Landscape painting (American tradition)

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Landscape Painting in the American tradition, depicts the scenery of the natural world with the views that impact the artists's eye. In an effort to represent the beauty that meets the eye, the artist tries to capture that fleeting moment in time and space, for all time, thus becoming a co-creator along with the original Creator.

The American landscape

In The Beginning, All the World was America - John Locke

In the woods, is perpetual Youth. The currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or particle of God. - Ralph Waldo Emerson. Nature

Young America

In America the young nation began with it's influences chiefly from England and the European tradition. gradually, over time as if molded by the landscape itself, uniquely American genres and styles were born with more than an occasional nod back over the ocean.

The thoroughly American branch of painting, based upon the facts and tastes of the country and people is .....landscape James Jackson Jarves in his book The Art-idea, 1864.

In 1816 De Witt Clinton soon to be Governor of the State New York, declared, "Can there be a country in the world better calculated, than ours, to exalt the imagination........?"

Images of the landscape and ideas of the nation were deeply intertwined. These played an important role in shaping American identity in the nineteenth century. Indeed the vast panoramas from east to west cried out for painters and slowly they made their way into this new paradise.

The Hudson Valley Painters

Many of the landscapes produced in the eighteenth century were strictly topographical; views of towns or beauty spots and were often made by military men. In the early decades of the nineteenth, landscape began to be created as pure and ideal. Thomas Doughty]], 1793-1852, from Philadelphia began with picturesque composition, whilst History painter [[Washington Allston, Diana On a Chase 1805, trained in London, with his allegorical scenes rooted in the Italian tradition and naturalized by the English, gave stimuli to Thomas Cole's ambitious program to create a uniquely American landscape art. It was to find examples of the sublime and picturesque; that were featured in the writings of Washington Irving, set in the Catskills, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle, 1890-20, and James Fennimore Cooper's 'Leather Stocking' novels such as The Last Of the Mohicans (1826) that started Thomas Cole and other artists after him, to make their way to the Catskill mountains, in the Hudson Valley, only a short distance up the Hudson River from New York City. Kindred Spirits 1849, Oil on canvas, by Asher Brown Durand depicts the poet (Willim Cullen Bryant) and painter admiring the Catskill scenic panorama. These are men 'who in the love of Nature holds/Communion with her visible forms' Thanatopis.

The English John Martin's outsize works, (1851-53) three apocalyptic visions in vast landscapes seen in Romantic mezzotints, were to influence both Thomas Cole and Asher B. Durand.

Thomas Cole, born in England, moved with his family to Ohio but he returned to the East Coast to work as a landscape painter, inspired by Allston, to include poetic themes. He articulated his ideas both in words as in paint. In 1829 he returned to Europe and England where he saw Turner's work. He was interested in his ideas of the Sublime (drama in nature) in the language of the landscape. His early works have an air of improvisation, violent dramas of chiaroscuro, although his need to make known the beauties of the American scenery made everything he did seem fresh and new, as in Mountain Sunrise, Catskill 1826, Oil on panel. From 1833-1836 he worked on The Course of Empire a series of modest paintings, for a New York patron, as an allegory on the progress of civilization. These held a wide range of technical experiment and a potted history of different landscape styles. A close contemporary, Jasper Francis Cropsey, 1823-1900, was to adopt Cole's methods and make them his own. Autumn on the Hudson River 1860, Oil on canvas, was to be the central masterpiece of what was to be loosely termed as The Hudson River School in the 1870s. This, coined by a critic on the New York Tribune and included Church, Kensett, Gifford and Durand.

Frederick Edwin Church came from a wealthy family in Connecticut, joined Cole in his Catskill studio in 1844, staying with him for two years and his early work echoed his master. After Cole's death, Church changed his style dramatically and produced work that simplified the view and created a poetry from just a few simple elements as in, Clouds at Sunrise, 1849. John Frederick Kensett painted with much cooler color, Reminiscence of the White Mountains 1852, Oil on canvas, was a contrast to the warmth of the previous artists' subjects. His serenity and lack of busy brushwork was later to be given a name, Luminism in the 1950's by an art-historian and was applied equally to such artists as Martin Johnson Heade, 1819-1904 and Fitz Hugh Lane, 1804-1865, a great painter of ships as in Becalmed off Halfway Rock, 1860, Oil on canvas. They were not a group and didn't work together. Sanford Robinson Gifford was a master of a radiant and diffused sunlight in, The Wilderness, 1860, Oil on canvas and Heade created dramatic scenes as in, Thunderstorm At the Shore, 1870-1, Oil on paper, on canvas mounted on wood panel.

George Innes, the same age as Frederick Church, belonged to both the National Academy of Design and the Society of American Artists and travelled widely. In 1840 he came to know the Barbizon School in France and admired Corot's work, plein-air. He followed this practice of making sketches on site and then finishing the painting in the studio, allowing his imagination free rein which gave his scenes a silent dusky look as in Sunset at Montclair, 1894, Oil on panel.

Some persons suppose that landscape has no power of communicating human sentiment. But this is a great mistake George Innes

Another member of the Society, Albert Pinkham Ryder, was to invert the landscape further, a painter of the mysteries and moods of the night and the sea, creating works of inner expression with little or no outline. Moonlit Cove, 1880-90, Oil on canvas. Typically, it is a work described as Expressionist.

Frederick Edwin Church's purpose was in showing the public the paradise of the New World. To this end he evoked Claude in composition but made enormous canvases that were put on show at eye level for people to experience this and for which he charged admission. A leaf from Turner's book. As an explorer he journeyed to South America for exotic views, as in the Andes of Ecuador 1855. He also built Olana an amber windowed castle of a house, overlooking the Hudson River, opposite the Catskills, decorated with ceramic tiles from Turkey in a blend of Gothic, Persian and Aesthetic Movement elements, it stands today, a symbolic shrine to the spiritual and poetic artists in the nineteenth century. Twilight in the Wilderness, 1860 Oil on canvas, symbolized the mood of America, at that time, an emblem of Transcendentalism. In his repertoire of unique but spectacular panoramas were, Niagara Falls from the American Side, 1867 Icebergs and the Aurora Borealis, all Oils on canvas.

Coming of Age

Church's greatest rival was Albert Bierstadt, with his sensational paintings of the American West. Born In Germany in 1830 and with his family, moved to America at age two and later returned to Dusseldorf to study painting. On return in 1859, he went on an expedition the explore the Rocky Mountains. The great picture that he made on his return was The Rocky Mountain, Lander's Peak, 1863, Oil on linen. His style was cool, objective and very detailed and had already been proved by a Swiss painting of Lake Lucerne. His technique was to make pencil sketches and small oil studies. His brothers ran a photographic studio and he also used a camera. His work was known as new Ideal landscape as in Among the Sierra Mountains, California shown in London in 1868, 'not fiction but portraiture', was the reaction. Sunset in the Yosemite Valley, 1868, Oil on canvas, was described by the artist as the Garden of Eden, 'the most magnificent place I was in,' recalling Cole's Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, 1827-8, Oil on canvas. As a result of paintings from this area, in 1864, during the Civil War, landscape architect, Frederick Law Olmsted (creator of Central Park, in New York City) drafted a bill for the preservation of Yosemite Valley, for the nation which President Abraham Lincoln signed into law.

Thomas Moran, 1837-1926 born in England as Cole, grew up in Philadelphia and in 1860 traveled to Lake Superior. From this trip he gathered material for his Hiawatha pictures. After producing a series of bright watercolors of Yellowstone's geysers and springs, a law was passed protecting that land from development and his painting Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and The Chasm of the Colorado (1892) Oil on canvas. Both massive paintings were purchased by the Congress. This marked the end of the panoramic tradition of the American Sublime.

A New Century, New Ideas

Winslow Homer another great painter began as an illustrator in Boston and served as an artist during the Civil War, he was famous foe wood engravings and soon his oils and watercolors became as popular. He travelled extensively and saw Japanese prints in France and took the best ideas of the west and the east and made them his own. He described the physical phenomena of the sea with spontaneity in both watercolor and oil. His West Point, Prout's Neck, 1900, Oil on canvas, combined these elements of style, a new vision for a new century.

From the 1890s through the 1910s, American Impressionism flourished in art colonies—loosely affiliated groups of artists who lived and worked together and shared a common aesthetic vision. Art colonies tended to form in small towns that provided affordable living, abundant scenery for painting, and relatively easy access to large cities where artists could sell their work. Some of the most important American Impressionist artists gathered at Cos Cob and Old Lyme, Connecticut, both on Long Island Sound; New Hope, Pennsylvania, on the Delaware River; and Brown County, Indiana. American impressionist artists also thrived in California at Carmel and Laguna Beach; in New York on eastern Long Island at Shinnecock, largely due to the influence of William Merritt Chase; and in Boston where Edmund Charles Tarbell and Frank Weston Benson became important practitioners of the impressionist style.

Ten American Painters or The American Ten or The Ten - A group of American painters from New York and Boston who exhibited together from 1898-1919. They had been members of the Society of American Artists, but resigned from this organization upon deciding that its exhibitions were too too large and conservative. Most of the Ten had studied in Paris in the 1880s and were greatly influenced by French Impressionism. The Ten were: Thomas E. Dewing (1851-1938), Edward E. Simmons (1852-1931), Julien Alden Weir (1852-1919), John Henry Twachtman (1853-1902), Joseph R. De Camp (1858-1923), Willard L. Metcalf (1858-1925), Childe Hassam (1859-1935), Frank Benson (1862-1951), Robert Reid (1862-1929), and Edmund C. Tarbell (1862-1938); with William Merritt Chase (1849-1916) taking the place of Twachtman upon his death.

Childe Hassam, former illustrator, embraced Impressionism and gave New York City a softer and more poetical atmosphere in his painings there and has been called the Sisley of Madison Ave, as in Late Aftermnoon, Winter, New York, 1900, Oil on canvas. In summer, he forsook the city for New England where he was fond of painting women and flowers but in Southwest Wind, 1905, oil on canvas, achieved a real feeling of movement and life. The most lyrical exponent of American Impressionism was John Henry Twatchman, a large painting in France, Arques-la-Bataille, 1885, Oil on canvas, shows the influence both of Whistler and Japanese art and is almost mono chromatic.`After returning to America he bought a farmhouse in Connecticut and with friends created a small colony. painting scene after scene there. After exploring every medium available he took his creative powers to their limits. His landscapes were of the mind and of the heart rather than the world.

Ohio-born Charles Burchfield was one of the great artistic visionaries of the twentieth century. Inspired by Leon Bakts' designs for ballet and Chinese scroll painting and after moving from Ohio to Buffalo, New York, from 1915-21 he produced a unique body of work. In 1963 he stated, "An artist must paint, not what he sees in nature, but what is there. To do so he must invent symbols......" Decorative Landscape, Hot Morning Sunlight (Posts' Woods) Water Color on Paper, started in pencil and colored later. His, is the first great painting of our heartland. With a career that spanned half a century, he never became abstract and regarded painting as a moral and spiritual act.These unusual paintings of nature, seem to be giving off vibrations from the trees, flowers and plants.

Edward Hopper stayed away from abstraction too and as a student in 1900 at the New York School of Art, traveled to Europe and later worked as a commercial artist in the City. He first showed with etchings and later oils. The Camel's Hump (1931) Oil on canvas, exemplified his idea that, "My aim in painting has always been the most exact transcription possible of my most intimate expressions of nature." Hopper is the starting point for the later, Realists.

Maxfield Parrish as an illustrator was in great demand and his landscapes looked magical, idealistic and theatrical and many were invented from models. However, he really wanted to concentrate on painting landscapes and at age sixty four began a series of paintings for Brown and Bigelow, greeting card publishers. In 1934 he painted Elm, Late Afternoon paving the way for a relationship which lasted for thirty years, through ill health and arthritis and he stopped at ninety one, passing away in 1966, a career of, seventy five years. His Daybreak first reproduced in 1923, remains one of the most beloved images of all time and made him a princely sum for his day.

The first Moderns

Marsden Hartley was one of the first great modern painters, although an itinerant, constantly struggling with his personal life and finances and unable to settle, he alternated between Nova Scotia, Maine, New England and New York. His paintings of The Last Stone Walls, Dogtown (Gloucester, Mass.) 1936-7, oil on canvas, reminiscent of Pynkham Ryder, point the way to future modernism.

Charles Sheeler, born 1883, studied with William Merritt Chase at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts as did other great painters of the period. He later worked as an architectural photographer to supplement his painting and used photographs as source material for paintings and drawings throughout his career. In 1937 he wrote, "Photography is nature seen from the eyes outward, painting from the eyes inward." View of Central Park 1932 Conte crayon, based on a photograph and took on the quality of a photo, a taste of what would become Photo-Realism thirty years later.

American Regionalism, the Mid-West

Grant Wood's Fall Plowing 1931 Oil on canvas, at a time of great financial depression shows an ideal mid-western agrarianism. grant Wood, Thomas Hart Benton and John Steuart Curry are considered the trinity of Regionalism, an anti-dote to modern art. Wood had studied Flemish art and was highly stylized but Alexandre Hogue made stronger comments on the abuse and exploitation of the land with his The Crucified Land 1939 Oil on canvas, and paintings of the Dust Bowl.

Georgia O'Keefe who'd made her mark in New York City with her enlarged and close-up flower paintings moved to New Mexico permanently, after her husband, photographer, Alfred Stieglitz's death in 1946. Moving between abstraction and realism she portrayed the Southwest and the desert with sensuality and ambiguity as in Black Place 11 Oil on canvas.

Cape Cod

Milton Avery, with the intensity of O'Keefe and mainly self-taught he painted almost abstract, sweet natured views of the New England coast. His reductive style, from small sketches to water colors to oils, led to free and lyrical poems of nature, vis a vis, Tangerine Moon and Wine Dark Sea, 1959, Oil on canvas. His work led to the pure abstract fields of color painted by his friend, Mark Rothko.

Edwin Dickinson, Rock Edge Palisades 1953 Oil on canvas, was another artist whose tone poems seem to belong both to the 1980s and to the 1880s both. He was a master of tonality and delicate chromatic shifts, who'd studied as had O'Keefe, with William Merritt Chase but belonged to no one group and produced some of the most dream-like images of the twentieth century.

Towards Realism and a new Realism

Andrew Wyeth for all the argument about his work is indeed a painter of significance and realism. Whilst the son of the great illustrator NC Wyeth and in the tradition of Howard Pyle and Albrecht Durer, he is a superb draftsman and master craftsman. At first his work was thought of as photographic but with the advent of Photo Realism (in the 1970s) it was realized just how interpretive he was. Ring Road 1985, Tempera, shows an almost Oriental feeling and abstraction. However, his work is always painterly and tactile.

In the mid-nineteen fifties and sixties came a shift from abstract to figurative painting on both the East and West coasts. In California, the influences included Matisse; Richard Diebenkorn, View From a Porch Oil on canvas, 1959, Wayne Thiebaud, Coloma Ridge, 1967-68, Acrylic and Pastel on canvas David Park, Elmer Bischoff, Landscape Afternoon 1959 Oil on canvas, Paul Wonner, James Weeks and Theophilus Brown, West Coast realists from the fifties, in the late sixties, became known as the Bay Area figurative painters. In the East, the Abstract Expressionists had held sway but that began to change too. Faifield Porter's beautiful Island Farmhouse, 1969 Oil on canvas, he claimed, was a 'reformed Realism.' Others artists, included, Phillip Pearlstein, who later became a painter of realistic nudes and his Monument Valley a 1976 Watercolor. Gabriel Laderman, came to realism from abstraction and is known for his intellectual, cool style, as is his West Dover, 1968, Oil on canvas. Neil Welliver is a widely known painter and is known for his large paintings of the wilds of northern Maine, as in, Late Squall 1984, oil on canvas. Alex Katz well known for his slick portraits has produced a large number of landscapes, since the fifties, often using collage. Full Moon, 1987, Oil on canvas, being an exception.

Painterly Realism, Romantics and Expressionists

Artists such as James Weeks, Berkshire Landscape 1972-3 Acrylic on canvas, developed from Abstract Expressionism and were known as 'painterly.' The Bay Area artists never lost their painterly traits since the fifties. Others include; Jane Freilicher Thicket and Field 1984 Oil on canvas, Paul Reiska, Horseleech Pond, Indian Red Sky, 1984, Oil on canvas, Vincent Arcilesi, Grand Canyon, 1975, Oil on canvas, George Nick Over Pemigewasset River 1986 Oil on canvas, Richard Crozier Owlshead from Mount Battie 1986, Oil on canvas, and the plein-air premier-coup paintings of Nebraska by Keith Jacobshagen, such as, N.W. 84th St. & Agnew Rd 1983 Oil on paper. Others include, from the eighties, Don Nice, Sheila Gardner, Susan Shatter, John Gordon, and William Nichols,

Representing those painters that render the precise image are, Rackstraw Downes with his, Dragon Cement Plant, Maine, 1986, Oil on canvas and Richard Estes who works from photos but without mechanical aids and is known as a Photo-Realist, with Central Park 1987 Oil on canvas. William Beckman, Marjorie Portnow, Altoon Sultan, Ben Burns and many others in the eighties worked in this strict realistic style, working from photographs or no.

The Romantics however were more instinctive in approach, as in Jack Beale's Dark Pool 1980, Pastel on paper. Russell Chatham, Winter Evening 1980, Oil on canvas and Robert Jordan The Trail to Champney Falls, 1981, oil on canvas are also atmospheric as are; Richard Chiriani, David Ligare, Bonnie Sklarski, who with Juan Gonzalez add allegory to the mix. Not to forget Paul Wonner's Twenty-seven Studies for Romantic Views of San Francisco 1980 Acrylic on paper.

Bernard Chanet, Changing 1986 Oil on canvas, is one of those that has carried forward the great Expressionist art of the past, Alfred Leslie with, Approaching the Grand Canyon 1977-81, A series of five watercolors from 100 Views Along the Road reveal the spirit of the landscape whilst Wolf Kahn Barn Atop a Ridge 1987 Oil on canvas, has stated that he wanted to "do Rothko over again from nature," and his oils and pastels, shimmer in fields of color. Neil Blaine, Gloucester Harbor from Banner Hill, 1986, oil and many more work in these highly expressive styles.

The rebirth of impressionism in America: The 1950s and beyond

In the 1950s, a quarter of a century after the death of Monet, major museums in America started having exhibitions of the original French Impressionists paintings, and in so doing Impressionism was reborn. The resurgence of interest in Impressionism continues to this day, and is especially evident in the continued popularity of plein-air painting.

Tradition continues

In the Hudson Valley region today are many painters continuing the tradition of those pioneers of the past. Amongst them are two artists who have taught at the State University of New York at New Paltz, in the Fine Arts program. This college sits in view of the beautiful Shawgunk Mountain ridge, with it's famous Mountain House and a favorite of international climbers, at the beginning of the Catskill mountain chain. These views inspire Alex Martin, with his studies in oil and watercolors and other media, of the effects that light and local skies have on the scenes in the valleys and on the mountains. His paintings are full of gesture and reflect the colors and hues of earlier Impressionists and Abstract Impressionists, as in Soft Landscape, Oil on canvas, collection of the artist. Another former lecturer, George Wexler, who had real experience as a New York City, Abstract Impressionist, travels further afield to find his subject matter. Finding accessible views all over the Hudson River Valley area, he now paints, in oils, in a much more realistic, almost photo-realistic, manner, as in View from Mohonk Farm, Oil on canvas, collection of Met. Life, NYC. He would be the first to admit as he has done, 'that it's impossible to paint every leaf, so that realism is really a mis-nomer.' Both artists like to paint plein air and finish work in the studio.

In the new Century, painters continue to reveal the American landscape, rural and urban in every style and medium available in this great time of technical innovation. There are still those who stay with the true and tried method of plein air and or working from sketches, water colors, pastels etc., back in the studio. One such California artist is, Dory Grady, who at 70 years of age continues to work from nature in this ageless method. She has taught on a regular basis. A long time resident of Eagle Rock, she is mentioned in the same breath as other celebrities who've made their home there. Quoted from her web-site: Extremely versatile, she is equally comfortable with drawing, oil paint, watercolor, acrylic, silkscreen, etching or lithographic printmaking. Her work is defined, not by a style, but rather by continual experimentation, growth and change. The only constant is her focus on the natural world. Ms. Grady stated:

""My 30 years of art shows in Boddy House Gallery is my contribution to renewal of the Human Spirit, surrounded by nature.
Art is not created, it is achieved.
It is the product of talent and relentless practice, tempered by years of training.
But even then, you give more.

You give your soul.

The Inner Landscape

Other artists who work with an abstract or surrealistic style to explore the inner landscapes of ourselves and our imagination, include Jan Parker in Hawaii and Benny Andersson in New Jersey.

Benny Andersson paints "visual prayers, intended to promote deep reflection and healing within the viewer and to have a spiritual and uplifting effect on the soul, to keep dreams alive." He likes to see artists as "messengers of truth and beauty." His landscapes, full of unique imagery, cosmic and earthly visions, recall Hieronymus Bosch and are endowed with transparent colors as clear as glass. Unlike Bosch, He shows us worlds free from danger, impurity and abuse and allows us to see nature as through the eyes of the newborn child. Originally from Sweden, he has lived and worked in the United States for more than thirty years, exhibiting in several countries, including Japan. His titles give clues to their content as in Rites of Eternal Harmony (acrylic on canvas) and The Great Beyond, (acrylic on canvas). In Cheongpyeong, South Korea, he was commissioned to create two large paintings for a newly built palace there. The subjects were; God's Ideal in the Spirit World and God's Ideal World on Earth, 2005-06.

Jan Parker is an British artist also working in the United States for thirty years and a resident of Hawaii, He paints in a purely abstract style reminiscent of the Abstract Impressionists, such as Mark Rothko. He does this with a concentration on light and color brightly interacting together and has had great success in Japan with his new series trilogy. Following a serious illness he said, "the overwhelming existence that saved my life is indescribable in words, it could only be described in painting."

After marrying his Japanese wife, Sawako, who previously had bought one of his paintings following a deep experience from it, he found the support he needed to make this new leap of faith into a new experience of painting. His impasto style is as his feeling, that "painting ought to look like it has been painted" and convey the sense of the vibrations transmitted by the Divine. Parker said, "To me God is the greatest artist of all. A red field of fire and passion with a high horizon of pinks and yellow and a sliver of blue, entitled God is King Of Kings (acrylic on canvas), 2005, is the cover of the catalog on his Portrait of God series. While the cover of the Color of God series dances across the book in vibrant waves of many colors and hues, from Color of God No 14, (oil), 2006. "These paintings have been inspired by the essence of true love that I have experienced in nature," he writes. The Heart of God series was first viewed in Spring, 2008.

Gallery

Lake Tahoe, by Albert Bierstadt, 1868
View Near the Village of Catskill, by Thomas Cole, 1827
Altweibersommer, by George Inness, 1894
In the Catskills, by Thomas Cole, 1837
The White Bridge, by John Henry Twachtman, 1895
Autumn–On the Hudson River, by Jasper Cropsey, 1860
Dennis Miller Bunker Painting at Calcot, by John Singer Sargent, 1888
NC Wyeth the Indian in His Solitude 3.png
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References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Arthur, John. Spirit of Place, Contemporary Landscape Painting & The American tradition 1989. Bullfinch Press ISBN 0-821-21707-0
Bazarov, Konstantin, Landscape painting, London: Octopus Books; NY: Mayflower Books, 1981. OCLC 8686498
Clark, Sir Kenneth, Landscape into Art, Slade Lectures,1949. Harper and Row, ISBN 0-060-10781-2
Jeffares, Bo Landscape Painting, NY: Mayflower Books Inc., 1979. ISBN 0-831-75413-3
Leonard, Elizabeth Painting the Landscape, Watson-Guptill Publications, 1984. ISBN 0-823-03655-3
McShine, Kynaston. Editor. The Natural Paradise, Painting in America 1800-1950, NY: The Museum of Modern Art, 1976. ISBN 0-870-70505-9.
Novak, Barbara, Nature and culture: American landscape and painting, 1825-1875, NY: Oxford University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-195-02606-3
Shanes, Eric, Turner The Masterwoks, Portland House, 1990. ISBN 0-517-01509-9
Wilton, Andrew; T J Barringer; Tate Britain (Gallery); Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.; Minneapolis Institute of Arts. American sublime : landscape painting in the United States, 1820-1880, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-691-09670-8
Wilton, Andrew; Barringer, Tim, American Sublime, Landscape Painting in the United States, 1820-1880, Princeton University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-691-09670-8

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