetrative activity with a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, exposing a minor to pornography or to the sexual acts of others.<ref>''Criminal Investigation of Child Sexual Abuse,'' U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, March 2001.</ref>
 
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* ''sexual exploitation'' – a term defining offenses in which an adult victimizes a minor for advancement, sexual gratification, or profit; for example, prostituting a child,<ref>''Prostitution of Juveniles,'' U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, June, 2004.</ref> and creating or trafficking in child pornography.<ref>''Child Sexual Exploitation: Improving Investigations and Protecting Victims,'' Massachusetts Child Exploitation Network, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, January, 1995.</ref>
 
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The legal term ''child sexual offender'' refers to a person who has been convicted for one or more child sexual abuse offenses.<ref>''Comparison of Connecticut and Florida Child Sexual Offender Laws,'' Susan Price, State of Connecticut Office of Legislative Research, 2005.</ref>  The term therefore describes a person who has committed child sexual abuse, without regard to the perpetrator’s motivation.<ref>''Summary of State Sex Offender Registry Dissemination Procedures,'' Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Dept. of Justice, 1999. </ref>
 
  
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''Pedophilia'' is a psychiatric disorder. A person who fits its diagnostic criteria experiences intense, recurring, sexually arousing fantasies or urges toward a child over a period of at least six months, or engages in sexual activities with a child.<ref>Criterion A, [http://www.psych.org/news_room/press_releases/diagnosticcriteriapedophilia.pdf ''302.2 – Pedophilia,''] Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision, ''(DSM-IV-TR),'' American Psychiatric Association, 2000.</ref> Its diagnosis also requires that the fantasies or urges cause clinically significant distress,<ref>Criterion B, [http://www.psych.org/news_room/press_releases/diagnosticcriteriapedophilia.pdf ''302.2 – Pedophilia,''] DSM-IV-TR.</ref> or impairment in social, occupational, and other areas of functioning.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=9_pQHmDFMxgC&pg=PA200&lpg=PA200&dq=global+assessment+of+functioning+american+psychiatric+association&source=web&ots=bcxH91216A&sig=pnrV0hAYGHsBEcgoWzDU3_Bkbx4 ''Global Assessment of Functioning,''] DSM-IV-TR.</ref> In addition, this condition must persist for least six months;<ref>Criterion A, [http://www.psych.org/news_room/press_releases/diagnosticcriteriapedophilia.pdf ''302.2 – Pedophilia,''] DSM-IV-TR.</ref> the person must be at least sixteen years of age, and at least five years older than the target of the fantasies, urges, or conduct.<ref>Criterion C, [http://www.psych.org/news_room/press_releases/diagnosticcriteriapedophilia.pdf ''302.2 – Pedophilia,''] DSM-IV-TR.</ref> For individuals in late adolescence with pedophilia, no precise age difference is specified, and clinical judgment must be used.  A person who is diagnosed with pedophilia is a ''pedophile''.
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'''Child sexual abuse''' is an umbrella term describing criminal and civil offenses in which an [[adult]] engages in sexual activity with a [[minor]] or exploits a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification.<ref> ''The Sexual Exploitation of Children,'' University of Pennsylvania Center for Youth Policy Studies, U.S. National Institute of Justice, August 2001.</ref> This term includes a variety of sexual offenses, including rape, sexual molestation, or sexual exploitation. Rape occurs when an adult touches a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, rape, [[sodomy]], and sexual penetration with an object.)<ref>''Child Abuse Reported to the Police,'' Juvenile Justice Bulletin, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, May 2001.</ref> Sexual molestation includes offenses in which an adult engages in non-penetrative activity with a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, exposing a minor to pornography or to the sexual acts of others.<ref>''Criminal Investigation of Child Sexual Abuse,'' U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, March 2001.</ref> Sexual exploitation involves an adult victimizing a minor for advancement, sexual gratification, or profit; for example, prostituting a child,<ref>''Prostitution of Juveniles,'' U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, June, 2004.</ref> and creating or trafficking in child pornography.<ref>''Child Sexual Exploitation: Improving Investigations and Protecting Victims,'' Massachusetts Child Exploitation Network, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, January, 1995.</ref>
  
 
The term "pedophile" is used colloquially to refer to child sexual offenders.  However, not all child sexual offenders meet the diagnostic criteria of pedophilia,<ref> ''Self-Report of Crimes Committed by Sex Offenders,'' M. Weinrott and M. Saylor, ''Journal of Interpersonal Violence,'' vol.6 (1991). A study finding that child sexual offenders self-reported high degree of "crossover" sexual offenses, defined as rapes of adult women, as well as of both related and non-related children).</ref> and not all pedophiles act on their fantasies or urges to engage in sexual activity with children.  Law enforcement and legal professionals have begun to use the term ''predatory pedophile,''<ref>See, for example, State v. Frazier, 2005-Ohio-3356.</ref> a phrase coined by children's attorney [[Andrew Vachss]] to refer specifically to pedophiles who engage in sexual activity with minors.<ref>See, for example, ''Prosecuting Child Sex Tourists at Home,'' Margaret A. Healy, Fordham International Law Journal, vol.18, 1995.</ref> The term emphasizes that child sexual abuse consists of conduct chosen by the perpetrator.<ref>[http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_8908_a.html ''How We Can Fight Child Abuse,''] [[Andrew Vachss]], ''Parade Magazine,'' August 20, 1989.</ref>
 
The term "pedophile" is used colloquially to refer to child sexual offenders.  However, not all child sexual offenders meet the diagnostic criteria of pedophilia,<ref> ''Self-Report of Crimes Committed by Sex Offenders,'' M. Weinrott and M. Saylor, ''Journal of Interpersonal Violence,'' vol.6 (1991). A study finding that child sexual offenders self-reported high degree of "crossover" sexual offenses, defined as rapes of adult women, as well as of both related and non-related children).</ref> and not all pedophiles act on their fantasies or urges to engage in sexual activity with children.  Law enforcement and legal professionals have begun to use the term ''predatory pedophile,''<ref>See, for example, State v. Frazier, 2005-Ohio-3356.</ref> a phrase coined by children's attorney [[Andrew Vachss]] to refer specifically to pedophiles who engage in sexual activity with minors.<ref>See, for example, ''Prosecuting Child Sex Tourists at Home,'' Margaret A. Healy, Fordham International Law Journal, vol.18, 1995.</ref> The term emphasizes that child sexual abuse consists of conduct chosen by the perpetrator.<ref>[http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_8908_a.html ''How We Can Fight Child Abuse,''] [[Andrew Vachss]], ''Parade Magazine,'' August 20, 1989.</ref>
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The American Psychological Association defines child sexual abuse as contact between a child and an adult or other person significantly older or in a position of power or control over the child, where the child is being used for sexual stimulation of the adult or another person.<ref>''Guidelines for Psychological Evaluations in Child Protection Matters,'' American Psychological Association, February 1998.</ref>
 
The American Psychological Association defines child sexual abuse as contact between a child and an adult or other person significantly older or in a position of power or control over the child, where the child is being used for sexual stimulation of the adult or another person.<ref>''Guidelines for Psychological Evaluations in Child Protection Matters,'' American Psychological Association, February 1998.</ref>
  
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===Effects of child sexual abuse===
 
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Depending on the age and size of the child, and the degree of force used, child sexual abuse may cause infections, [[sexually transmitted diseases]], or internal lacerations. In severe cases, damage to internal organs may occur, which, in some cases, may cause death.<ref>James F. Anderson;  Nancie J. Mangels; Adam Langsam (2004) "Child Sexual Abuse: A Public Health Issue," Criminal Justice Studies, Volume 17, Issue 1 March 2004.</ref>  Herman-Giddens et.al. found six certain and six probable cases of death due to child sexual abuse in North Carolina between 1985-1994.  The victims ranged in age from 2 months to 10 years old.  Causes of death included trauma to the genitalia or rectum and and sexual mutilation.<ref>Marcia E. Herman-Giddens, et.al., "Underascertainment of Child Abuse Mortality in the United States,"
 
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Journal of the American Medical Association 1999;282:463-467 (1999)</ref>
 
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Psychological damage may occur even when physical effects are absent. Long term negative effects on development, leading to re-victimization in adulthood, can also occur.<ref>Terri L. Messman-Moore & Patricia J. Long, "Child Sexual Abuse and Revictimization in the Form of Adult Sexual Abuse, Adult Physical Abuse, and Adult Psychological Maltreatment," ''15 Journal of Interpersonal Violence'' 489 (2000).</ref>  Child sexual abuse has been identified as a predictor of future [[psychopathology]]. The severity of the effects may vary, and the level of harm associated with the abuse may correlate with other factors.<ref>Dinwiddie S, Heath AC, Dunne MP, et al (2000). "Early sexual abuse and lifetime psychopathology: a co-twin-control study." ''Psychological Medicine'', 30:41–52</ref><ref name="twin">Nelson EC, Heath AC, Madden PA, et al (2002). "[http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/59/2/139 Association between self-reported childhood sexual abuse and adverse psychosocial outcomes: results from a twin study.]," ''Archives of General Psychiatry'', 59:139–145</ref>
 
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Kendall-Tackett et al. (1993) and other studies found that a wide range of psychological, emotional, physical, and social effects are associated with child sexual abuse, including [[depression]],<ref>Roosa M.W., Reinholtz C., Angelini P.J. (1999). "The relation of child sexual abuse and depression in young women: comparisons across four ethnic groups," ''Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology'' 27(1):65-76.</ref> [[post-traumatic stress disorder]],<ref name="widom">Widom C.S. (1999). "Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up," American Journal of Psychiatry; 156(8):1223-1229.</ref> [[anxiety]],<ref name="levitan">Levitan, R. D., N. A. Rector, Sheldon, T., & Goering, P. (2003). "Childhood adversities associated with major depression and/or anxiety disorders in a community sample of Ontario: Issues of co-morbidity and specificity," Depression & Anxiety; 17, 34-42.</ref> poor self-esteem, [[somatoform disorder]]s, [[complex post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[emotional dysregulation]], [[neurosis]], and other more general dysfunctions such as sexualized behavior, school/learning problems, behavior problems and destructive behavior.<ref name="Kendall">Kendall-Tacket, K. A., Williams, L. M., & Finkelhor. D. (1993). Impact of Sexual Abuse on Children: A Review and Synthesis of Recent Empirical Studies. Psychological Bulletin, 1993, Vol. 113, No. 1, 164-180.</ref><ref>Dozier, M., Stovall, K.C., & Albus, K. (1999) Attachment and Psychopathology in Adulthood.  In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.).  Handbook of Attachment (pp. 497-519).  NY: Guilford Press</ref><ref>Gauthier, L., Stollak, G., Messe, L., & Arnoff, J. (1996).  Recall of childhood neglect and physical abuse as differential predictors of current psychological functioning.  Child Abuse and Neglect 20, 549-559.</ref>  A review of studies by Kendell-Tackett et al. found that two-thirds of the children who were sexually abused showed symptoms, but in comparison with children in treatment who were not sexually abused, the sexually abused children were less symptomatic for all measured symptoms except sexualized behavior.<ref name="Kendall" />  Caffaro-Rouget et al. (1989)<ref>Caffaro-Rouget, A., Lang, R. A. & vanSanten, V. (1989). The impact of child sexual abuse. Annals of Sex Research, 2, 29-47.</ref> found that 51% of their sample was symptomatic; in Mannarino and Cohen (1986),<ref>Mannarino, A. P. & Cohen, J. A. (1986). A clinical-demographic study of sexually abused children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 10, 17-23.</ref> 69% of forty-five assessed children were symptomatic; 64% of Tong, Oates, and McDowell's (1987)<ref>Tong, L., Oates, K. & McDowell, M. (1987). Personality development following sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 11, 371-383.</ref> forty-nine child sample were not within the normal range on the child behavior checklist; and in Conte and Schuerman (1987),<ref>Conte, J. & Schuerman, J. (1987b). The effects of sexual abuse on children: A multidimensional view. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2, 380-390.</ref> whose assessment included both very specific and broad items such as 'fearful of abuse stimuli' and 'emotional upset,' 79% of the sample was symptomatic.
 
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That a minority of abused children have been found to be healthy and asymptomatic appears to be related to the strength of social support, family stability, type of sexual contact and other factors.<ref name="rind"> Rind, B., Tromovitch, Ph. & Bauserman, R. (1998). A Meta-analytic Examination of Assumed Properties of Child Sexual Abuse Using College Samples. Psychological Bulletin. 124(1), 22-53. [http://www.tegenwicht.org/13_rbt_eng/rbt/metaana.htm]</ref><ref>  Fergusson, D.M. & Mullen, P.E. (1999). "Childhood sexual abuse: An evidence based perspective," Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.</ref><ref>Beitchman, J. H., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E., daCosta, G. A., Akman, D., & Cassavia, E. (1992). "A review of the long-term effects of child sexual abuse," ''Child Abuse & Neglect'', 16, 101-118; and Beitchman, J. H.., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E., daCosta, G. A., & Akman, D. (1991). "A review of the short-term effects of child sexual abuse," ''Child Abuse & Neglect'', 15, 537-556.</ref><ref>Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). "Impact of sexual abuse: A review of the research," ''Psychological Bulletin'', 99, 66-77.</ref>
 
  
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Some writers argue it is important to control for variables such as physical abuse and poor family environment in studies which measure the effects of sexual abuse <ref>Nelson EC, Heath AC, Madden PA, et al (2002). "Association between self-reported childhood sexual abuse and adverse psychosocial outcomes: results from a twin study.," Archives of General Psychiatry, 59:139–145</ref> <ref>Pope, H. G., & Hudson, J. I. (1995). "Does childhood sexual abuse cause adult psychiatric disorders? Essentials of methodology," The Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 23, 363-381.</ref>  While [[Rind et al. (1998)|Rind et al.'s]] controversial 1998 meta-analysis of studies using college student samples concluded that the relationship between poorer adjustment and child sexual abuse is generally found nonsignificant in studies which control for variables such as family environment and other forms of abuse.<ref name="rind" />, other more current studies have found an independent association of child sexual abuse with adverse psychological outcomes.<ref name="kendler">Kendler, K. S., Bulik, C. M., Silberg, J., Hettema, J. M., Myers, J., & Prescott, C. A. (2000). "Childhood sexual abuse and adult psychiatric and substance use disorders in women: An epidemiological and cotwin control analysis," Archives of General Psychiatry, 57 , 953-959.</ref><ref name="twin" /><ref name="levitan" />  Kendler et al. (2000) found that most of the relationship between severe forms of child sexual abuse and adult psychopathology in their sample could not be explained by family discord, because the [[effect size]] of this association decreased only slightly after they controlled for possible confounding variables. Their examination of a small sample of CSA-discordant twins also supported a causal link between child sexual abuse and adult psychopathology; the CSA-exposed subjects had a consistently higher risk for psychopathologic disorders than their CSA non-exposed twins.<ref name="kendler" />  After controlling for possible confounding variables, Widom (1999) found that child sexual abuse independently predicts the number of symptoms for [[PTSD]] a person displays. 37.5% of their sexually abused subjects, 32.7% of their physically abused subjects, and 20.4% of their control group met the criteria for a diagnosis of PTSD. The authors concluded, "Victims of child abuse (sexual and physical) and neglect are at increased risk for developing PTSD, but childhood victimization is not a sufficient condition. Family, individual, and lifestyle variables also place individuals at risk and contribute to the symptoms of PTSD."<ref name="widom" />    Mullen and Fleming, argue that, "in most cases, the fundamental damage inflicted by child sexual abuse is due to the child's developing capacities for trust, intimacy, agency and sexuality, and that many of the mental health problems of adult life associated with histories of child sexual abuse are second-order effects."<ref>Mullen, P. & Fleming, J. (1998). "Long-term effects of child sexual abuse," Issues in child abuse prevention (9). Australia: National Child Protection Clearing House.</ref>
 
  
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It has been suggested that young children who are abused sexually by adult females may incur double traumatization due to the widespread denial of female-perpetrated child sexual abuse by non-abusing parents, professional caregivers and the general public.<ref> Crawford, (1997) Forbidden Femininity: Child Sexual Abuse and Female Sexuality</ref> Turner and Maryanski in ''Incest: Origins of the Taboo'' (2005), suggest that mother-son incest causes the most serious damage to children in comparison to mother-daughter, father-daughter and father-son child incest.  Crawford asserts that our socially repressed view of female and maternal sexuality conceals both the reality of female sexual pathologies and the damage done by female sexual abuse to children.<ref>Crawford, Colin, ''Forbidden Feminity: Child Sexual Abuse and Female Sexuality'', Ashgate, 1997.</ref> 
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==Effects of Sexual Abuse==
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Several studies have indicated that some children regard their sexual abuse positively.<ref>Sandfort, T. (1987). Boys on their contacts with men: A study of sexually expressed friendships, New York: Global Academic Publishers, 1987.</ref><ref name="rind2001">Rind, B. (2001). Gay and Bisexual Adolescent Boys Sexual Experiences With Men: An Empirical Examination of Psychological Correlates in a Nonclinical Sample. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2001.</ref><ref name="okami">Okami, P. (1991). Self-reports of “positive” childhood and adolescent sexual contacts with older persons: An exploratory study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Volume 20, Number 5 / October, 1991.</ref> A meta-analysis of 15 studies using college students by Rind et al. found that boys reacted positively in 37% of the cases, while girls reacted positively in 11% of the cases.<ref name="rind" /> The methodology of this study has been criticized by Dallam et al. (2002)<ref>Dallam, S.J., Gleaves, D.H., Cepeda-Benito, A., Silberg, J.L., Kraemer, H.C. & Spiegel, D. (2001). "The Effects of Child Sexual Abuse: Comment on Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman (1998)," ''Psychological Bulletin,'' 127, 715-733.</ref> but has also received support<ref>Oellerich, T. D. (2000). Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman: Politically Incorrect - Scientifically Correct. Sexuality & Culture, 4(2), 67-81 (2000)</ref>; see [[Rind et al. (1998)]].  One study found that most men formerly involved in woman-boy sexual relations evaluate their experience as positive upon reflection.<ref>S.R. Condy, Parameters of Heterosexual Molestation of Boys (Dissertation, Frenso: California School of Professional Psychology, 1985); S.R. Condy, D.I. Ternpler, R. Brown, and L. Veaco, "Parameters of Sexual Contact of Boys with Women," in Archives of Sexual Behavior 16/1987, pp. 379-395.</ref>  There is contrasting evidence that some children who initially report positive feelings will sometimes go on to reassess their abuse in a negative light. 38% of the 53 men studied by Urquiza (1987) said that they viewed their experience as positive at the time, but only 15% retained this attitude.<ref>Urquiza, A.J. (1987). The effects of childhood sexual abuse in an adult male population. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle. Cited in Finkelhor, 1990</ref> According to Coffey et al. (1996), this may be due in part to the stigma attached to child sexual abuse.<ref>Coffey, P., Leitenberg, H., Henning, K., Turner, T., & Bennett, R. T. (1996). Mediators of the long-term impact of child sexual abuse: Perceived stigma, betrayal, powerlessness, and self-blame. Child Abuse & Neglect, Pages 447-455  Volume 20, Issue 5, (May 1996).</ref> Children may also report positive experiences even if their abuse was accompanied by negative emotions: in Okami (1991), for example, 41% of the 63 'positive' subjects recalled feelings of guilt, 35% said they were frightened at the time, and 29% reported feelings of shame.<ref name="okami" /> Russell (1986) speculated that the perception of a sexually abusive event as 'positive' could stem from a mechanism for coping with traumatic experiences.<ref>Russell, D. (1986). The secret trauma: Incest in the lives of girls and women. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Stanley (2004).</ref>  Some researchers, such as [[John Money]], [[David Finkelhor]], and Gabriel Holguin, have opined that the presumption of trauma or damage can itself cause [[iatrogenic]] harm to child victims.<ref>Besharov, D. J. (1981). The Third International Congress on Child Abuse and Neglect: Congress highlights.  Child Abuse & Neglect, 5, 211-215.</ref><ref>Money, J. (1988). "Commentary: Current status of sex research," ''Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality'', 1(1), 5-15.</ref><ref>Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 99.</ref><ref>Holguin, G. & Hansen, D. J. (2002). The "sexually abused child": potential mechanisms of adverse influences of such a label, ''Aggression and Violent Behavior''</ref> Browne and Finkelhor (1986) warn "advocates not [to] exaggerate or overstate the intensity or inevitability of [CSA] consequences."<ref>Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986), p. 178. Cited in Rind et al. (1997)</ref>
 
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===Neurological differences in clinical research===
 
 
Research has shown that traumatic stress, including stress caused by sexual abuse, causes notable changes in brain functioning and development. <ref>Developing Mind, Daniel Siegel, Guilford Press, 1999</ref><ref>Perry, Bruce (2007). ''The Boy Who Was Raised As a Dog.'' ISBN 0465056520</ref>.  
 
Research has shown that traumatic stress, including stress caused by sexual abuse, causes notable changes in brain functioning and development. <ref>Developing Mind, Daniel Siegel, Guilford Press, 1999</ref><ref>Perry, Bruce (2007). ''The Boy Who Was Raised As a Dog.'' ISBN 0465056520</ref>.  
  
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Navalta et al. (2006) found that the self-reported math [[Scholastic Aptitude Test]] scores of their sample of women with a history of repeated child sexual abuse were significantly lower than the self-reported math SAT scores of their non-abused sample. Because the abused subjects verbal SAT scores were high, they hypothesized that the low math SAT scores could "stem from a defect in hemispheric integration," which, they say, "could be a consequence of reduced corpus callosal area." They also found a strong association between short term memory impairments for all categories tested (verbal, visual, and global) and the duration of the abuse.<ref name="navalta">Navalta, Carryl P., et al. (2006). "Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Neuropsychological and Cognitive Function in College Women," ''The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences'', 18:45-53</ref> The authors hypothesized that the development of brain regions which [[myelin]]ate over decades (such as the corpus callosum and hippocampus) may be disturbed by stress, because stress hormones such as [[cortisol]] suppress the final mitosis of [[granule cells]] and thereby the production of the [[oligodendrocytes]] and [[Schwann cells]] that form the [[myelin sheath]].<ref name="navalta" />
 
Navalta et al. (2006) found that the self-reported math [[Scholastic Aptitude Test]] scores of their sample of women with a history of repeated child sexual abuse were significantly lower than the self-reported math SAT scores of their non-abused sample. Because the abused subjects verbal SAT scores were high, they hypothesized that the low math SAT scores could "stem from a defect in hemispheric integration," which, they say, "could be a consequence of reduced corpus callosal area." They also found a strong association between short term memory impairments for all categories tested (verbal, visual, and global) and the duration of the abuse.<ref name="navalta">Navalta, Carryl P., et al. (2006). "Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Neuropsychological and Cognitive Function in College Women," ''The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences'', 18:45-53</ref> The authors hypothesized that the development of brain regions which [[myelin]]ate over decades (such as the corpus callosum and hippocampus) may be disturbed by stress, because stress hormones such as [[cortisol]] suppress the final mitosis of [[granule cells]] and thereby the production of the [[oligodendrocytes]] and [[Schwann cells]] that form the [[myelin sheath]].<ref name="navalta" />
  
−
===Epidemiology===
+
==Offenders==
−
Based on a literature review of 23 studies, Goldman & Padayachi found that the prevalence of child sexual abuse varied between 7-62% for girls and 4-30% for boys.<ref>Juliette D. G. Goldman and Usha, K. Padayachi, "Some Methodological Problems in Estimating Incidence and Prevalence in Child Sexual Abuse Research." ''Journal of Sex Research'',  Nov, 2000[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_4_37/ai_72272302/pg_2]</ref> A meta-analytic study by Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman found that reported prevalence of abuse for males ranged from 3% to 37%, and for females from 8% to 71% with mean rates of 17% and 28% respectively.<ref name="rind" /> Bert Kutchinsky argues that most prevalence rates are overexaggerated and claim that the real prevalence of child sexual abuse may be as low as 1-2%.<ref>Kutchinsky, B. (1992). The Child Sexual Abuse Panic. Nordisk Sexologi 10 (1) 30, 1992.</ref> A study on incest in Finland between fathers and daughters found prevalence rates of 0.2% for biological fathers and 0.5% for step-fathers.<ref>Sariola, H. & Uutela, A. (1996). The prevalence and context of incest abuse in Finland. Child Abuse & Neglect, Volume 20, Issue 9, September 1996, Pages 843-850.</ref>  Others argue that prevalence rates are much higher, and that many cases of child abuse are never reported.  One study found that professionals failed to report approximately 40% of the child sexual abuse cases they encountered<ref>Keuhnle, K., Assessing Allegations of Child Sexual Abuse, Professional Resources Press, Sarastota, FL, 1996</ref>  A study by Lawson & Chaffin indicated that many children who were sexually abused were "identified solely by a physical complaint that was later diagnosed as a veneral disease...Only 43% of the children who were diagnosed with verneral disease made a verbal disclosure of sexual abuse during the initial interview."<ref>pg7., In. Keuhnle, K., Assessing Allegations of Child Sexual Abuse, Professional Resources Press, Sarastota, FL, 1996</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
In US schools, according to the US Department of Education.<ref name="shakeshaft2004">Shakeshaft, C, "Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature," U.S. Department of Education, 2004</ref>, "nearly 9.6% of students are targets of educator sexual misconduct sometime during their school career."  In studies of student sex abuse by male and female educators, male students were reported as targets in ranges from 23% to 44%.<ref name="shakeshaft2004" />  In U.S. school settings same-sex (female and male) sexual misconduct against students by educators "ranges from 18-28% or reported cases, depending on the study"<ref> Shakeshaft, C, "Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature," U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p26.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Significant underreporting of sexual abuse of boys by both women and men is believed to occur due to sex steoreotyping, social denial, the minimization of male victimization, and the relative lack of research on sexual abuse of boys.<ref> Watkins, B. & Bentovim, A. (1992). The sexual abuse of male children and adolescents: a review of current research. Journal of Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry, 33(10), 197-248 [http://www.sasian.org/papers/boysngirls.htm]</ref>  Sexual victimization of boys by their mothers or other female relatives is especially rarely researched or reported.  Sexual abuse of girls by their mothers, and other related and/or unrelated adult females is beginning to be researched and reported despite the highly taboo nature of female-female child sex abuse.  In studies where students are asked about sex offenses, they report higher levels of female sex offenders than found in adult reports.<ref>Shakeshaft, C, "Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature," U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p22.</ref> This under-reporting has been attributed to cultural denial of female-perpetrated child sex abuse<ref>Denov, Myriam S.  (2004) "Perspectives on Female Sex Offending: A Culture of Denial"</ref>, because "males have been socialized to believe they should be flattered or appreciative of sexual interest from a female"<ref name="Shakeshaft25" /> and because female sexual abuse of males is often seen as 'desirable' and/or beneficial by judges, mass media pundits and other authorities.<ref>Young, Kathy, "Double Standards: The Bias Against Male Victims of Sexual Abuse," 2002, Reasononline</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
A belief common to South Africa holds that sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure a man of [[HIV]] or [[AIDS]]. South Africa has the highest number of HIV-positive citizens in the world. According to official figures, one in eight South Africans are infected with the virus.<ref>''United Nations HIV/AIDS Fact Sheet,'' United Nations Development Programme, 2002.</ref>  [[Eastern Cape]] social worker Edith Kriel notes that "child abusers are often relatives of their victims - even their fathers and providers."<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2001/11/11/wrape11.xml '' South African Men Rape Babies as "Cure" for AIDS,''] Jane Flanagan, ''Daily Telegraph (UK),'' Nov. 11, 2001.</ref>  More than 67,000 cases of sexual assaults against children were reported in 2000 in [[South Africa]]. Child welfare groups believe that the number of unreported incidents could be up to 10 times that number.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2001/11/11/wrape11.xml ''South African Men Rape Babies as "Cure" for AIDS,''] Jane Flanagan, ''Daily Telegraph (UK),'' November 11, 2001.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Researcher Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala states that the myth that sex with a virgin is a cure for AIDS is not confined to South Africa: "Fellow AIDS researchers in [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Nigeria]] have told me that the myth also exists in these countries and that it is being blamed for the high rate of sexual abuse against young children."<ref>''Child Rape: A Taboo within the AIDS Taboo: More and more girls are being raped by men who believe this will 'cleanse' them of the disease, but people don't want to confront the issue,'' by Prega Govender, ''Sunday Times (South Africa),'' April 4, 1999.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Offenders===
 
 
Offenders are more likely to be relatives or acquaintances of their victim than strangers.<ref>Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., and Horwood L. J. (1996). "Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(10), 1355-64.</ref> The percentage of incidents of sexual abuse by female perpetrators that come to the attention of the legal system is usually reported to be between 1% and 4%.<ref>Denov, M, S. (2003) The myth of innocence: sexual scripts and the recognition of child sexual abuse by female perpetrators. The Journal of Sex Research, Vol, 40, No, 3, 2003: pp. 303-314.</ref> Studies of sexual misconduct in US schools female sex offenders have showed mixed results with rates between 4% to 43% of female offenders.<ref name="Shakeshaft25">Shakeshaft, C, "Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature," U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p25.</ref> In U.S. schools, educators who offend range in age from "21 to 75 years old, with an average age of 28" with teachers, coaches, substitute teachers, bus drivers and teacher's aids (in that order) totaling 69% of the offenders.<ref>Shakeshaft, C, "Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature," U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p24-25.</ref>
 
Offenders are more likely to be relatives or acquaintances of their victim than strangers.<ref>Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., and Horwood L. J. (1996). "Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(10), 1355-64.</ref> The percentage of incidents of sexual abuse by female perpetrators that come to the attention of the legal system is usually reported to be between 1% and 4%.<ref>Denov, M, S. (2003) The myth of innocence: sexual scripts and the recognition of child sexual abuse by female perpetrators. The Journal of Sex Research, Vol, 40, No, 3, 2003: pp. 303-314.</ref> Studies of sexual misconduct in US schools female sex offenders have showed mixed results with rates between 4% to 43% of female offenders.<ref name="Shakeshaft25">Shakeshaft, C, "Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature," U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p25.</ref> In U.S. schools, educators who offend range in age from "21 to 75 years old, with an average age of 28" with teachers, coaches, substitute teachers, bus drivers and teacher's aids (in that order) totaling 69% of the offenders.<ref>Shakeshaft, C, "Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature," U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p24-25.</ref>
  
 
===Typology===
 
===Typology===
−
Typologies for child sex offenders have been used since the 1970s. Male offenders are typically classified by their motivation, which is usually assessed by reviewing their offense's characteristics. [[Phallometric]] tests may also be used to determine the abuser's level of [[Pedophilia|pedophilic]] interest.<ref>Terry, Karen J., and Tallon, Jennifer. "[http://www.usccb.org/nrb/johnjaystudy/litreview.pdf Child Sexual Abuse: A Review of the Literature.]"</ref> Groth et al. proposed a simple, dichotomous system in 1982 which classed offenders as either "regressed" or "fixated."<ref>Groth, A.N., Hobson, W.F. and Gary, T.S. (1982). "[http://mhawestchester.org/mhaeducation/incestmono7.asp The child molester: clinical observations.]" In ''Journal of Social Work and Child Sexual Abuse'', 1(1/2), 129-144.</ref>  
+
Typologies for child sex offenders have been used since the 1970s. Male offenders are typically classified by their motivation, which is usually assessed by reviewing their offense's characteristics. [[Phallometric]] tests may also be used to determine the abuser's level of [[Pedophilia|pedophilic]] interest.<ref>Terry, Karen J., and Tallon, Jennifer. "[http://www.usccb.org/nrb/johnjaystudy/litreview.pdf Child Sexual Abuse: A Review of the Literature.]"</ref> Groth et al. proposed a simple, dichotomous system in 1982 which classed offenders as either "regressed" or "fixated."<ref>Groth, A.N., Hobson, W.F. and Gary, T.S. (1982). "[http://mhawestchester.org/mhaeducation/incestmono7.asp The child molester: clinical observations.]" In ''Journal of Social Work and Child Sexual Abuse'', 1(1/2), 129-144.</ref> There are generally two types of offenders: regressed and fixated.
  
−
====Regressed offenders====
 
 
Regressed offenders are primarily attracted to their own age group but are passively aroused by minors.
 
Regressed offenders are primarily attracted to their own age group but are passively aroused by minors.
−
 
 
*The sexual attraction in minors is not manifested until adulthood.
 
*The sexual attraction in minors is not manifested until adulthood.
 
*Their sexual conduct until adulthood is aligned with that of their own age group.  
 
*Their sexual conduct until adulthood is aligned with that of their own age group.  
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Other scenarios may include:
 
Other scenarios may include:
−
 
 
*Not associating their attractions as pedosexual in nature due to cultural differences.
 
*Not associating their attractions as pedosexual in nature due to cultural differences.
 
*[[Age of consent]] laws were raised in their jurisdiction but mainstream views toward sex with that age group remained the same, were acted upon, then they were charged with a crime.
 
*[[Age of consent]] laws were raised in their jurisdiction but mainstream views toward sex with that age group remained the same, were acted upon, then they were charged with a crime.
 
*The person's passive interest in children is manifested temporarily upon the consumption of alcohol and acted upon while inhibitions were low.
 
*The person's passive interest in children is manifested temporarily upon the consumption of alcohol and acted upon while inhibitions were low.
  
−
====Fixated offenders====
+
Fixated offenders are most often adult pedophiles who are [[maladaptive]] to accepted social norms. The [[etiology]] of [[pedophilia]] is not well-understood. The sexual acts are typically preconceived and are not alcohol or drug related. Maletzky (1993) found that, of his sample of 4,402 convicted pedophilic offenders, 0.4% were female.<ref>Maletzky, B.M. (1993). "Factors associated with success and failure in the behavioral and cognitive treatment of sexual offenders," ''Annals of Sex Research'', 6, 241-258.</ref>
−
Fixated offenders are most often adult pedophiles who are [[maladaptive]] to accepted social norms.  
 
−
The [[etiology]] of [[pedophilia]] is not well-understood. The sexual acts are typically preconceived and are not alcohol or drug related.
 
−
 
 
−
Maletzky (1993) found that, of his sample of 4,402 convicted pedophilic offenders, 0.4% were female.<ref>Maletzky, B.M. (1993). "Factors associated with success and failure in the behavioral and cognitive treatment of sexual offenders," ''Annals of Sex Research'', 6, 241-258.</ref>
 
  
 +
==Notes==
 +
<small><references/></small>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
<references/>
+
* Aba, C. (1992). ''Sexual Assaults on Students.'' London: Harper and Row.
 +
* Billie Wright Dzeich and Linda Weiner, 1984 (2nd ed. 1990). ''The Lecherous Professor: Sexual Harassment on Campus.'' Boston: Beacon Press.
 +
* Doris Van Stone, (1990). ''No Place to Cry: The Hurt and Healing of Sexual Abuse.'' Moody Publishers.
 +
* [[Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson]]: ''The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory'' (1984) ISBN 0-374-10642-8, (2003 Ballantine Books, ISBN 0345452798)
 +
* Renvoizé, Jean (1982). ''Incest: A Family Pattern'', London:  Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-71009-073-0.
 +
* Sorenson,Susan B. (1997). ''Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home: Current Issues in Spousal Battering and Child Maltreatment'', New York:  Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56024-681-2.
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
 
−
 
−
===Published articles===
 
 
* American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, [http://www.aacap.org/publications/factsfam/sexabuse.htm ''Child Sexual Abuse,''] ''Facts for Families,'' vol. 9, 2004.
 
* American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, [http://www.aacap.org/publications/factsfam/sexabuse.htm ''Child Sexual Abuse,''] ''Facts for Families,'' vol. 9, 2004.
 
* American Psychological Association, [http://www.apa.org/journals/features/law111194.pdf Disclosure of Child Sexual Abuse,] ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law.'' vol. 11, 2005.  
 
* American Psychological Association, [http://www.apa.org/journals/features/law111194.pdf Disclosure of Child Sexual Abuse,] ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law.'' vol. 11, 2005.  
Line 161: Line 106:
 
* [[Andrew Vachss|Vachss, A.]], [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/nyt-11202005.html ''The Incest Loophole,''] ''New York Times,'' Nov. 20, 2005.
 
* [[Andrew Vachss|Vachss, A.]], [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/nyt-11202005.html ''The Incest Loophole,''] ''New York Times,'' Nov. 20, 2005.
 
* Vigil, J. et al., [http://web.missouri.edu/~gearyd/Vigiletal%5BDP2005%5D.pdf A Life History Assessment of Early Childhood Sexual Abuse in Women,] ''Developmental Psychology,'' 2005.  
 
* Vigil, J. et al., [http://web.missouri.edu/~gearyd/Vigiletal%5BDP2005%5D.pdf A Life History Assessment of Early Childhood Sexual Abuse in Women,] ''Developmental Psychology,'' 2005.  
−
 
−
 
−
 
−
===Organizations===
 
 
* [http://www.usdoj.gov/ovw/statesexual.htm List of State Sexual Assault Coalitions]
 
* [http://www.usdoj.gov/ovw/statesexual.htm List of State Sexual Assault Coalitions]
 
* [http://www.nsopr.gov National Sex Offender Public Registry]
 
* [http://www.nsopr.gov National Sex Offender Public Registry]
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* [http://www.voices-action.org VOICES in Action (Victims of Incest Can Emerge Survivors)]
 
* [http://www.voices-action.org VOICES in Action (Victims of Incest Can Emerge Survivors)]
 
* [http://www.havoca.org/ Help for Adult Victims of Child Abuse] ''UK-based organization.''
 
* [http://www.havoca.org/ Help for Adult Victims of Child Abuse] ''UK-based organization.''
−
 
−
 
−
 
−
 
−
==References==
 
−
Renvoizé, Jean (1982). ''Incest: A Family Pattern'', London:  Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-71009-073-0.
 
−
 
−
Sorenson,Susan B. (1997). ''Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home: Current Issues in Spousal Battering and Child Maltreatment'', New York:  Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56024-681-2.
 
−
 
−
 
−
==Further reading==
 
−
 
−
* Aba, C. (1992). ''Sexual Assaults on Students.'' London: Harper and Row.
 
−
* Billie Wright Dzeich and Linda Weiner, 1984 (2nd ed. 1990). ''The Lecherous Professor: Sexual Harassment on Campus.'' Boston: Beacon Press.
 
−
* Doris Van Stone, (1990). ''No Place to Cry: The Hurt and Healing of Sexual Abuse.'' Moody Publishers.
 
−
* [[Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson]]: ''The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory'' (1984) ISBN 0-374-10642-8, (2003 Ballantine Books, ISBN 0345452798)
 
−
 
−
== External links ==
 
−
* [http://www.thelighthousesanctuary.com The Lighthouse Sanctuary - Support for sexual abuse sufferers and survivors]
 
−
* [http://www.rainn.org RAINN - The Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network]
 
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* [http://www.survivorshope.co.nr Survivors Hope A website with forums, chat rooms and information]
 
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* [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org The Awareness Center, Inc. - The Jewish Coalition Against Sexual Abuse/Assault]
 
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* [http://www.jimhopper.com/male-ab/ Sexual Abuse of Males website]
 
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* [http://www.pandys.org Pandora's Aquarium] A message board, chat room, and online support group for rape and sexual abuse survivors
 
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* [http://sjenterprises.blogspot.com/ What Went Down In Your Town? (one sexual abuse editorial)]
 
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*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8231186990016682219&q=living+smart+%23206&hl=en Surviving Childhood Sexual Abuse]
 
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* [http://www.liberatedfromabuse.com Liberated From Abuse—Sexual Abuse Education]
 
−
* [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/57154/living_with_your_partners_ptsd.com/ Living With Your Partner's PTSD:  When The Woman You Love is a Victim]
 
−
* [http://www.jimhopper.com/mindfulness/ Mindfulness—An Inner Resource for Recovery from Child Abuse]
 
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−
 
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{{Credits|Sexual_abuse|143028568|Child_sexual_abuse|142771809|}}
 
{{Credits|Sexual_abuse|143028568|Child_sexual_abuse|142771809|}}

Revision as of 01:18, 17 July 2007


Sexual abuse (also referred to as molestation) is defined by the forcing of undesired sexual acts by one person to another or sexual activity with someone that is defined as improper such as child molestation.

Different types of sexual abuse involve non-consensual, forced physical sexual behavior such as rape or sexual assault, psychological forms of abuse, such as verbal sexual behavior or stalking, or the use of a position of trust for sexual purposes.

Types

Spousal sexual abuse

Spousal abuse is the term applied to the specific form of domestic violence, where physical or sexual abuse is perpetrated by one spouse upon another. Frequently this involves forced sex (spousal rape) upon a spouse without their consent. [1]

Sexual abuse of minors

In the majority of cultures and countries, sex is legal and acceptable only if both parties give consent. The age of consent, that is, the age at which the law presumes a person has the physical, emotional and sexual maturity to make an informed adult decision to enter into sexual activity, differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, from a low teenage in Italy and Spain to a mid to high teens age elsewhere, for example 16 in the United Kingdom, 17 in Ireland, 18 in India. (Some states also provide different ages of consent for homosexual boys as against heterosexual boys and girls.) Yet separately the law may specify a different age where a teenager ceases to be a child and becomes an adult. As a result, where a difference exists, it may be perfectly legal to have sex with a child where the individual, though still deemed a child in law, is above the age of consent specified in local legislation. In most cases, the age of consent and statutory rape laws aim at protecting children and teenagers from exploitation, particularly physical or psychological exploitation involving sexual behavior.

Child sexual abuse is an umbrella term describing criminal and civil offenses in which an adult engages in sexual activity with a minor or exploits a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification.[1] This term includes a variety of sexual offenses, including rape, sexual molestation, or sexual exploitation. Rape occurs when an adult touches a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, rape, sodomy, and sexual penetration with an object.)[2] Sexual molestation includes offenses in which an adult engages in non-penetrative activity with a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, exposing a minor to pornography or to the sexual acts of others.[3] Sexual exploitation involves an adult victimizing a minor for advancement, sexual gratification, or profit; for example, prostituting a child,[4] and creating or trafficking in child pornography.[5]

The term "pedophile" is used colloquially to refer to child sexual offenders. However, not all child sexual offenders meet the diagnostic criteria of pedophilia,[6] and not all pedophiles act on their fantasies or urges to engage in sexual activity with children. Law enforcement and legal professionals have begun to use the term predatory pedophile,[7] a phrase coined by children's attorney Andrew Vachss to refer specifically to pedophiles who engage in sexual activity with minors.[8] The term emphasizes that child sexual abuse consists of conduct chosen by the perpetrator.[9]

Legal responses to child sexual abuse

In the United States

Child sexual abuse has been recognized specifically as a type of child maltreatment in U.S. federal law since the initial Congressional hearings on child abuse in 1973. [10] Child sexual abuse is illegal in every state,[11] as well as under federal law.[12] Among the states, the specifics of child sexual abuse laws vary, but certain features of these laws are common to all states.[13]

Minors' inability to consent

Between adults, most sexual activity does not constitute a criminal offense, unless one of the adults does not consent to the activity. In contrast, minors are unable to give consent under the law. Indeed, the term "minor" refers to a person who has not yet reached majority, the age at which one may give consent in any legal matter (for example, a minor cannot make a valid contract).[14] Consequently, an adult who engages in sexual activity with a minor commits child sexual abuse.

Many states[15] include in their penal codes a "Romeo and Juliet" exception for cases where sexual activity occurs between a young adult and a minor whose ages are within a few years of each other.[16] This exception typically bars charging the young adult with a sex offense, if the young adult did not use force or coercion on the minor and the minor is a teenager.[17]

Penalties for child sexual abuse

Penalties for child sexual abuse vary with the specific offenses for which the perpetrator has been convicted. Criminal penalties may include imprisonment, fines, registration as a sex offender, and restrictions on probation and parole. Civil penalties may include liability for damages, injunctions, involuntary commitment, and, for perpetrators related to their victims, loss of custody or parental rights.

During the last three decades many state legislatures[18] have increased prison terms and other penalties for child sex offenders. This trend toward more stringent sentences generally targets those perpetrators who are repeat offenders,[19] who victimize multiple children,[20] or who stood in a position of trust with respect to their victims, such as a guardian, parent, pastor, or teacher.[21]

Intrafamilial child sexual abuse

Intrafamilial child sexual abuse refers to child sexual abuse offenses where the perpetrator is related to the minor, either by blood or marriage.[22] Such crimes are most commonly addressed in family courts, as opposed to criminal courts, although no laws prohibit simultaneous proceedings in both forums.[23]

Incest refers to sexual activity between related persons, without regard to their ages. Incest is a criminal offense in most states.[24] In the majority of states with incest laws, a perpetrator of intrafamilial child sexual abuse may be prosecuted for incest instead of child sexual abuse offenses.[25] A related perpetrator, if convicted under the state's incest law, will receive a significantly lower penalty for committing the same acts that constitute criminal child sexual abuse in that state.[26] Recognizing this loophole, some states have altered their penal codes to prohibit prosecution of intrafamilial child sexual abuse under the incest statutes. In these states, which include Arkansas,[27] California,[28] Illinois,[29] New York,[30] and North Carolina,[31] all perpetrators of sexual offenses against children are prosecuted under the same laws, without regard to whether they are related to their victims. These states retain their incest laws only for their original purpose:[32] to sanction sexual activity between those too closely related by blood.[33]

International law

One hundred forty nations are signatories to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. This international treaty defines a set of protections which signatories agree to provide for the children of their respective countries.[34] Articles 34 and 35 require that signatories protect their nations’ children from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. This includes outlawing the coercion of a child to perform sexual activity, the prostitution of children, and the exploitation of children in creating pornography. Signatories also agree to prevent abduction, sale, or trafficking of children.[35]

In South Africa

In 1995, South Africa ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and committed to a range of obligations aimed at establishing and protecting the rights of children. The Child Care Act, (74 of 1983) and the Child Care Amendment Act, (86 of 1991; 13 of 1999) make sexual abuse of children a criminal offense.

In the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom rewrote its criminal code in the Sexual Offences Act of 2003. This act includes definitions and penalties for child sexual abuse offenses, and applies to England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.

Medical responses to child sexual abuse

The American Psychological Association defines child sexual abuse as contact between a child and an adult or other person significantly older or in a position of power or control over the child, where the child is being used for sexual stimulation of the adult or another person.[36]


Effects of Sexual Abuse

Research has shown that traumatic stress, including stress caused by sexual abuse, causes notable changes in brain functioning and development. [37][38].

Various studies have suggested that severe child sexual abuse may have a deleterious effect on brain development. Ito et al. (1998) found "reversed hemispheric asymmetry and greater left hemisphere coherence in abused subjects;"[39] Teicher et al. (1993) found that an increased likelihood of "ictal temporal lobe epilepsy-like symptoms" in abused subjects;[40] Anderson et al. (2002) recorded abnormal transverse relaxation time in the cerebellar vermis of adults sexually abused in childhood;[41] Teicher et al. (1993) found that child sexual abuse was associated with a reduced corpus callosum area; various studies have found an association of reduced volume of the left hippocampus with child sexual abuse;[42] and Ito et al. (1993) found increased electrophysiological abnormalities in sexually abused children. [43]

Some studies indicate that sexual or physical abuse in children can lead to the overexcitation of an undeveloped limbic system.[42] Teicher et al. (1993)[40] used the "Limbic System Checklist-33" to measure ictal temporal lobe epilepsy-like symptoms in 253 adults. Reports of child sexual abuse were associated with a 49% increase to LSCL-33 scores, 11% higher than the associated increase of self-reported physical abuse. Reports of both physical and sexual abuse were associated with a 113% increase. Male and female victims were similarly affected.[40][44]

A study by Gilbertson found that individuals with a smaller hippocampal volume are more disposed to the development of PTSD.[45] This is supported by studies which show that those who have shown damage also have a history of neurocognitive abnormalities.[46] McNally gave his view on the recent research into this area in his book Remembering Trauma:

Another myth debunked by recent research is the notion that elevated cortisol in PTSD has damaged the hippocampi of survivors. Not only is cortisol seldom elevated in PTSD, but smaller hippocampi in those with the disorder are best tributed to genetic factors, not traumatic stress. A smaller hippocampus may constitute a vulnerability for the disorder among those exposed to trauma.[47]

King et al. (2001), studying 5 to 7 year old girls who had been abused within the last two months, found victims of early sexual abuse had significantly lower cortisol levels than control subjects.[48] However, other studies have found an increase in cortisol levels among victims of child sexual abuse and trauma and damage to various parts of the brain.[49][50] "Fear literally arises from the core of the brain, affecting all brain areas and their functions in rapidly expanding waves of neurchemical acticity...also important is a stress hormone called cortisol.," p. 64.

A short-term longitudinal study of hippocampal volume in thirty-seven trauma survivors by Bonne et al. found no progressive reduction of the hippocampus between 1 week and 6 months after the traumatic incident. Regarding this, they speculated that structural changes to the hippocampus may only occur if the victim's exposure to traumatization is prolonged; that it may take longer than 6 months for any change in volume to manifest; or that a change in volume may have taken place in the period between the incident and the first assessment. They also found that there was no significant difference between the hippocampal volume of survivors of trauma who developed PTSD and those who did not. Because of these findings, they concluded that "smaller hippocampal volume is not a necessary risk factor for developing PTSD and does not occur within 6 months of expressing the disorder."[51] This study did not specifically focus on child sexual abuse victims.[52]

Navalta et al. (2006) found that the self-reported math Scholastic Aptitude Test scores of their sample of women with a history of repeated child sexual abuse were significantly lower than the self-reported math SAT scores of their non-abused sample. Because the abused subjects verbal SAT scores were high, they hypothesized that the low math SAT scores could "stem from a defect in hemispheric integration," which, they say, "could be a consequence of reduced corpus callosal area." They also found a strong association between short term memory impairments for all categories tested (verbal, visual, and global) and the duration of the abuse.[53] The authors hypothesized that the development of brain regions which myelinate over decades (such as the corpus callosum and hippocampus) may be disturbed by stress, because stress hormones such as cortisol suppress the final mitosis of granule cells and thereby the production of the oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells that form the myelin sheath.[53]

Offenders

Offenders are more likely to be relatives or acquaintances of their victim than strangers.[54] The percentage of incidents of sexual abuse by female perpetrators that come to the attention of the legal system is usually reported to be between 1% and 4%.[55] Studies of sexual misconduct in US schools female sex offenders have showed mixed results with rates between 4% to 43% of female offenders.[56] In U.S. schools, educators who offend range in age from "21 to 75 years old, with an average age of 28" with teachers, coaches, substitute teachers, bus drivers and teacher's aids (in that order) totaling 69% of the offenders.[57]

Typology

Typologies for child sex offenders have been used since the 1970s. Male offenders are typically classified by their motivation, which is usually assessed by reviewing their offense's characteristics. Phallometric tests may also be used to determine the abuser's level of pedophilic interest.[58] Groth et al. proposed a simple, dichotomous system in 1982 which classed offenders as either "regressed" or "fixated."[59] There are generally two types of offenders: regressed and fixated.

Regressed offenders are primarily attracted to their own age group but are passively aroused by minors.

  • The sexual attraction in minors is not manifested until adulthood.
  • Their sexual conduct until adulthood is aligned with that of their own age group.
  • Their interest in minors is either not cognitively realized until well into adulthood or it was recognized early on and simply suppressed due to social taboo.

Other scenarios may include:

  • Not associating their attractions as pedosexual in nature due to cultural differences.
  • Age of consent laws were raised in their jurisdiction but mainstream views toward sex with that age group remained the same, were acted upon, then they were charged with a crime.
  • The person's passive interest in children is manifested temporarily upon the consumption of alcohol and acted upon while inhibitions were low.

Fixated offenders are most often adult pedophiles who are maladaptive to accepted social norms. The etiology of pedophilia is not well-understood. The sexual acts are typically preconceived and are not alcohol or drug related. Maletzky (1993) found that, of his sample of 4,402 convicted pedophilic offenders, 0.4% were female.[60]

Notes

  1. ↑ The Sexual Exploitation of Children, University of Pennsylvania Center for Youth Policy Studies, U.S. National Institute of Justice, August 2001.
  2. ↑ Child Abuse Reported to the Police, Juvenile Justice Bulletin, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, May 2001.
  3. ↑ Criminal Investigation of Child Sexual Abuse, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, March 2001.
  4. ↑ Prostitution of Juveniles, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, June, 2004.
  5. ↑ Child Sexual Exploitation: Improving Investigations and Protecting Victims, Massachusetts Child Exploitation Network, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, January, 1995.
  6. ↑ Self-Report of Crimes Committed by Sex Offenders, M. Weinrott and M. Saylor, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol.6 (1991). A study finding that child sexual offenders self-reported high degree of "crossover" sexual offenses, defined as rapes of adult women, as well as of both related and non-related children).
  7. ↑ See, for example, State v. Frazier, 2005-Ohio-3356.
  8. ↑ See, for example, Prosecuting Child Sex Tourists at Home, Margaret A. Healy, Fordham International Law Journal, vol.18, 1995.
  9. ↑ How We Can Fight Child Abuse, Andrew Vachss, Parade Magazine, August 20, 1989.
  10. ↑ Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974, (most recently reauthorized by Pub. L. No.108-36, (2003)).
  11. ↑ State Statutes - Child Abuse and Neglect, Children's Bureau, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
  12. ↑ Index of Child Welfare Laws,Children's Bureau, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
  13. ↑ Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect, Summary of State Laws, National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
  14. ↑ The Age of Majority, T.E. James, American Journal of Legal History, vol. 4 (1960).
  15. ↑ See, for example, Dixon v. State, 278 Ga. 4, (2004), stating that 38 states have a such a law.
  16. ↑ A Step in the Right Direction, Sabrina A. Perelman, Georgetown Journal of Gender & Law, vol.7 (2006).
  17. ↑ Consensual Sex and Age of Sexual Consent, Colette S. Peters, Colorado Legislative Council Brief, 2002.
  18. ↑ Child Sexual Abuse and the State, Ruby Andrew, UC Davis Law Review, vol. 39, 2006.
  19. ↑ See, for example,People v. Murphy, 19 P.3d 1129 (2001).
  20. ↑ See, for example, People v. Hammer, 69 P.3d 436 (2003)
  21. ↑ See, for example, Washington v. Grewe, 813 P.2d 1238 (1991).
  22. ↑ Decision-making of the District Attorney: Diverting or Prosecuting Intrafamilial Child Sexual Abuse Offenders, Lorie Fridell, Criminal Justice Policy Review, vol.4, 1990.
  23. ↑ See, for example, In re S.A., 37 P.3d 1172 (Utah Ct.App., 2001)
  24. ↑ List of Child Sexual Abuse Loopholes in State Law.
  25. ↑ The Incest Loophole, Andrew Vachss, New York Times, November 20, 2005.
  26. ↑ Child Sexual Abuse and the State, Ruby Andrew, UC Davis Law Review, vol. 39, 2006.
  27. ↑ Arkansas Act 1469 (2003).
  28. ↑ California Penal Code § 285.
  29. ↑ Illinois Public Act 93-0419 (2003).
  30. ↑ New York Penal Law § 255.27.
  31. ↑ North Carolina Gen. Stat. § 14-178.
  32. ↑ Incest: The Nature and Origin of the Taboo, by Emile Durkheim (tr.1963)
  33. ↑ Kinship, Incest, and the Dictates of Law, Henry A. Kelly, 14 American Journal of Jurisprudence, 1969.
  34. ↑ Signatories to the United Nations on the Convention of the Rights of the Child.
  35. ↑ United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
  36. ↑ Guidelines for Psychological Evaluations in Child Protection Matters, American Psychological Association, February 1998.
  37. ↑ Developing Mind, Daniel Siegel, Guilford Press, 1999
  38. ↑ Perry, Bruce (2007). The Boy Who Was Raised As a Dog. ISBN 0465056520
  39. ↑ Ito Y, Teicher MH, Glod CA, et al: "Preliminary evidence for aberrant cortical development in abused children: a quantitative EEG study," The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 10:298–307
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Teicher MH, Glod CA, Surrey J, et al: Early childhood abuse and limbic system ratings in adult psychiatric outpatients. J Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neuroscience 1993; 5:301–306
  41. ↑ Anderson CM, Teicher MH, Polcari A, et al: Abnormal T2 relaxation time in the cerebellar vermis of adults sexually abused in childhood: potential role of the vermis in stress-enhanced risk for drug abuse. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2002; 27(1-2):231-244
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Teicher, Martin H. (2002). "Scars That Won't Heal: The Neurobiology of Child Abuse," Scientific American magazine.
  43. ↑ Ito Y, Teicher MH, Glod CA, et al (1993). "Increased prevalence of electrophysiological abnormalities in children with psychological, physical, and sexual abuse," The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 5:401–408
  44. ↑ Arehart-Treichel, Joan (2001). "Psychological Abuse May Cause Changes in Brain," Psychiatric News. March 2, 2001
  45. ↑ Gilbertson, M. V., Shenton, M. E., Ciszeskwi, A., Kasai, K., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., and Pitman, R. K. 2002. Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma, Nature Neuroscience, 5, 1242-47.
  46. ↑ Gurvits, T. V., Gilbertson, M. W., Lasko, N. B., Tarhan, A. S., Simeon, D., Macklin, M. L., Orr, S. P., and Pitman, . K. 2000. Neurological soft signs in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 181-186.
  47. ↑ McNally, R. J. (2003). Remembering Trauma. The Belknap press of Harvard University press, p. 157
  48. ↑ King J.A., Mandansky D., King S., et al. (2001) "Early sexual abuse and low cortisol." Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 55:71–4
  49. ↑ Developing Mind, Daniel Siegel, Guilford Press, 1999, p. 11, 248.
  50. ↑ Perry, Bruce (2007). The Boy Who Was Raised As a Dog., pg. 64, ISBN 0465056520
  51. ↑ Quoted from the abstract of Bonne et al. (2001), p.2148
  52. ↑ O. Bonne, D. Brandes, A. Gilboa, J.M. Gomori, M.E. Shenton, R.K. Pitman et al. (2001). "Longitudinal MRI study of hippocampal volume in trauma survivors with PTSD," Am J Psychiatry; 158:1248–1251
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Navalta, Carryl P., et al. (2006). "Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Neuropsychological and Cognitive Function in College Women," The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18:45-53
  54. ↑ Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., and Horwood L. J. (1996). "Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(10), 1355-64.
  55. ↑ Denov, M, S. (2003) The myth of innocence: sexual scripts and the recognition of child sexual abuse by female perpetrators. The Journal of Sex Research, Vol, 40, No, 3, 2003: pp. 303-314.
  56. ↑ Shakeshaft, C, "Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature," U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p25.
  57. ↑ Shakeshaft, C, "Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature," U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p24-25.
  58. ↑ Terry, Karen J., and Tallon, Jennifer. "Child Sexual Abuse: A Review of the Literature."
  59. ↑ Groth, A.N., Hobson, W.F. and Gary, T.S. (1982). "The child molester: clinical observations." In Journal of Social Work and Child Sexual Abuse, 1(1/2), 129-144.
  60. ↑ Maletzky, B.M. (1993). "Factors associated with success and failure in the behavioral and cognitive treatment of sexual offenders," Annals of Sex Research, 6, 241-258.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Aba, C. (1992). Sexual Assaults on Students. London: Harper and Row.
  • Billie Wright Dzeich and Linda Weiner, 1984 (2nd ed. 1990). The Lecherous Professor: Sexual Harassment on Campus. Boston: Beacon Press.
  • Doris Van Stone, (1990). No Place to Cry: The Hurt and Healing of Sexual Abuse. Moody Publishers.
  • Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson: The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory (1984) ISBN 0-374-10642-8, (2003 Ballantine Books, ISBN 0345452798)
  • Renvoizé, Jean (1982). Incest: A Family Pattern, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-71009-073-0.
  • Sorenson,Susan B. (1997). Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home: Current Issues in Spousal Battering and Child Maltreatment, New York: Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56024-681-2.

External links

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