Non-governmental organization

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted, voluntary association of individuals or groups that is neither a governmental agency nor a for-profit or business enterprise, although it may and often does receive both government and corporate funds. Regardless of funding source, an NGO maintains its status only to the extent that it excludes government representatives from membership or participation. Business representatives, however, may participate, either as staff or directors.

Dimensions

Estimates of the number of NGOs throughout the world vary so widely, perhaps as a result of varying definitions, as to render a general figure meaningless, especially in the absence of any overall official data-gathering source. Estimates at the low end specify around 26,000. Estimates at the high end specify hundreds of thousands; Israel alone is said to have 30,000 while Russia may have 277,000, and one estimate in India is between one and two million.

In the United States, where NGOs are exempt from income taxes, the Internal Revenue Service reports that nearly 1,800,000 tax-exempt organizations were in operation in fiscal 2007. In that year alone, 73,000 entities applied for and received government recognition. Even these figures, however, may be misleading as they include labor unions, foundations, and religious organizations including churches, mosques, synagogues and other temples, which are not generally considered NGOs (more commonly referred to in the United States as non-profits or not-for-profits). Counting only charitable, religious, and social welfare groups, the number of NGOs in the United States in 2007 was around 1,260,000.

Regardless of the actual numbers, it is widely acknowledged today that NGOs have been growing so rapidly in recent decades as to have created a "global associational revolution," a "massive upsurge of organized private voluntary activity in virtually every region of the world."

The majority of NGOs operate domestically, within their respective countries. The more broadly known NGOs, however, operate internationally, that is, across country borders. Examples include Médecins Sans Frontières and Amnesty International. The number of these cross-national groups has been estimated at 40,000 in 2001, but is likely higher today.

Collectively, NGOs comprise a socio-economic sector different from, but engaged with, both the profit-making and government sectors. Among the terms applied to this sector are the third sector, the independent sector, the non-profit sector, the voluntary sector, and civil society.

Theories

Two primary theories purport to explain the derivation and growth of NGOs: government failure and market failure. Although these terms are usually applied in a strictly economic context, they are relevant in explaining the rise of NGOs. According to both theories, individuals or groups organize self-help or social policy associations when they feel that either the government or the profit-making market, or both, will not or cannot adequately address their concerns, such as poverty, poor or non-existent education, environmental degradation, affordable housing, and a host of other issues.

Other theories include solidarity, or collective empowerment, espoused by analysts in France, and religious admonitions to aid the poor, such as the Judaic notion of tzedaka, the Christian notion of charity, and the Islamic notion of zakat.

History

Although NGOs are largely a phenomenon of the 20th century, their origins date back to the eighteenth century, at least in the United States. Confronting a vast land largely lacking the traditional government structures to which they were accustomed, the mainly European immigrants were forced to rely on themselves, collectively, to meet their societal needs for schools, houses of worship, roads and the like. On a famous tour of the fledgling country, Alexis de Tocqueville, the scion of an old landed Norman family, noted that in England, people "often perform great things singly, whereas Americans form associations for the smallest undertakings." He was speaking not only of business enterprises, but of "associations of a thousand other kinds," designed to "give entertainments, to found seminaries, to build inns, to construct churches, to diffuse books, to send missionaries to the antipodes; they found in this manner hospitals, prisons, schools."

In European countries, NGOs evolved out of social movements over a century ago, in accordance with conditions specific to those nations. In Italy, for example, a major factor was hostility towards, and suspicion of, political parties and government institutions. In Sweden, NGOs formed largely as "protest movements against the bureaucrats, clerics, aristocrats and capitalists that dominated Sweden in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries." In France, people "began to castigate the bureaucratic and centralizing leanings of redistributive institutions, perceiving that the inability to reform generated inertia, gridlock and cronyism," as well as "the resilience of powerful inequalities beneath the veil of egalitarianism."

On a global level, the history of International non-governmental organizations may also date back to at least the mid-nineteenth century. Active in the anti-slavery movement and the movement for women's suffrage, they had expanded significantly at the time of the World Disarmament Conference.

However, the phrase "non-governmental organization" only came into popular use with the establishment of the United Nations Organization in 1945. Article 71 of Chapter 10 of the United Nations Charter permitted a consultative role for organizations which are neither governments nor member states – see Consultative Status. The definition of "international NGO" is first given in resolution 288 (X) of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations on February 27, 1950: "any international organisation that is not founded by an international treaty." The Council recognized the vital role of the organizations and other "major groups" in sustainable development in Chapter 27 of Agenda 21, which led to significant arrangements for a consultative relationship between the UNO and NGOs.

Globalization facilitated the rapid rise of NGOs in the latter part of the 20th century, and the revolution in electronic telecommunications not only reinforced that trend, but fostered growing cooperation among NGOs across national borders. Globalization, resulting from neo-liberal economic policies, led citizens of various countries to perceive of International treaties and international financial agencies such as the World Trade Organization and the International Monetary Fund as too centered on the interests of capitalist enterprises, to the detriment of the poor. At the same time, the "telecommunications revolution called attention to the disparities in development between the West and the rest of the world....Instantaneous global communication meant that popular movements throughout the world could draw inspiration from each other."

An attempt to counterbalance neo-liberal policies may have led to the development of NGOs emphasizing humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable development. Because many of these groups continue to criticize various international funding agencies and conferences of economic leaders in developed nations, they sometimes unite across countries to develop counter-institutions. A prominent example today is the World Social Forum which formed in 2001 as a rival convention to the World Economic Forum held annually in January in Davos, Switzerland. Such counter-institutions attract a wide following. The fifth World Social Forum in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in January 2005 was attended by representatives from more than 1,000 NGOs, or some 20,000 people.

Criticisms of such forums have entailed allegations that participating NGOs take the place of what should belong to popular movements of the poor. Some more radical critics argue that NGOs are often quasi-imperialist in nature, fulfilling a function similar to that of the clergy during the high colonial era of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Despite their objections, NGO transnational networking is now extensive.

Types, interests and methods of NGOs

Non-governmental organizations are often classified in terms of their interests and methods. For example, BINGO is an acronym for business-oriented international NGO, or big international NGO; ENGO is short for environmental NGO, such as Global 2000; GONGOs are government-operated NGOs—technically, a contradiction in terms, but which may characterize organizations set up by governments to qualify for outside aid or promote their interests. There are also QUANGOs, or quasi-autonomous NGOs such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which, again, may include some government entities that are deemed to be the 'most broadly representative' standardization body of a nation. Finally, there are TANGOs, or NGOs characterized by the technical assistance they offer, and GROs, or grass roots organizations, which in some countries may be simply the term given to NGOs.

The typology used by the World Bank and other international financial agencies such as the Asian Development Bank classifies NGOs as operational and advocacy. The primary purpose of operational NGOs is to provide relief in the form of labor, managerial expertise, products or equipment in development-related projects. Oxfam, for example, concerned with poverty alleviation, might provide equipment and skills to find food and clean drinking water. In contrast, the primary purpose of advocacy NGOs is to defend or promote a specific cause.

Therefore, some NGOs attempt to solve perceived problems directly, such as by building low-income housing or establishing schools. Others attempt to pressure—through lobbying, demonstrations, economic boycotts, propaganda and other means—the government and/or private market into undertaking solutions or at least reforms. In still other cases, NGOs may serve as consultants to both government and business. An example of the latter is the Third World Network, which has a consultative status with the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The number of international consultative NGOs has grown manifold; in 1946, only 41 NGOs had consultative status with the ECOSOC; by 2008 this number had risen to 3,187.

Regardless of their classification, NGOs' interests are encyclopedic. They include projects or reforms pertaining to clean water and related urban and rural sanitation issues, transportation, power, public health, mining, and the environment. They are also active in education, agriculture, peace and human rights, among innumerable others.

Employment and financing

Although sometimes referred to as voluntary organizations, NGOs often utilize paid staff as well. According to one source, the international NGO sector employed 39.5 million people in 2003.

Large NGOs may have annual budgets in the hundreds of millions of dollars. The budget of the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), for example, was over US$540 million in 1999.. Fincancing such large budgets demands significant fundraising efforts. Major sources of NGO funding include the sale of goods and services; grants from international institutions, national governments, foundations and corporations; and private donations, often in the form of membership dues.

Legal status

Although domestic NGOs are subject to the laws of their respective countries, international NGOs are not subject to international law, as are states. An exception is the International Committee of the Red Cross, which is subject to certain specific matters, mainly relating to the Geneva Convention.

The Council of Europe in Strasbourg drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organizations in 1986. That document sets a common legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs.

Corporate and government relations

In recent years, many large corporations have increased their corporate social responsibility departments because it is good for business, to enhance their public image, and in an attempt to preempt NGO campaigns against certain corporate practices. In some cases, as well, corporations are virtually forced to accommodate NGO demands. "In developing countries, businesses that were used to managing governmental relationships personally now find that they have to contend with large and (comparatively) rich NGOs that can bring pressure to bear on their local governments via influence with donor-country governments that control substantial amounts of revenue coming into the country. Logging rights can no longer be secured over an amicable dinner at the club; now foreign NGOs are able to impinge on business dealings in ways that were unimaginable only a few years before."

Likewise, governments often find it more worthwhile to cooperate with NGOs than to resist them, even in times of war. In December 2007, for example, the United States Department of Defense Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs) established an International Health Division under Force Health Protection & Readiness . Part of International Health's mission is to communicate with NGOs in areas of mutual interest. Department of Defense Directive 3000.05 , in 2005, requires DoD to regard stability-enhancing activities as a mission of importance equal to warfighting. In compliance with international law , DoD has necessarily built a capacity to improve essential services in areas of conflict such as Iraq, where the customary lead agencies (State Department and USAID) find it difficult to operate. Unlike the "co-option" strategy described for corporations, the OASD(HA) recognizes the neutrality of health as an essential service. International Health cultivates collaborative relationships with NGOs, albeit at arms-length, recognizing their traditional independence, expertise and honest broker status. While the goals of DoD and NGOs may seem incongruent, the DoD's emphasis on stability and security to reduce and prevent conflict suggests, on careful analysis, important mutual interests.

See also

• Category Non-governmental organizations by country
• Charitable organization
• Community foundation
• Non-profit organisation
• Not Just For Profit
• Occupational health and safety

Further reading

• Terje Tvedt, 19982/2003: Angels of >Mercy or Development Diplomats. NGOs & Foreign Aid, Oxford: James Currey
• Steve W. Witt, ed. Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination of Information in Developing Countries (Saur, 2006). ISBN 3-598-22030-8
• Cox, P, N Shams, GC Jahn, P Erickson and P Hicks. 2002. Building collaboration between NGOs and agricultural research institutes. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture 6: 1-8. [5]
• Ann Florini, ed. The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Japan Center for International Exchange, 2001).
• Rodney Bruce Hall, and Biersteker, Thomas. The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance (Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 2003)
• Dorthea Hilhorst, The Real World of NGOs: Discourses, Diversity and Development, Zed Books, 2003
• Joan Roelofs, Foundations and Public Policy: The Mask of Pluralism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003).
• Ian Smillie, & Minear, Larry, editors. The Charity of Nations: Humanitarian Action in a Calculating World, Kumarian Press, 2004
• Simon Maxwell and Diane Stone. (eds) Global Knowledge Networks and International Development: Bridges Across Boundaries (Routledge, 2005: I-xix; 1-192).
• Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism, New York :Cambridge University Press, 2005
• Thomas Ward, editor. Development, Social Justice, and Civil Society: An Introduction to the Political Economy of NGOs, Paragon House, 2005
• H. Teegen, 2003. ‘International NGOs as Global Institutions: Using Social Capital to Impact Multinational Enterprises and Governments’, Journal of International Management.
• S.Goonatilake. Recolonisation: Foreign Funded NGO's in Sri Lanka, Sage Publications 2006.
• Teegen, H. Doh, J., Vachani, S., 2004. “The importance of nongovernmental organisation in global governance and value creation: an international business research agenda“ in Journal of International Business Studies. Washington: Vol. 35, Iss.6.
• K. Rodman, (1998)."‘Think Globally, Punish Locally: Nonstate Actors, Multinational Corporations, and Human Rights Sanctions" in Ethics in International Affairs, vol. 12.

More useful are regional histories and analyses of the experience of NGOs. Specific works (although this is by no means an exhaustive list) include:

• T. R. Davies, The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: The Campaign for Disarmament between the Two World Wars, Brill, 2007. ISBN 3-598-22030-8
• H. Englund, Prisoners of Freedom: Human Rights & the Africa Poor, University of California Press, 2006
• Carrie Meyer, The Economics and Politics of NGOs in Latin America, Praeger Publishers, July 30, 1999
• Chhandasi Pandya. 2006. Private Authority and Disaster Relief: The Cases of Post-Tsunami Aceh and Nias. Critical Asian Studies. Vol. 38, No. 2. Pg. 298-308. Routledge Press: Taylor & Francis Group
• Maha Abdelrahman, Civil Society Exposed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt, The American University in Cairo Press, 2004. Al-Ahram Weekly has done a review of the book.
• Sangeeta Kamat, Development hegemony: NGOs and The State in India, Delhi, New York; Oxford University Press, 2002
• Adama Sow, Chancen und Risiken von NGOs – Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea während der Unruhen 2007 – EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 (German)
• Lyal S. Sunga, "Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq," in Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Bell and Jean-Marc Coicaud, Cambridge Univ. and United Nations Univ. Press, 2007.
• Lyal S. Sunga, "NGO Involvement in International Human Rights Monitoring, International Human Rights Law and Non-Governmental Organizations" (2005) 41-69.
• Werker & Ahmed (2008): What do Non-Governmental Organizations do?
• Steve Charnovitz, "Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance," Michigan Journal of International Law, Vol. 18, Winter 1997, at 183-286.

The de facto reference resource for information and statistics on International NGOs (INGOs) and other transnational organisational forms is the Yearbook of International Organizations, produced by the Union of International Associations.

External links

All links Retrieved October 18, 2008.

• ESRC Non Governmental Public Action programme
• Duke University NGO Library
• Global Policy Forum: The site includes the history of NGOs and various articles.
• UN NGLS - UN Non-Governmental Liaison Service
• London School of Economics International Working Paper Series on NGOs
• What is a Non-Governmental Organization? City University, London
• A brief history of Non-Governmental Organizations
• Youth E-Service, YES

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