Merleau-Ponty, Maurice

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'''Maurice Merleau-Ponty''' (March 14, 1908 – May 4, 1961) was a [[France|French]] [[phenomenology|phenomenologist]] philosopher, strongly influenced by [[Edmund Husserl]], and often somewhat mistakenly classified as an [[existentialism|existentialist]] thinker because of his close association with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Simone de Beauvoir]], and his distinctly [[Heidegger]]ian conception of Being.
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{{epname|Merleau-Ponty, Maurice}}  
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'''Maurice Merleau-Ponty''' (March 14, 1908 – May 4, 1961) was a [[France|French]] philosopher, strongly influenced by the [[phenomenology]] of [[Edmund Husserl]] and the [[hermeneutics|hermeneutic]] [[philosophy]] of [[Martin Heidegger]]. He is sometimes considered an [[existentialism|existentialist]] thinker because of his close association with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], though significant differences remain between these thinkers. Merleau-Ponty’s primary philosophical contributions are his emphasis on [[perception]] and his notion of corporeality as the lived bodily experience of the world, which for him is the basis of all [[knowledge]]. His later work focuses on the role of [[philosophy of language|language]] and the spontaneity of expression. His work has influenced many areas of philosophy, particularly that of [[cognitive science]], [[feminism]], and [[environmental philosophy]].  
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== Life ==
 
== Life ==
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In 1930, Merleau-Ponty completed his training at the [[Ecole Normale Supérieure]], where he had studied with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. In 1949, four years after the publication of the ''[[Phenomenology of Perception]]'', Merleau-Ponty was awarded the Chair of Child Psychology at the [[Sorbonne]].
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Merleau-Ponty was born on March 14, 1908, in Rochefort-sur-Mer, [[France]]. In 1930 he received his aggregation in philosophy at the ''Ecole Normale Supérieure'', where he met [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. Afterwards Merleau-Ponty taught philosophy at a number of different high schools throughout France. He completed his ''Docteur des Lettres'' after finishing his two dissertations that were to become his first major works, ''The Structure of Behavior'' (1942) and the ''Phenomenology of Perception'' (1945). In 1949, Merleau-Ponty was awarded the Chair of Child Psychology at the Sorbonne, and in 1952, at the age of forty-four, he was appointed the Chair of Philosophy at the ''College de France'', the youngest person ever to achieve this position. He held the position until May 1961, when he died suddenly of a stroke, apparently while preparing for a class on [[René Descartes|Descartes]]. Merleau-Ponty is interred in Le Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.
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At 44, Merleau-Ponty was the youngest ever Chair of Philosophy at the [[College de France]] when he was appointed in 1952. He held this position until May 1961, when he died suddenly of a [[stroke]], apparently while preparing for a class on [[René Descartes|Descartes]].  
 
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Merleau-Ponty is interred in [[Le Père Lachaise Cemetery]] in Paris.
 
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==Work==
 
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In his ''Phenomenology of Perception'' (first published in [[French language|French]] in 1945), Merleau-Ponty developed the concept of the "body-subject" as an alternative to the [[René Descartes|cartesian]] "cogito".  This distinction is especially important in that Merleau-Ponty perceives the essences of the world existentially, as opposed to the Cartesian idea that the world is merely an extension of our own minds.  Consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually `engaged'.  The phenomenal thing is not the unchanging object of the natural sciences, but a correlate of our body and its sensory functions.  Taking up and coinciding with the sensible qualities it encounters, the body as incarnated [[subjectivity]] intentionally reconstructs things within an ever-present world frame, through use of its pre-conscious, pre-predicative understanding of the world's make-up. Things are that upon which our body has a grip, while the grip itself is a function of our connaturality with the world's things. 
 
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The essential partiality of our view of things, their being given only in a certain perspective and at a certain moment in time does not diminish their reality, but on the contrary establishes it, as there is no other way for things to be co-present with us and with other things than through such "Abschattung"(Shading).  The thing seen in perspective transcends our view, and yet is immanent in it.  By a pre-conscious act of `original faith' we immediately place this phenomenal thing in the world, where it blends in with other things and behaves like any "figure" against a certain background.  Just as much as our own unity as a bodily subject is not a unity in thought, but one that is experienced in our interaction with our surroundings, so the unity of the thing is `perceived' as pervading all of its perspectives.  We do not consciously construct the thing, but rather allow it to construct itself before our eyes; only when this unconscious process results in perceptive ambiguity, i.e. when the body is unable to present us the thing in any clearly articulated way, the subject will consciously interfere and clarify his perception.  Apart from such instances, the subjectivity of the perceiving body operates unknown to the conscious subject, engaging the pre-objective factuality in which it too participates, and disclosing the rationality of the world to the subject.  Thus we encounter meaningful things in a unified though ever open-ended world.
 
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Critics have remarked that while Merleau-Ponty makes a great effort to break away from Cartesian [[dualism]], in the end the "Phenomenology of Perception" still starts out from the opposition of [[consciousness]] and its objects.  Merleau-Ponty himself also acknowledged this, and in his later work proceeded from a standpoint of unity, replacing notions that still centre on the subject by notions of "Being" and the essential reversibility of seeing and being visible.
 
  
 
== Thematic overview of his works ==
 
== Thematic overview of his works ==
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=== The primacy of [[perception]] ===
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In ''The Structure of Behavior'' and ''Phenomenology of Perception'', Merleau-Ponty argued against the empirical or “naturalist” tradition (beginning with [[John Locke]]), which held that [[perception]] was the causal product of atomic sensations. At the time this atomist-causal conception was being perpetuated in certain psychological currents, particularly in behaviorist psychology. At the same time, however, Merleau-Ponty argued also against the rationalist or idealist tradition that gave primacy to the intellect in our understanding of the world. In contrast to both these positions Merleau-Ponty held that perception is the dominant, active dimension in knowing, in that it is the primordial openness to the lived world ''(Lebenswelt)''. This primordial openness, then, is at the heart of his thesis of the primacy of perception.
  
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=== The primacy of perception ===
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Merleau-Ponty was greatly influenced by the [[phenomenology]] of [[Edmund Husserl]], who held to the essential unity of [[consciousness]] in that "all consciousness is consciousness of something." Within this unity, however, a distinction can be made between the "act of thought" ''(noesis)'', which comes from the subject, and the "[[intentionality|intentional]] object of thought" ''(noema)'', which comes from the object. In Husserlian phenomenology, the correlation between noesis and noema is the first step in the constitution of an analysis of consciousness.
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From the time of writing ''Structure of Behavior'' and ''Phenomenology of Perception'', Merleau-Ponty wanted to show, in opposition to the idea that drove the tradition beginning with John Locke, that perception was not the causal product of atomic sensations. This atomist-causal conception was being perpetuated in certain psychological currents of the time, particularly in behaviorist psychology. According to Merleau-Ponty, perception has an active dimension, in that it is a primordial openness to the lived world (to the Lebenswelt)
 
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This primordial openness is at the heart of his thesis of the primacy of perception. The slogan of the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl is "all consciousness is consciousness of something", which implies a distinction between "acts of thought" (the [[noesis]]) and "intentional objects of thought" (the [[noema]]). Thus, the correlation between noesis and noema becomes the first step in the constitution of analyses of consciousness.
 
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However, in studying the posthumous manuscripts of Husserl, who remained one of his major influences, Merleau-Ponty remarked that, in their evolution, Husserl's work brings to light phenomena which are not assimilable to noetic-noematic correlation. This is particularly the case when one attends to the phenomena of the body (which is at once body-subject and body-object), subjective time (the consciousness of time is neither an act of consciousness nor an object of thought) and the other (the first considerations of the other in Husserl led to solipsism).
 
  
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The distinction between "acts of thought" (noesis) and "intentional objects of thought" (noema) does not seem, therefore, to constitute an irreducible ground. It appears rather at a higher level of analysis. Thus, Merleau-Ponty does not postulate that "all consciousness is consciousness of something", which supposes at the outset a noetic-noematic ground. Instead, he develops the thesis according to which "all consciousness is perceptual consciousness". In doing so, he establishes a significant turn in the development of phenomenology, indicating that its conceptualisations should be re-examined in the light of the primacy of perception, in weighing up the philosophical consequences of this thesis.
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While studying the posthumous manuscripts of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty discovered certain aspects of Husserl's later work that called into question some of the claims of Husserl’s earlier work, for the later work revealed particular phenomena which cannot be assimilated within the noetic-noematic formulation. This is particularly the case when one attends to the primordial experiences of the body (which is at once body-subject and body-object), of subjective time (which is neither an act of consciousness nor an object of thought) and of the Other (which transcends all objectifications). For this reason, the distinction between "acts of thought" and "intentional objects of thought" does not constitute an irreducible ground, as Husserl had initially argued. Rather this correlation appears at a higher level of analysis; or in other words, it is founded on a more primordial ground. For this reason, Merleau-Ponty does not suppose at the outset a noetic-noematic ground. Instead, he develops the thesis according to which "all consciousness is perceptual consciousness." In doing this, he establishes a significant turn in the development of phenomenology, indicating that its conceptualizations should be re-examined in the light of the primacy of perception.
  
 
=== Corporeality ===
 
=== Corporeality ===
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[[Image:Descartes.jpg|thumb|240px|right|René Descartes]]
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Taking the study of perception as his point of departure, Merleau-Ponty was led to recognize that one's own body ''(le corps propre)'' is not only a thing, a potential object of study for [[science]], but also a permanent condition of experience, a constituent of the perceptual openness to the world and its investment. The primacy of perception signifies a primacy of experience in so far as perception becomes an active and constitutive dimension. In his ''Phenomenology of Perception'' (1945), Merleau-Ponty develops the concept of the "body-subject" as an alternative to the [[René Descartes|cartesian]] "cogito." Rather than trying to establish the reality of essences, and in turn the world, on the primacy of the cogito, Merleau-Ponty held that consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are all intricately intertwined and mutually ‘engaged’. Moreover, against [[empiricism]] he held that the phenomenal thing is not the unchanging object of the natural sciences, but a correlate of our body and its sensory functions. Taking up and coinciding with the sensible qualities it encounters, the body as incarnated subjectivity intentionally reconstructs things within an ever-present world frame. This occurs not through its conscious intentions but through a pre-conscious, pre-predicative understanding of the world and the things in it. Things are that upon which our body has a grip, while the grip itself is a function of our connaturality with the world's things.
  
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[[Image:Descartes.jpg|thumb|120px|right|René Descartes]]
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The dependency upon experience and a corporeal subjectivity means we are limited to an essential partiality in our view of things. Nonetheless, the fact that things are given only in a certain perspective and at a certain moment in time does not diminish their reality, but on the contrary establishes it, as there is no other way for things to be co-present with us. The thing seen in perspective transcends our view and yet is immanent in it. By a pre-conscious act of ‘original faith’ we immediately place this phenomenal thing in the world, where it blends in with other things and behaves like any "figure" against a certain background. Just as much as our own unity as a bodily subject is not a unity in thought, but one that is experienced in our interaction with our surroundings, so the unity of the thing is ‘perceived’ as pervading all of its perspectives. We do not consciously construct the thing, but rather allow it to construct itself before our eyes; only when this unconscious process results in perceptive ambiguity (i.e., when the body is unable to present us the thing in any clearly articulated way) does the subject consciously interfere and clarify his perception. Apart from such instances, the subjectivity of the perceiving body operates unknown within the subject, engaging the pre-objective factuality of the world in which it too participates. Thus, in this way we encounter meaningful things in a unified though ever open-ended world.
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Taking the study of perception as his point of departure, Merleau-Ponty was led to recognize that one's own body (le corps propre) is not only a thing, a potential object of study for science, but is also a permanent condition of experience, a constituent of the perceptual openness to the world and to its investment ([trans.? - à son investissement]). He therefore underlines the fact that there is an inherence of consciousness and of the body of which the analysis of perception should take account. The primacy of perception signifies a primacy of experience, so to speak, in so far as perception becomes an active and constitutive dimension.
 
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The development of his works thus establishes an analysis which recognizes a corporeality of consciousness as much as an intentionality of the body, and so stands in contrast with the dualist ontology of mind and body in René Descartes, a philosopher to whom Merleau-Ponty continually returned, despite the important differences that separate them.
 
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=== Language ===
 
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The highlighting of the fact that corporeality intrinsically has a dimension of expressivity which proves to be fundamental to the constitution of the Ego is one of the conclusions from Structure of Behavior that is constantly reiterated in Merleau-Ponty's later works. Following this theme of expressivity, he goes on to examine how an incarnate subject is in a position to undertake actions that transcend the organic level of the body, such as in intellectual operations and the products of one's cultural life.
 
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[[Image:Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg|thumb|120px|left|Ferdinand de Saussure]]
 
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He carefully considers language, then, as the core of culture, by examining in particular the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense - enriching his perspective not only by an analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body, but also by taking into account pathologies of language, painting, cinema, literary usage and poetry.
 
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One can see a certain preoccupation with language, beginning with the reflection on artistic expression in Structure of Behavior - which contains a passage on El Greco (p. 219ff {Fr. Ed.}) that prefigures the remarks that he develops in "Cezanne's Doubt" (1945) which itself follows the discussion in the Phenomenology of Perception. To this extent, the work undertaken while he occupied the Chair of Child Psychology and Pedagogy at the University of the Sorbonne is not an interlude in his philosophical and phenomenological preoccupations. It represents, rather, a significant moment in the development of his thought.
 
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As the course outlines of his Sorbonne lectures indicate, during this period he continues a dialogue between phenomenology and the diverse work carried out in psychology, all in order to return to the study of the acquisition of language in children, as well as to broadly take advantage of the contribution of Ferdinand de Saussure to linguistics, and to work on the notion of structure through a discussion of work in psychology, linguistics and social anthropology.
 
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=== Art ===
 
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It is important to clarify that the attention Merleau-Ponty pays to diverse forms of art (visual, plastic, literary, poetic, etc) should not be attributed to a concern with beauty. Nor is his work an attempt to elaborate normative criteria for art. Thus, one does not find in his work a theoretical attempt to discern what constitutes a major work or a work of art, or even handicraft (l'artisanat).
 
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Still, it is useful to note that, while he does not establish any normative criteria for art as such, there is nonetheless in his work a prevalent distinction between primary and secondary modes of expression. This distinction appears in the Phenomenology of Perception (p 207, 2nd note {Fr. ed.}) and is sometimes repeated in terms of spoken and speaking language (language parlé et parlant) (The Prose of the World, p 17-22 {Fr. ed.}). Spoken language (le language parlé), or secondary expression, returns to our linguistic baggage, to the cultural heritage that we have acquired, as well as the brute mass of relationships between signs and significations. Speaking language (le language parlant), or primary expression, such as it is, is language in the production of a sense, language at the advent of a thought, at the moment where it makes itself an advent of sense.
 
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It is speaking language, that is to say, primary expression, that interests Merleau-Ponty and which keeps his attention through his treatment of the nature of production and the reception of expressions, a subject which also overlaps with an analysis of action, of intentionality, of perception, as well as the links between freedom and external conditions.
 
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On the subject of painting, Merleau-Ponty claims that at the moment of his creative work, the painter can start with a certain idea and desire to actualise it, or else he can begin with the material in an attempt to release a certain idea or emotion, but in each case, there is, in the activity of painting, a pregnancy between the elaboration of expression and the sense that is created (trans? - une prégnance de l’élaboration de l’expression avec le sens qui est mis en œuvre). Beginning with this basic description, Merleau-Ponty attempts to explicate the invariant structures that characterise expressivity, attempting to take account of the over-determination of sense that he had described in "Cezanne's Doubt".
 
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Among the structures to consider, the study of the notion of style occupies an important place in "Indirect Language and the Voices of Silence". In spite of certain similarities with André Malraux, Merleau-Ponty distinguishes himself from Malraux in respect to three conceptions of style, the last of which is employed in Malraux's "The Voices of Silence". Merleau-Ponty remarks that in this work, "style" is sometimes used by Malraux in a highly subjective sense, understood as a projection of the artist's individuality. Sometimes it is used, on the contrary, in a very metaphysical sense (in Merleau-Ponty's opinion, a mystical sense), in which style is connected with a conception of an "über-artist" expressing "the Spirit of painting". Finally, it sometimes is reduced to simply designating a categorisation of an artistic school or movement.
 
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For Merleau-Ponty, it is these uses of the notion of style that lead Malraux to postulate a cleavage between the objectivity of Italian Renaissance painting and the subjectivity of painting in his own time, a conclusion that Merleau-Ponty disputes. According to Merleau-Ponty, it is important to consider the heart of this problematic, by recognizing that style is first of all a demand owed to the primacy of perception, which also implies taking into consideration the dimensions of historicity and intersubjectivity.
 
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=== History and Intersubjectivity ===
 
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=== Science ===
 
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In his essay "Cézanne's Doubt", in which he identifies Cézanne's Impressionistic theory of painting as analagous to his own concept of radical reflection, the attempt to return to, and reflect on, prereflective consciousnes, Merleau-Ponty identifies science as the opposite of art.  In Merleau-Ponty's account, while art is an attempt to capture an individual's perception, science is antiindividualistic.  In the preface to his [[Phenomenology of Perception]], Merleau-Ponty presents a phenomenological objection to [[positivism]]: that it can tell us nothing aobut human subjectivity.  All that a scientific text can explain is the particular individual experience of that scientist, which cannot be transcended.
 
  
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=== Psychology ===
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=== [[Philosophy of language|Language]] and [[Art]]===
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The highlighting of corporeality as intrinsically having a dimension of expressivity that is fundamental to the constitution of the [[Ego]] is one of the conclusions from ''The Structure of Behavior'' that is constantly reiterated in Merleau-Ponty's later works. Following this theme of expressivity, he goes on to examine how an incarnate subject is in a position to undertake actions that transcend the organic level of the body, such as in intellectual operations and the products and actions of one's cultural life. In doing this, he carefully considers [[language]] as the core of [[culture]] and examines the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense. In this way, he enriches his perspective not only by an analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body, but also by taking into account the ‘logic’ of language, [[painting]], [[cinema]], [[literature]], and [[poetry]].
  
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=== Sociology and Anthropology ===
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It is important to clarify that Merleau-Ponty’s interest in diverse forms of art (visual, plastic, literary, poetic) was not primarily motivated by a concern for beauty as such. For he did not attempt to elaborate any normative criteria for art, and one does not find in his work a theoretical attempt to discern what constitutes the work of art. Rather his interest in aesthetics focuses mainly on his important distinction between primary and secondary modes of expression. This distinction appears in the ''Phenomenology of Perception'' and is sometimes repeated in terms of spoken and speaking language ''(language parlé et parlant)''. Spoken language ''(le language parlé)'', or secondary expression, relies on our ‘linguistic baggage’, that is, on the cultural heritage that we have acquired, as well as the brute mass of relationships between signs and significations. Speaking language ''(le language parlant)'', or primary expression, is language in the production of sense or meaning; it is language at the advent of thought, at the moment where thought breaks through and makes itself understood. It was speaking language or primary expression, then, that interested Merleau-Ponty in art and which motivated his treatment of the nature of production and the reception of expressions. This subject also overlaps his analysis of action, intentionality, perception, and the interconnections between freedom and external conditions.
  
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=== Flesh and the Chiasm / Visible and the Invisible ===
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More particularly, in his discussion of painting, Merleau-Ponty says that at the moment of his creative work, the painter starts either with a certain idea and then tries to actualize it, or with the material and attempts to form a certain idea or emotion; in both cases, though, there exists in the activity of painting a pregnancy between the elaboration of expression and the sense or meaning that is created. Beginning with this basic description, then, Merleau-Ponty attempts to explicate the invariant structures that characterize expressivity, attempting to take account of the over-determination of sense that he had described in "Cezanne's Doubt."
  
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=== Politics===
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Also, among the structures to consider, the study of the notion of style occupied an important place in "Indirect Language and the Voices of Silence." In spite of certain similarities with [[André Malraux]], Merleau-Ponty distinguishes himself from Malraux in respect to three conceptions of style, the last of which is employed in Malraux's "The Voices of Silence." Merleau-Ponty noted that "style" is sometimes used by Malraux in a highly subjective sense, understood as a projection of the artist's individuality. At other times it is used in a very metaphysical sense (in Merleau-Ponty's opinion, a mystical sense), in which style is connected with a conception of an "über-artist" expressing "the Spirit of painting." Finally, at still other times, style is reduced to simply designating a category of an artistic school or movement. For Merleau-Ponty, it is these uses of the notion of style that lead Malraux to postulate a cleavage between the objectivity of Italian Renaissance painting and the subjectivity of painting in his own time, a conclusion that Merleau-Ponty disputes. According to Merleau-Ponty, it is important to consider the heart of this problematic, by recognizing that style is first of all a demand owed to the primacy of perception, which also implies taking into consideration the dimensions of historicity and intersubjectivity.
  
 
== Contemporary influence ==
 
== Contemporary influence ==
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{{cleanup-section}}
 
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Merleau-Ponty's work has become classic, in the sense that it is read today in different disciplines, with very different effects.
 
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===Anti-cognitivist cognitive science===
 
===Anti-cognitivist cognitive science===
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Despite Merleau-Ponty's own critical position with respect to science, his work has become a touchstone for anti-cognitivist strands of cognitive science. This has occurred largely through the influence of Hubert Dreyfus. Dreyfus' critique of cognitivism (or the computational account of the mind) in ''What Computers Can't Do'' consciously replays Merleau-Ponty's critique of intellectualist [[psychology]] in order to argue for the irreducibility of a corporeal know-how that occurs through discrete, syntactic processes. Moreover, through the publication in 1991 of ''The Embodied Mind'' (by Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch) this association was extended to another strand of anti-cognitivist cognitive science, namely, “embodied” or “enactive cognitive science.” It is through the influence of Dreyfus and these others, then, that Merleau-Ponty (and phenomenology) became a focal point in theories of cognition. This has led, in turn, to various neurophysiological accounts of the interrelatedness of mind and body in the knowing process.
  
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Despite Merleau-Ponty's own critical position with respect to science - he describes scientific points of view as "always both naive and at the same time dishonest" in his Preface to the Phenomenology - his work has become a touchstone for the anti-cognitivist strands of cognitive science, largely through the influence of [[Hubert Dreyfus]].
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===[[Faminism|Feminist]] philosophy===
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Merleau-Ponty’s work has also drawn the interest of some [[Australia]]n and [[Scandinavia]]n philosophers, who have been inspired by the French feminist tradition, including Rosalyn Diprose and Iris Young. Diprose's recent work uses Merleau-Ponty conception of intercorporeality, or indistinction of perspectives, in order to critique individualistic identity politics from a feminist perspective. In doing this, she analyzes the irreducibility of generosity as a virtue, where generosity has a dual sense of both giving and being given. Iris Young, as well, uses Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body in her essay "Throwing Like a Girl," and its follow-up, "'Throwing Like a Girl': Twenty Years Later." In these works Young analyzes the particular modalities of feminine bodily comportment as they differ from that of males. Young observes that while a man usually throws a ball by putting his whole body into the motion, a woman generally restricts her movements as she throws the ball; generally, then, in sports, women move in a more tentative and reactive way. Young refers to Merleau-Ponty’s argument that we experience the world in terms of the "I can"; in other words, we are oriented towards certain projects based on our capacities and habits. Young uses this in her thesis that in women, this intentionality is often inhibited and ambivalent rather than confident.  
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Dreyfus' seminal critique of cognitivism (or the computational account of the mind), ''What Computers Can't Do'', consciously replays Merleau-Ponty's critique of intellectualist psychology to argue for the irreducibility of corporeal know-how to discrete, syntactic processes. Through the influence of Dreyfus' critique, and neurophysiological alternative, Merleau-Ponty became associated with neurophysiological, connectionist accounts of cognition.
 
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With the publication in 1991 of ''The Embodied Mind'' by [[Francisco Varela]], [[Evan Thompson]], and [[Eleanor Rosch]], this association was extended, if only partially, to another strand of anti-cognitivist cognitive science: embodied or enactive cognitive science.
 
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It was through this relationship with Merleau-Ponty's work that cognitive science's affair with phenomenology was born, which is represented by a growing number of works, including Andy Clark's ''Being There'' (1997), the collection ''Naturalizing Phenomenology'' edited by Petitot et al. (1999), Alva Noë's ''Action in Perception'' (2004), Shaun Gallagher's ''How the Body Shapes the Mind'' (2005), and the journal ''Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences''.
 
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References
 
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Clark, A. 1997.  ''Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again''.  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
 
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Gallagher, S. 2003. ''How the Body Shapes the Mind''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 
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Noë, A. ''Action in Perception''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
 
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Petitot, J., Varela, F., Pachoud, B. and Roy, J-M. (eds.). 1999. ''Naturalizing Phenomenology: Issues in Contemporary Phenomenology and Cognitive Science''. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
 
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Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. and Rosch, E. 1991. The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience.  Cambridge: MIT Press.
 
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===Feminist philosophy===
 
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Merleau-Ponty has also been picked up by Australian and Scandinavian philosophers inspired by the French feminist tradition, including [[Rosalyn Diprose]] and [[Sara Heinämaa]].
 
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Rosalyn Diprose's recent work takes advantage of Merleau-Ponty conception of an intercorporeality, or indistinction of perspectives, to critique individualistic identity politics from a feminist perspective and to ground the irreducibility of generosity as a virtue, where generosity has a dual sense of giving and being given. See esp. ''Corporeal Generosity'' (2002)
 
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Sara Heinämaa has argued for a re-reading of Merleau-Ponty's influence on Simone de Beauvoir. (She has also challenged Hubert Dreyfus' reading of Merleau-Ponty as behaviourist, and as neglecting the importance of the phenomenological reduction to Merleau-Ponty's thought.)
 
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Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body has also been taken up by [[Iris Young]] in her reknowned essay "Throwing Like a Girl", and its follow-up, "'Throwing Like a Girl': Twenty Years Later." Young analyzes the particular modalities of feminine bodily comportment as they differ from that of males. Young observes that while a man who throws a ball puts his whole body into the motion, a woman throwing a ball generally restricts her own movements as she makes them, and that, generally, in sports, women move in a more tentative, reactive way. Merleau-Ponty argues that we experience the world in terms of the "I can"— that is, oriented towards certain projects based on our capacity and habituality. Young's thesis is that in women, this intentionality is inhibited and ambivalent, rather than confident.
 
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For a feminist post-modern critique see also the discussion between Marjorie O’Loughlin and Shari Popen:
 
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http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/95_docs/o'loughlin.html
 
  
 
===Eco-phenomenology===
 
===Eco-phenomenology===
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Finally, Merleau-Ponty’s work has been appropriated as well by certain environmental thinkers in their attempt to forge an “eco-phenomenology.” Eco-phenomenology attempts to rethink the idea of “nature” through a phenomenological analysis of our experience of nature and the intrinsic relations which are operative within the world. Merleau-Ponty’s notion of corporeality suggests an inner-dynamism within the play of nature. David Abram, for example, explains Merleau-Ponty's concept of "the Flesh" as "the mysterious tissue or matrix that underlies and gives rise to both the perceiver and the perceived as interdependent aspects of its spontaneous activity." (Abram, 66.) This leads to a concept of [[nature]] in which subject and object are dialectically united as determinations within a more primordial, unified reality.
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Ecophenomenology can be described as the pursuit of the relationalities of worldly engagement, both human and those of other creatures (Brown & Toadvine 2003).
 
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This engagement is situated in a kind of middle ground of relationality, a space governed exclusively neither by causality, nor by intentionality. In this space of in-betweenness phenomenology can overcome its inaugural opposition to naturalism.
 
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Charles Brown and Ted Toadvine, (Eds) (2003) ''Eco-Phenomenology: Back to the Earth Itself'', Albany: SUNY Press.  
 
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David Abram (1996) explains Merleau-Ponty's concept of "the Flesh" as "the mysterious tissue or matrix that underlies and gives rise to both the perceiver and the perceived as interdependent aspects of its spontaneous activity." [Abram, 1996 p. 66.] This concept unites subject and object dialectically as determinations within a more primordial reality. Merleau-Ponty himself refers to "that primordial being which is not yet the subject-being nor the object-being and which in every respect baffles reflection. From this primordial being to us, there is no derivation, nor any break; it has neither the tight construction of the mechanism nor the transparency of a whole which precedes its parts." ["The Concept of Nature, I" in ''Themes from the Lectures at the Collège de France 1952-1960'' (Chicago, Northwestern University Press, 1970), pp. 65-66.]
 
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Abram, D. (1996) ''The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than Human World''. New York: Pantheon Books.
 
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See also: Abram, D. (1988) "Merleau-Ponty and the Voice of the Earth." ''Environmental Ethics'' 10, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 101-20.
 
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For a bibliography of Eco-Phenomenology see http://www.emporia.edu/socsci/philos/biblio.htm
 
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==Bibliography==
 
==Bibliography==
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A selection of his works translated into English follows. A much more comprehensive bibliography can be found on [http://m-pc.binghamton.edu/bibl.html this page], at the Merleau-Ponty Circle website linked below.
+
===Primary Sources in English===
 +
*''Adventures of the Dialectic''. trans. Bien, Evanston. Northwestern University Press, 1973. ISBN 0810104040
 +
*''The Essential Writings of Merleau-Ponty''. ed. Fisher. New York: Harcourt, 1969.
 +
*''Humanism and Terror: An Essay on the Communist Problem''. trans. O'Neill. Boston: Beacon Press, 1969.
 +
*''Phenomenology of Perception''. trans. Smith. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962.
 +
*''The Primacy of Perception: and Other Essays on Phenomenology, Psychology, the Philosophy of Art, History and Politics''. ed. Edie. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
 +
*''Prose of the World''. trans. O'Neill. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1969.
 +
*''Sense and Nonsense''. trans. Dreyfus & Dreyfus. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
 +
*''Signs''. trans. McCleary. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
 +
*''The Structure of Behaviour''. trans. Fischer. London: Metheun, 1965.
 +
*''The Visible and the Invisible''. trans. Lingis. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968.
 +
*''The World of Perception''. trans. Oliver Davis. London: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 041531271X
  
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*''Adventures of the Dialectic'', trans. Bien, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973.
+
=== Secondary Sources ===
 +
* Abram, D. ''The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than Human World''. New York: Pantheon Books, 1996. ISBN 067943819X
 +
* Brown, Charles, and Ted Toadvine (eds.). ''Eco-Phenomenology: Back to the Earth Itself''. Albany: SUNY Press, 2003. ISBN 0791456218
 +
* Clark, A. ''Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998. ISBN 0262531569
 +
* Gallagher, Shaun. ''How the Body Shapes the Mind.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0199271941
 +
* Petitot, J., F. Varela, B. Pachoud, and J.M. Roy (eds.). ''Naturalizing Phenomenology: Issues in Contemporary Phenomenology and Cognitive Science''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0804733228
 +
* Rosch, Eleanor, Evan T. Thompson, and Franscisco J. Varela. ''The Embodied Mind Cognitive Science and Human Experience.'' Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1992. ISBN 0262720213
  
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*''The Essential Writings of Merleau-Ponty'', ed. Fisher, New York: Harcourt, 1969.
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== External links ==
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All links retrieved November 8, 2022.
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*''Humanism and Terror: An Essay on the Communist Problem'', trans. O'Neill, Boston: Beacon Press, 1969.
 
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−
*''Phenomenology of Perception'', trans. Smith, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962.
 
−
 
 
−
*''The Primacy of Perception: and Other Essays on Phenomenology, Psychology, the Philosophy of Art, History and Politics'', ed. Edie, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
 
−
 
 
−
*''Prose of the World'', trans. O'Neill, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1969.
 
−
 
 
−
*''Sense and Nonsense'', trans. Dreyfus & Dreyfus, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
 
−
 
 
−
*''Signs'', trans. McCleary, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
 
−
 
 
−
*''The Structure of Behaviour'', trans. Fischer, London: Metheun, 1965.
 
−
 
 
−
*''The Visible and the Invisible'', trans. Lingis, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968.
 
−
 
 
−
*''The World of Perception'', trans. Oliver Davis, London: Routledge, 2004.
 
  
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== External links ==
+
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/m/merleau.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]  
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*[http://m-pc.binghamton.edu/ The Merleau-Ponty Circle]- A group devoted to the study of the writings of Maurice Merleau-Ponty
 
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*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/m/merleau.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]- Excellent article on Merleau-Ponty by Jack Reynolds
 
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*[http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/M/MerleauP.html Maurice Merleau-Ponty]
 
 
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/merleau-ponty/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
 
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/merleau-ponty/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
 +
===General Philosophy Sources===
 +
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
 +
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/ The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
 +
*[http://www.bu.edu/wcp/PaidArch.html Paideia Project Online]
 +
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/ Project Gutenberg]
  
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[[Category:1908 births|Merleau-Ponty, Maurice]]
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[[category:biography]]
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[[Category:1961 deaths|Merleau-Ponty, Maurice]]
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[[Category:philosophers]]  
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[[Category:20th century philosophers|Merleau-Ponty, Maurice]]
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[[category:philosophy and religion]]
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[[Category:Continental philosophers|Merleau-Ponty, Maurice]]
 
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[[Category:French philosophers|Merleau-Ponty, Maurice]]
 
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[[Category:Phenomenology|Merleau-Ponty, Maurice]]
 
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[[Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure|Merleau-Ponty, Maurice]]
 
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[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
 
  
 
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Latest revision as of 00:45, 9 November 2022

Maurice Merleau-Ponty (March 14, 1908 – May 4, 1961) was a French philosopher, strongly influenced by the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and the hermeneutic philosophy of Martin Heidegger. He is sometimes considered an existentialist thinker because of his close association with Jean-Paul Sartre, though significant differences remain between these thinkers. Merleau-Ponty’s primary philosophical contributions are his emphasis on perception and his notion of corporeality as the lived bodily experience of the world, which for him is the basis of all knowledge. His later work focuses on the role of language and the spontaneity of expression. His work has influenced many areas of philosophy, particularly that of cognitive science, feminism, and environmental philosophy.

Life

Merleau-Ponty was born on March 14, 1908, in Rochefort-sur-Mer, France. In 1930 he received his aggregation in philosophy at the Ecole Normale Supérieure, where he met Jean-Paul Sartre. Afterwards Merleau-Ponty taught philosophy at a number of different high schools throughout France. He completed his Docteur des Lettres after finishing his two dissertations that were to become his first major works, The Structure of Behavior (1942) and the Phenomenology of Perception (1945). In 1949, Merleau-Ponty was awarded the Chair of Child Psychology at the Sorbonne, and in 1952, at the age of forty-four, he was appointed the Chair of Philosophy at the College de France, the youngest person ever to achieve this position. He held the position until May 1961, when he died suddenly of a stroke, apparently while preparing for a class on Descartes. Merleau-Ponty is interred in Le Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.

Thematic overview of his works

The primacy of perception

In The Structure of Behavior and Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty argued against the empirical or “naturalist” tradition (beginning with John Locke), which held that perception was the causal product of atomic sensations. At the time this atomist-causal conception was being perpetuated in certain psychological currents, particularly in behaviorist psychology. At the same time, however, Merleau-Ponty argued also against the rationalist or idealist tradition that gave primacy to the intellect in our understanding of the world. In contrast to both these positions Merleau-Ponty held that perception is the dominant, active dimension in knowing, in that it is the primordial openness to the lived world (Lebenswelt). This primordial openness, then, is at the heart of his thesis of the primacy of perception.

Merleau-Ponty was greatly influenced by the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl, who held to the essential unity of consciousness in that "all consciousness is consciousness of something." Within this unity, however, a distinction can be made between the "act of thought" (noesis), which comes from the subject, and the "intentional object of thought" (noema), which comes from the object. In Husserlian phenomenology, the correlation between noesis and noema is the first step in the constitution of an analysis of consciousness.

While studying the posthumous manuscripts of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty discovered certain aspects of Husserl's later work that called into question some of the claims of Husserl’s earlier work, for the later work revealed particular phenomena which cannot be assimilated within the noetic-noematic formulation. This is particularly the case when one attends to the primordial experiences of the body (which is at once body-subject and body-object), of subjective time (which is neither an act of consciousness nor an object of thought) and of the Other (which transcends all objectifications). For this reason, the distinction between "acts of thought" and "intentional objects of thought" does not constitute an irreducible ground, as Husserl had initially argued. Rather this correlation appears at a higher level of analysis; or in other words, it is founded on a more primordial ground. For this reason, Merleau-Ponty does not suppose at the outset a noetic-noematic ground. Instead, he develops the thesis according to which "all consciousness is perceptual consciousness." In doing this, he establishes a significant turn in the development of phenomenology, indicating that its conceptualizations should be re-examined in the light of the primacy of perception.

Corporeality

René Descartes

Taking the study of perception as his point of departure, Merleau-Ponty was led to recognize that one's own body (le corps propre) is not only a thing, a potential object of study for science, but also a permanent condition of experience, a constituent of the perceptual openness to the world and its investment. The primacy of perception signifies a primacy of experience in so far as perception becomes an active and constitutive dimension. In his Phenomenology of Perception (1945), Merleau-Ponty develops the concept of the "body-subject" as an alternative to the cartesian "cogito." Rather than trying to establish the reality of essences, and in turn the world, on the primacy of the cogito, Merleau-Ponty held that consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are all intricately intertwined and mutually ‘engaged’. Moreover, against empiricism he held that the phenomenal thing is not the unchanging object of the natural sciences, but a correlate of our body and its sensory functions. Taking up and coinciding with the sensible qualities it encounters, the body as incarnated subjectivity intentionally reconstructs things within an ever-present world frame. This occurs not through its conscious intentions but through a pre-conscious, pre-predicative understanding of the world and the things in it. Things are that upon which our body has a grip, while the grip itself is a function of our connaturality with the world's things.

The dependency upon experience and a corporeal subjectivity means we are limited to an essential partiality in our view of things. Nonetheless, the fact that things are given only in a certain perspective and at a certain moment in time does not diminish their reality, but on the contrary establishes it, as there is no other way for things to be co-present with us. The thing seen in perspective transcends our view and yet is immanent in it. By a pre-conscious act of ‘original faith’ we immediately place this phenomenal thing in the world, where it blends in with other things and behaves like any "figure" against a certain background. Just as much as our own unity as a bodily subject is not a unity in thought, but one that is experienced in our interaction with our surroundings, so the unity of the thing is ‘perceived’ as pervading all of its perspectives. We do not consciously construct the thing, but rather allow it to construct itself before our eyes; only when this unconscious process results in perceptive ambiguity (i.e., when the body is unable to present us the thing in any clearly articulated way) does the subject consciously interfere and clarify his perception. Apart from such instances, the subjectivity of the perceiving body operates unknown within the subject, engaging the pre-objective factuality of the world in which it too participates. Thus, in this way we encounter meaningful things in a unified though ever open-ended world.

Language and Art

The highlighting of corporeality as intrinsically having a dimension of expressivity that is fundamental to the constitution of the Ego is one of the conclusions from The Structure of Behavior that is constantly reiterated in Merleau-Ponty's later works. Following this theme of expressivity, he goes on to examine how an incarnate subject is in a position to undertake actions that transcend the organic level of the body, such as in intellectual operations and the products and actions of one's cultural life. In doing this, he carefully considers language as the core of culture and examines the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense. In this way, he enriches his perspective not only by an analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body, but also by taking into account the ‘logic’ of language, painting, cinema, literature, and poetry.

It is important to clarify that Merleau-Ponty’s interest in diverse forms of art (visual, plastic, literary, poetic) was not primarily motivated by a concern for beauty as such. For he did not attempt to elaborate any normative criteria for art, and one does not find in his work a theoretical attempt to discern what constitutes the work of art. Rather his interest in aesthetics focuses mainly on his important distinction between primary and secondary modes of expression. This distinction appears in the Phenomenology of Perception and is sometimes repeated in terms of spoken and speaking language (language parlé et parlant). Spoken language (le language parlé), or secondary expression, relies on our ‘linguistic baggage’, that is, on the cultural heritage that we have acquired, as well as the brute mass of relationships between signs and significations. Speaking language (le language parlant), or primary expression, is language in the production of sense or meaning; it is language at the advent of thought, at the moment where thought breaks through and makes itself understood. It was speaking language or primary expression, then, that interested Merleau-Ponty in art and which motivated his treatment of the nature of production and the reception of expressions. This subject also overlaps his analysis of action, intentionality, perception, and the interconnections between freedom and external conditions.

More particularly, in his discussion of painting, Merleau-Ponty says that at the moment of his creative work, the painter starts either with a certain idea and then tries to actualize it, or with the material and attempts to form a certain idea or emotion; in both cases, though, there exists in the activity of painting a pregnancy between the elaboration of expression and the sense or meaning that is created. Beginning with this basic description, then, Merleau-Ponty attempts to explicate the invariant structures that characterize expressivity, attempting to take account of the over-determination of sense that he had described in "Cezanne's Doubt."

Also, among the structures to consider, the study of the notion of style occupied an important place in "Indirect Language and the Voices of Silence." In spite of certain similarities with André Malraux, Merleau-Ponty distinguishes himself from Malraux in respect to three conceptions of style, the last of which is employed in Malraux's "The Voices of Silence." Merleau-Ponty noted that "style" is sometimes used by Malraux in a highly subjective sense, understood as a projection of the artist's individuality. At other times it is used in a very metaphysical sense (in Merleau-Ponty's opinion, a mystical sense), in which style is connected with a conception of an "über-artist" expressing "the Spirit of painting." Finally, at still other times, style is reduced to simply designating a category of an artistic school or movement. For Merleau-Ponty, it is these uses of the notion of style that lead Malraux to postulate a cleavage between the objectivity of Italian Renaissance painting and the subjectivity of painting in his own time, a conclusion that Merleau-Ponty disputes. According to Merleau-Ponty, it is important to consider the heart of this problematic, by recognizing that style is first of all a demand owed to the primacy of perception, which also implies taking into consideration the dimensions of historicity and intersubjectivity.

Contemporary influence

Anti-cognitivist cognitive science

Despite Merleau-Ponty's own critical position with respect to science, his work has become a touchstone for anti-cognitivist strands of cognitive science. This has occurred largely through the influence of Hubert Dreyfus. Dreyfus' critique of cognitivism (or the computational account of the mind) in What Computers Can't Do consciously replays Merleau-Ponty's critique of intellectualist psychology in order to argue for the irreducibility of a corporeal know-how that occurs through discrete, syntactic processes. Moreover, through the publication in 1991 of The Embodied Mind (by Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch) this association was extended to another strand of anti-cognitivist cognitive science, namely, “embodied” or “enactive cognitive science.” It is through the influence of Dreyfus and these others, then, that Merleau-Ponty (and phenomenology) became a focal point in theories of cognition. This has led, in turn, to various neurophysiological accounts of the interrelatedness of mind and body in the knowing process.

Feminist philosophy

Merleau-Ponty’s work has also drawn the interest of some Australian and Scandinavian philosophers, who have been inspired by the French feminist tradition, including Rosalyn Diprose and Iris Young. Diprose's recent work uses Merleau-Ponty conception of intercorporeality, or indistinction of perspectives, in order to critique individualistic identity politics from a feminist perspective. In doing this, she analyzes the irreducibility of generosity as a virtue, where generosity has a dual sense of both giving and being given. Iris Young, as well, uses Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body in her essay "Throwing Like a Girl," and its follow-up, "'Throwing Like a Girl': Twenty Years Later." In these works Young analyzes the particular modalities of feminine bodily comportment as they differ from that of males. Young observes that while a man usually throws a ball by putting his whole body into the motion, a woman generally restricts her movements as she throws the ball; generally, then, in sports, women move in a more tentative and reactive way. Young refers to Merleau-Ponty’s argument that we experience the world in terms of the "I can"; in other words, we are oriented towards certain projects based on our capacities and habits. Young uses this in her thesis that in women, this intentionality is often inhibited and ambivalent rather than confident.

Eco-phenomenology

Finally, Merleau-Ponty’s work has been appropriated as well by certain environmental thinkers in their attempt to forge an “eco-phenomenology.” Eco-phenomenology attempts to rethink the idea of “nature” through a phenomenological analysis of our experience of nature and the intrinsic relations which are operative within the world. Merleau-Ponty’s notion of corporeality suggests an inner-dynamism within the play of nature. David Abram, for example, explains Merleau-Ponty's concept of "the Flesh" as "the mysterious tissue or matrix that underlies and gives rise to both the perceiver and the perceived as interdependent aspects of its spontaneous activity." (Abram, 66.) This leads to a concept of nature in which subject and object are dialectically united as determinations within a more primordial, unified reality.

Bibliography

Primary Sources in English

  • Adventures of the Dialectic. trans. Bien, Evanston. Northwestern University Press, 1973. ISBN 0810104040
  • The Essential Writings of Merleau-Ponty. ed. Fisher. New York: Harcourt, 1969.
  • Humanism and Terror: An Essay on the Communist Problem. trans. O'Neill. Boston: Beacon Press, 1969.
  • Phenomenology of Perception. trans. Smith. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962.
  • The Primacy of Perception: and Other Essays on Phenomenology, Psychology, the Philosophy of Art, History and Politics. ed. Edie. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
  • Prose of the World. trans. O'Neill. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1969.
  • Sense and Nonsense. trans. Dreyfus & Dreyfus. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
  • Signs. trans. McCleary. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
  • The Structure of Behaviour. trans. Fischer. London: Metheun, 1965.
  • The Visible and the Invisible. trans. Lingis. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968.
  • The World of Perception. trans. Oliver Davis. London: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 041531271X

Secondary Sources

  • Abram, D. The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than Human World. New York: Pantheon Books, 1996. ISBN 067943819X
  • Brown, Charles, and Ted Toadvine (eds.). Eco-Phenomenology: Back to the Earth Itself. Albany: SUNY Press, 2003. ISBN 0791456218
  • Clark, A. Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998. ISBN 0262531569
  • Gallagher, Shaun. How the Body Shapes the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0199271941
  • Petitot, J., F. Varela, B. Pachoud, and J.M. Roy (eds.). Naturalizing Phenomenology: Issues in Contemporary Phenomenology and Cognitive Science. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0804733228
  • Rosch, Eleanor, Evan T. Thompson, and Franscisco J. Varela. The Embodied Mind Cognitive Science and Human Experience. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1992. ISBN 0262720213

External links

All links retrieved November 8, 2022.

General Philosophy Sources

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