Difference between revisions of "Henry II of England" - New World Encyclopedia
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{{Infobox Monarch | name=Henry II | {{Infobox Monarch | name=Henry II | ||
| title= By the Grace of God, King of the English<br/>and Duke of the Normans and Aquitanians<br/>and Count of the Angevins | | title= By the Grace of God, King of the English<br/>and Duke of the Normans and Aquitanians<br/>and Count of the Angevins | ||
| image=[[Image:Henry II of England.jpg]] | | image=[[Image:Henry II of England.jpg]] | ||
| − | | reign= 25 | + | | reign=October 25, 1154–July 6, 1189 |
| − | | date1= 25 | + | | date1=October 25, 1154 |
| − | | date2= 6 | + | | date2=July 6, 1189 |
| − | | coronation= 19 | + | | coronation=December 19, 1154 |
| predecessor=[[Stephen of England|Stephen]] | | predecessor=[[Stephen of England|Stephen]] | ||
| successor=[[Richard I of England|Richard I]] | | successor=[[Richard I of England|Richard I]] | ||
| − | | queen= [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] ( | + | | queen= [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] (1124–1204) |
| royal house= [[Plantagenet]] | | royal house= [[Plantagenet]] | ||
| − | | father= [[Geoffrey of Anjou]] ( | + | | father= [[Geoffrey of Anjou]] (1113–1151) |
| − | | mother= [[Empress Matilda]] ( | + | | mother= [[Empress Matilda]] (1102–1167) |
| − | | issue= [[Henry the Young King]]<br/>( | + | | issue= [[Henry the Young King]]<br/>(1155–1183)<br/>[[Richard I of England|Richard I]] (1157–1199)<br/>[[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany]]<br/>(1158–1186) <br/>[[Matilda, Duchess of Saxony]]<br/>(1156–1189)<br/>[[Leonora of England]] (1161–1214)<br/>[[Joan of England, Queen consort of Sicily|Joan of England]] (1165–1199) <br/>[[John of England|John]] (1167–1216)<br/>[[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]]<br/>(illeg., 1152–1226)<br/>[[William de Longespee, Third Earl of Salisbury|William de Longespee, Third Earl of<br/>Salisbury]] (illeg., 1176–1226) |
| − | | date of birth= 5 | + | | date of birth=March 5, 1133 |
| place of birth= [[Le Mans]] | | place of birth= [[Le Mans]] | ||
| − | | date of death= 6 | + | | date of death=July 6, 1189 |
| place of death= [[Chinon|Chateau Chinon]] | | place of death= [[Chinon|Chateau Chinon]] | ||
| place of burial= [[Fontevraud Abbey]], [[Fontevraud-l'Abbaye]], [[France]] | | place of burial= [[Fontevraud Abbey]], [[Fontevraud-l'Abbaye]], [[France]] | ||
}} | }} | ||
| − | '''Henry II of England''' (5 | + | '''Henry II of England''' (March 5, 1133 – July 6, 1189) ruled as [[Count of Anjou]], [[Duke of Normandy]], and [[King of England]] (1154–1189) and, at various times, controlled parts of [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], eastern [[Ireland]], and western [[France]]. His sobriquets include "Curt Mantle" (because of the practical short cloaks he wore), "Fitz Empress," and sometimes "The Lion of Justice," which had also applied to his grandfather [[Henry I of England|Henry I]]. He ranks as the first of the Plantagenet or Angevin Kings. His wife, [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] was an influential figure. Wealthy in her own right, she exercised considerable power and was regent of England immediately after Henry's death. Following the disputed reign of [[Stephen of England|King Stephen]], Henry's reign saw efficient consolidation. Henry II has acquired a reputation as one of England's greatest medieval kings. England's long history of involvement in Ireland dates from his reign, an early example of territorial expansion carried out with a papal blessing, this time by [[Pope Adrian IV]], who was himself English. The Irish were considered pagan because their form of Christianity did not conform to Rome's rules. Therefore, Ireland could be pacified and brought under the authority of the Pope. Later, papal blessing would sanction the imperial projects of [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. Born in France, Henry II was as much French as English and ruled at a time when kingdoms were regarded as the personal possessions of their rulers, rather than as deriving any legitimacy from the people. He regarded France as his territory just as he did the whole of the British Isles. His own son, however, [[John of England]], due to his own indifferent and oppressive rule, would concede to the barons in the [[Magna Carta]] rights, which included the right to life, liberty, property, and justice, that recognized that ordinary citizens, or subjects, could not be treated as if they were the king's possessions. |
==Biography== | ==Biography== | ||
| + | |||
===Territorial holdings and gains=== | ===Territorial holdings and gains=== | ||
| − | Prior to coming to the throne | + | |
| + | Prior to coming to the throne, Henry already controlled [[Normandy]] and [[Anjou]] on [[Continental Europe|the continent]]; his marriage to [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] on May 18, 1152, added her holdings to his, including [[Touraine]], [[Aquitaine]], and [[Gascony]]. He thus effectively became more powerful than the king of [[France]], having an empire ''(the [[Angevin Empire]])'' that stretched from the [[Solway Firth]] almost to the [[Mediterranean]] and from the [[Somme River|Somme]] to the [[Pyrenees]]. As king, he would make [[Ireland]] a part of his vast domain. He also maintained lively communication with the Emperor of Byzantium [[Manuel I Comnenus]]. | ||
===Life before accession=== | ===Life before accession=== | ||
| − | |||
| − | He married [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] on 18 | + | He was born on March 5, 1133 at [[Le Mans]] to the [[Empress Matilda]] and her second husband, [[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou]]. Brought up in [[Anjou]], he visited England in 1149 to help his mother in her disputed claim to the English throne. |
| + | |||
| + | He married [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] on May 18, 1152, but from May to August he was occupied in fighting Eleanor's ex-husband [[Louis VII of France]] and his allies. In August Henry rushed back to her, and they spent several months together. Around the end of November 1152 they parted—Henry went to spend some weeks with his mother and then sailed for England, arriving on January 6, 1153. Henry's succession was established by the [[Treaty of Wallingford]] in 1153, after he had challenged Stephen's forces at [[Wallingford Castle]]. It was agreed that Henry would become king upon Stephen's death. | ||
===Civil and legal reform: struggle with the barons=== | ===Civil and legal reform: struggle with the barons=== | ||
| + | |||
During [[Stephen I of England|Stephen]]'s reign the [[baron]]s had subverted the state of affairs to undermine the monarch's grip on the realm; Henry II saw it as his first task to reverse this shift in power. For example, Henry had [[castle]]s torn down which the barons had built without authorization during Stephen's reign, and by 1159, [[scutage]], a fee paid by [[vassals]] in lieu of military service, had become a central feature of the king's military system. Record keeping improved dramatically in order to streamline this taxation. | During [[Stephen I of England|Stephen]]'s reign the [[baron]]s had subverted the state of affairs to undermine the monarch's grip on the realm; Henry II saw it as his first task to reverse this shift in power. For example, Henry had [[castle]]s torn down which the barons had built without authorization during Stephen's reign, and by 1159, [[scutage]], a fee paid by [[vassals]] in lieu of military service, had become a central feature of the king's military system. Record keeping improved dramatically in order to streamline this taxation. | ||
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===Dealings with Ireland=== | ===Dealings with Ireland=== | ||
| − | |||
| − | Shortly thereafter, Henry's continental affairs distracted him. William died, and the English ignored Ireland. It was not until 1166 that it came to the surface again. In that year, [[Dermot MacMurrough]], having been driven from his kingdom in [[Leinster]], followed Henry to [[Aquitaine]]. He asked the English king to help him reassert control; Henry agreed to allow Dermot to gather supporters from among his Norman vassals. The most prominent of these was a Welsh Norman, [[Richard de Clare, | + | Shortly after his coronation, Henry sent an embassy to the newly elected [[Pope Adrian IV]]. Led by Bishop Arnold of Lisieux, the group of clerics requested from Adrian a privilege authorizing Henry to invade [[Ireland]]. Most historians agree that this was the papal bull ''[[Laudabiliter]].'' W.L. Warren asserts that Henry acted under the influence of a "Canterbury plot;" Archbishop [[Theobald of Bec]], [[John of Salisbury]], and other Canterbury clergy wished to assert their hierarchical supremacy over the newly created Irish diocesan structure. Other historians have argued instead that Henry intended to secure Ireland as a lordship for his younger brother William. |
| + | |||
| + | Shortly thereafter, Henry's continental affairs distracted him. William died, and the English ignored Ireland. It was not until 1166 that it came to the surface again. In that year, [[Dermot MacMurrough]], having been driven from his kingdom in [[Leinster]], followed Henry to [[Aquitaine]]. He asked the English king to help him reassert control; Henry agreed to allow Dermot to gather supporters from among his Norman vassals. The most prominent of these was a Welsh Norman, [[Richard de Clare, Second Earl of Pembroke]], nicknamed "Strongbow." In exchange for his loyalty, Dermot offered Earl Richard his daughter Aoife (Eve) in marriage and made him heir to the kingdom. | ||
The Normans quickly restored Dermot to his traditional holdings, and he even toyed with the idea of challenging for the title of [[Ard Ri]], or High King, a title no one had held since Brian Boru (940-1014) had succeeded in unifying Ireland under his rule. However, in 1171, Henry arrived from [[France]] to assert his overlordship. All of the Normans, along with many Irish princes, took oaths of homage to Henry, and he left after six months. He never returned, but he later named his young son, the future King [[John of England]], Lord of Ireland. | The Normans quickly restored Dermot to his traditional holdings, and he even toyed with the idea of challenging for the title of [[Ard Ri]], or High King, a title no one had held since Brian Boru (940-1014) had succeeded in unifying Ireland under his rule. However, in 1171, Henry arrived from [[France]] to assert his overlordship. All of the Normans, along with many Irish princes, took oaths of homage to Henry, and he left after six months. He never returned, but he later named his young son, the future King [[John of England]], Lord of Ireland. | ||
===The struggle with the church and Thomas Becket=== | ===The struggle with the church and Thomas Becket=== | ||
| + | |||
[[Image:Henry II of England - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|'''Henry II''' depicted in ''Cassell's History of England'' (1902)]] | [[Image:Henry II of England - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|'''Henry II''' depicted in ''Cassell's History of England'' (1902)]] | ||
As a consequence of the improvements in the legal system, the power of [[ecclesiastical court|church court]]s waned. The church naturally opposed this and found its most vehement spokesman in [[Thomas Becket]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], formerly a close friend of Henry's and his [[Chancellor]]. | As a consequence of the improvements in the legal system, the power of [[ecclesiastical court|church court]]s waned. The church naturally opposed this and found its most vehement spokesman in [[Thomas Becket]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], formerly a close friend of Henry's and his [[Chancellor]]. | ||
| − | The conflict with Becket effectively began with a dispute over whether the secular courts could try clergy who had committed a secular offence. Henry attempted to subdue Becket and his fellow churchmen by making them swear to obey the "customs of the realm," but controversy ensued over what constituted these customs, and the church proved reluctant to submit. Following a heated exchange at Henry's court, Becket left England in 1164 for France to solicit in person the support of King [[Louis VII of France]] and of [[Pope Alexander III]], who was in exile in France due to dissension in the college of Cardinals. Due to his own precarious position, Alexander remained neutral in the debate, although Becket remained in exile loosely under the protection of Louis and Pope Alexander until 1170. After reconciliation between Henry and | + | The conflict with Becket effectively began with a dispute over whether the secular courts could try clergy who had committed a secular offence. Henry attempted to subdue Becket and his fellow churchmen by making them swear to obey the "customs of the realm," but controversy ensued over what constituted these customs, and the church proved reluctant to submit. Following a heated exchange at Henry's court, Becket left England in 1164 for France to solicit in person the support of King [[Louis VII of France]] and of [[Pope Alexander III]], who was in exile in France due to dissension in the college of Cardinals. Due to his own precarious position, Alexander remained neutral in the debate, although Becket remained in exile loosely under the protection of Louis and Pope Alexander until 1170. After reconciliation between Henry and Becket in Normandy in 1170, Becket returned to England. Becket again confronted Henry, this time over the coronation of Prince Henry. The much-quoted, although probably apocryphal, words of Henry II echo down the centuries: "Will no one rid me of this meddlesome priest?" Although Henry's violent rants against Becket over the years were well documented, this time four of his knights took their king literally (as he may have intended for them to do, although he later denied it) and traveled immediately to England, where they assassinated Becket in [[Canterbury Cathedral]] on December 29, 1170. |
| − | For this act Henry was excommunicated but obtained his rehabilitation thanks to the efforts of Robert de Torigny, abbot of [[Mont St Michel]]. As part of his penance for the death of Becket, Henry made [[Thomas Becket#Assassination|a pilgrimage in sackcloth to his tomb]] (see also [[St. Dunstan's, Canterbury]]), and agreed to send money to the [[Crusader states]] in [[Palestine]], which the [[Knights Hospitaller]] and the [[Knights Templar]] would guard until Henry arrived to make use of it on pilgrimage or [[crusade | + | For this act Henry was excommunicated but obtained his rehabilitation thanks to the efforts of Robert de Torigny, abbot of [[Mont St. Michel]]. As part of his penance for the death of Becket, Henry made [[Thomas Becket#Assassination|a pilgrimage in sackcloth to his tomb]] (see also [[St. Dunstan's, Canterbury]]), and agreed to send money to the [[Crusader states]] in [[Palestine]], which the [[Knights Hospitaller]] and the [[Knights Templar]] would guard until Henry arrived to make use of it on pilgrimage or [[crusade]]. Henry delayed his crusade for many years and in the end, never went at all, despite a visit to him by [[Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem]] in 1184 and being offered the crown of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. In 1188 he levied the [[Saladin tithe]] to pay for a new crusade; the cleric and courtier [[Gerald of Wales]] suggested his death was a divine punishment for the tithe, imposed to raise money for an abortive crusade to recapture [[Jerusalem]], which had fallen to [[Saladin]] in 1187.<ref> Cambrensis, Giraldus. ''De instructione principis.'' London: Anglia Christiana. Vol 3: 9. 1846. </ref> |
==Coat of arms== | ==Coat of arms== | ||
| + | |||
[[Image:H2 Arms (1133-1198).png|thumb|right|125px|Coat of Arms of England - Henry II period]] | [[Image:H2 Arms (1133-1198).png|thumb|right|125px|Coat of Arms of England - Henry II period]] | ||
Henry II's coat of arms were displayed as ''gules, a lion rampant Or'' red background, with a golden lion on hind legs facing to the side. | Henry II's coat of arms were displayed as ''gules, a lion rampant Or'' red background, with a golden lion on hind legs facing to the side. | ||
==Issue== | ==Issue== | ||
| + | |||
===Legitimate=== | ===Legitimate=== | ||
| − | |||
| − | Henry and his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, had five sons and three daughters: [[William, Count of Poitiers|William]], [[Henry the Young King|Henry]], [[Richard I of England|Richard]], [[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]], [[John of England|John]], [[Matilda of England|Matilda]], [[Leonora of England|Eleanor]], and [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan]]. Henry's attempts to wrest control of | + | Henry's first son, William, Count of Poitiers, had died in infancy. In 1170, Henry and Eleanor's 15-year-old son, Henry, was crowned king (another reason for rupture with [[Thomas Becket]], whose other bishops agreed to this during Becket's exile), but he never actually ruled and does not figure in the list of the monarchs of England; he became known as [[Henry the Young King]] to distinguish him from his nephew [[Henry III of England]]. |
| + | |||
| + | Henry and his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, had five sons and three daughters: [[William, Count of Poitiers|William]], [[Henry the Young King|Henry]], [[Richard I of England|Richard]], [[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]], [[John of England|John]], [[Matilda of England|Matilda]], [[Leonora of England|Eleanor]], and [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan]]. Henry's attempts to wrest control of Eleanor’s lands from her (and from their heir Richard) led to confrontations between Henry on the one side and his wife and legitimate sons on the other. | ||
===Illegitimate=== | ===Illegitimate=== | ||
| − | |||
| − | Henry also had a number of illegitimate children by various women, and Eleanor had several of those children reared in the royal nursery with her own children; some remained members of the household in adulthood. Among them were [[William de Longespee, | + | Henry's notorious liaison with [[Rosamund Clifford]], the "fair Rosamund" of legend, probably began in 1165 during one of his Welsh campaigns and continued until her death in 1176. However, it was not until 1174, at around the time of his break with Eleanor, that Henry acknowledged Rosamund as his mistress. Almost simultaneously he began negotiating the annulment of his marriage in order to marry [[Alys, Countess of the Vexin|Alys]], daughter of King [[Louis VII of France]], who was already betrothed to Henry's son Richard. Henry's affair with Alys continued for some years, and, unlike Rosamund Clifford, Alys allegedly gave birth to one of Henry's illegitimate children. |
| + | |||
| + | Henry also had a number of illegitimate children by various women, and Eleanor had several of those children reared in the royal nursery with her own children; some remained members of the household in adulthood. Among them were [[William de Longespee, Third Earl of Salisbury]], whose mother was Ida, Countess of Norfolk; [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]], son of a woman named Ykenai; [[Morgan, Bishop of Durham]]; and Matilda, [[Abbess of Barking]]. | ||
===Succession crisis=== | ===Succession crisis=== | ||
| + | |||
Henry II's attempt to divide his titles amongst his sons but keep the power associated with them provoked them into trying to take control of the lands assigned to them, which amounted to treason, at least in Henry's eyes. [[Giraldus Cambrensis|Gerald of Wales]] reports that when King Henry gave the kiss of peace to his son Richard, he said softly, "May the Lord never permit me to die until I have taken due vengeance upon you." | Henry II's attempt to divide his titles amongst his sons but keep the power associated with them provoked them into trying to take control of the lands assigned to them, which amounted to treason, at least in Henry's eyes. [[Giraldus Cambrensis|Gerald of Wales]] reports that when King Henry gave the kiss of peace to his son Richard, he said softly, "May the Lord never permit me to die until I have taken due vengeance upon you." | ||
| − | When Henry's legitimate sons rebelled against him, they often had the help of King [[Louis VII of France]]. [[Henry the Young King]] died in 1183. After | + | When Henry's legitimate sons rebelled against him, they often had the help of King [[Louis VII of France]]. [[Henry the Young King]] died in 1183. After his death, there was a power struggle between the three sons who were left. Henry had wanted John to be the next king, but Eleanor favored Richard. Henry had always loved John more than any of the other sons. Geoffrey tried to overcome both John and Richard, but he was unsuccessful; a horse trampled him to death in 1186. Henry's third son, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] (1157–1199), with the assistance of [[Philip II of France|Philip II Augustus]] of France, attacked and defeated Henry on July 4, 1189; Henry died at the [[Chinon|Chateau Chinon]] on July 6, 1189, and lies entombed in Fontevraud Abbey, near Chinon and [[Saumur]] in the Anjou Region of present-day France. Henry's illegitimate son [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]] stood by his father the whole time and he alone among Henry’s sons attended on Henry's deathbed. Henry’s last words, according to [[Giraldus Cambrensis|Gerald of Wales]], were “Shame, shame on a conquered king.” Another version of the king's last words, “my other sons are the real bastards," alludes to the fact that the only son to attend his deathbed was his illegitimate son Geoffrey. |
| − | [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] then became King of England | + | [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] then became King of England. John succeeded to the throne upon Richard's death in 1199, laying aside the claims of [[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]]'s children [[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany|Arthur of Brittany]] and [[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany|Eleanor]]. |
==Appearance== | ==Appearance== | ||
| − | |||
| − | Another contemporary, Gerald of Wales, described | + | [[Peter of Blois]] left a description of Henry II in 1177:<blockquote>…the lord king has been red-haired so far, except that the coming of old age and grey hair has altered that color somewhat. His height is medium, so that neither does he appear great among the small, nor yet does he seem small among the great…curved legs, a horseman's shins, broad chest, and a boxer's arms all announce him as a man strong, agile and bold…he never sits, unless riding a horse or eating. In a single day, if necessary, he can run through four or five day-marches and, thus foiling the plots of his enemies, frequently mocks their plots with surprise sudden arrivals. Always are in his hands bow, sword, spear, and arrow, unless he be in council or in books."<ref> of Blois, Peter. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1177peterblois-hen2.html Letter No. 66 to Walter, Bishop of Palermo, 1177: Description of Henry II] Retrieved June 5, 2007. </ref></blockquote> |
| + | |||
| + | Another contemporary, Gerald of Wales, described Henry thus:<blockquote>A man of reddish, freckled complexion, with a large, round head, grey eyes that glowed fiercely and grew bloodshot in anger, a fiery countenance and a harsh, cracked voice. His neck was poked forward slightly from his shoulders, his chest was broad and square, his arms strong and powerful. His body was stocky, with a pronounced tendency toward fatness, due to nature rather than self-indulgence—which he tempered with exercise.<ref> Cambrensis, Giraldus. ''De Instructione Principis.'' 2.29.</ref></blockquote> | ||
==In the arts== | ==In the arts== | ||
| − | * | + | *Thirteenth Century: "[[Book of the Civilized Man]]" is a poem believed to have been written in Henry's court and is the first "book of manners" or "courtesy book" in English history, representing the start of a new awakening to etiquette and decorum in English culture. |
*1935: The assassination of Archbishop [[Thomas Becket]] is the subject of the celebrated 1935 play ''[[Murder in the Cathedral]]'' by [[T. S. Eliot]]. | *1935: The assassination of Archbishop [[Thomas Becket]] is the subject of the celebrated 1935 play ''[[Murder in the Cathedral]]'' by [[T. S. Eliot]]. | ||
| − | *1964: A fuller account of the struggle between Henry II and Becket is portrayed in the film ''[[Becket]]'' | + | *1964: A fuller account of the struggle between Henry II and Becket is portrayed in the film ''[[Becket]]'' based on the [[Jean Anouilh]] play and starring [[Peter O'Toole]] as Henry and [[Richard Burton]] as Becket. |
| − | *1966: The treasons associated with the royal and ducal successions formed the main theme of the play ''[[The Lion in Winter]]'' | + | *1966: The treasons associated with the royal and ducal successions formed the main theme of the play ''[[The Lion in Winter]],'' which also served as the basis of a 1968 film with O'Toole reprising the role of Henry and [[Katharine Hepburn]] as [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]]. In 2003, the film was remade as a [[television film]] with [[Patrick Stewart]] and [[Glenn Close]] in the leading roles. |
*1978: Henry II and his sons King Richard and King John also provided the subjects of the BBC2 television series ''The Devil's Crown.'' The 1978 book of the same title was written by Richard Barber and published as a guide to the broadcast series, which starred [[Brian Cox]] as Henry and [[Jane Lapotaire]] as Eleanor. | *1978: Henry II and his sons King Richard and King John also provided the subjects of the BBC2 television series ''The Devil's Crown.'' The 1978 book of the same title was written by Richard Barber and published as a guide to the broadcast series, which starred [[Brian Cox]] as Henry and [[Jane Lapotaire]] as Eleanor. | ||
*1989: The final chapters of [[Ken Follett]]'s novel ''[[The Pillars of the Earth]]'' concern the assassination of Thomas Becket and end with Henry's penance. | *1989: The final chapters of [[Ken Follett]]'s novel ''[[The Pillars of the Earth]]'' concern the assassination of Thomas Becket and end with Henry's penance. | ||
| − | *1994: The first decade of Henry's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine is portrayed in the novel ''Beloved Enemy: The Passions of Eleanor of Aquitaine, a Novel'' | + | *1994: The first decade of Henry's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine is portrayed in the novel ''Beloved Enemy: The Passions of Eleanor of Aquitaine, a Novel'' by [[Ellen Jones]]. |
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
| Line 98: | Line 110: | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
| − | + | * Barber, Richard. ''The Devil's Crown: A History of Henry II and His Sons.'' Conshohocken, PA: 1996. ISBN 9780585100098 Retrieved June 5, 2007. | |
| − | * Barber, Richard ''The Devil's Crown: A History of Henry II and His Sons'' Conshohocken, PA: 1996 ISBN 9780585100098 | + | * Bartlett, Robert. ''England Under The Norman and Angevin Kings 1075-1225.'' NY: Oxford University. 2000. ISBN 9780198227410 Retrieved June 5, 2007. |
| − | * Warren, W. L ''Henry II'' Berkeley, CA: University of California | + | * Warren, W. L. ''Henry II.'' Berkeley, CA: University of California. 1973. ISBN 9780520022829 Retrieved June 5, 2007. |
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
| − | *[http://www.datesofhistory.com/Henry-II-England.biog.html Henry II | + | |
| − | * [http://sbaldw.home.mindspring.com/hproject/ | + | * World History Database. [http://www.datesofhistory.com/Henry-II-England.biog.html Henry II] Retrieved June 5, 2007. |
| − | * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1n.html#Angevin%20England | + | * Baldwin, Stewart. [http://sbaldw.home.mindspring.com/hproject/prov/henry002.htm Henry II of England] Retrieved June 5, 2007. |
| + | * Internet Medieval Sourcebook. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1n.html#Angevin%20England Angevin England] Retrieved June 5, 2007. | ||
{{s-start}} | {{s-start}} | ||
{{s-bef|before=[[Stephen of England|Stephen]]|rows=2}} | {{s-bef|before=[[Stephen of England|Stephen]]|rows=2}} | ||
| − | {{s-ttl|title=[[List of English monarchs|King of England]]|years= | + | {{s-ttl|title=[[List of English monarchs|King of England]]|years=1154–1189}} |
{{s-aft|after=[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]|rows=5}} | {{s-aft|after=[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]|rows=5}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| − | {{s-ttl|title=[[Dukes of Normandy|Duke of Normandy]]|years= | + | {{s-ttl|title=[[Dukes of Normandy|Duke of Normandy]]|years=1150–1189}} |
{{s-bef|before=[[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey V]]|rows=2}} | {{s-bef|before=[[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey V]]|rows=2}} | ||
| − | {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Counts and Dukes of Anjou|Count of Anjou]]|regent1=[[Henry the Young King]]|years= | + | {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Counts and Dukes of Anjou|Count of Anjou]]|regent1=[[Henry the Young King]]|years=1151–1189}} |
|- | |- | ||
| − | {{s-ttl|title=[[Counts and Dukes of Maine|Count of Maine]]|regent1=[[Henry the Young King]]|years= | + | {{s-ttl|title=[[Counts and Dukes of Maine|Count of Maine]]|regent1=[[Henry the Young King]]|years=1151–1189}} |
{{s-bef|before=[[Louis VII of France|Louis]]''' and '''[[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]|rows=2}} | {{s-bef|before=[[Louis VII of France|Louis]]''' and '''[[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]|rows=2}} | ||
| − | {{s-ttl|title=[[Duke of Aquitaine]]|regent1=[[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]|years= | + | {{s-ttl|title=[[Duke of Aquitaine]]|regent1=[[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]|years=1152–1189}} |
|- | |- | ||
| − | {{s-ttl|title=[[Count of Poitiers]]|regent1=[[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]|years= | + | {{s-ttl|title=[[Count of Poitiers]]|regent1=[[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]|years=1152–1189}} |
{{s-aft|after=[[William, Count of Poitiers|William]]}} | {{s-aft|after=[[William, Count of Poitiers|William]]}} | ||
{{s-bef|before=[[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey V]]}} | {{s-bef|before=[[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey V]]}} | ||
| − | {{s-ttl|title=[[Count of Mortain]]|years= | + | {{s-ttl|title=[[Count of Mortain]]|years=1151–1153}} |
{{s-aft|after=[[William of Blois|William III]]}} | {{s-aft|after=[[William of Blois|William III]]}} | ||
Revision as of 18:32, 5 June 2007
| Henry II | ||
|---|---|---|
| By the Grace of God, King of the English and Duke of the Normans and Aquitanians and Count of the Angevins | ||
| ||
| Reign | October 25, 1154–July 6, 1189 | |
| Coronation | December 19, 1154 | |
| Born | March 5, 1133 | |
| Le Mans | ||
| Died | July 6, 1189 | |
| Chateau Chinon | ||
| Buried | Fontevraud Abbey, Fontevraud-l'Abbaye, France | |
| Predecessor | Stephen | |
| Successor | Richard I | |
| Consort | Eleanor of Aquitaine (1124–1204) | |
| Issue | Henry the Young King (1155–1183) Richard I (1157–1199) Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany (1158–1186) Matilda, Duchess of Saxony (1156–1189) Leonora of England (1161–1214) Joan of England (1165–1199) John (1167–1216) Geoffrey, Archbishop of York (illeg., 1152–1226) William de Longespee, Third Earl of Salisbury (illeg., 1176–1226) | |
| Royal House | Plantagenet | |
| Father | Geoffrey of Anjou (1113–1151) | |
| Mother | Empress Matilda (1102–1167) | |
Henry II of England (March 5, 1133 – July 6, 1189) ruled as Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy, and King of England (1154–1189) and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland, eastern Ireland, and western France. His sobriquets include "Curt Mantle" (because of the practical short cloaks he wore), "Fitz Empress," and sometimes "The Lion of Justice," which had also applied to his grandfather Henry I. He ranks as the first of the Plantagenet or Angevin Kings. His wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine was an influential figure. Wealthy in her own right, she exercised considerable power and was regent of England immediately after Henry's death. Following the disputed reign of King Stephen, Henry's reign saw efficient consolidation. Henry II has acquired a reputation as one of England's greatest medieval kings. England's long history of involvement in Ireland dates from his reign, an early example of territorial expansion carried out with a papal blessing, this time by Pope Adrian IV, who was himself English. The Irish were considered pagan because their form of Christianity did not conform to Rome's rules. Therefore, Ireland could be pacified and brought under the authority of the Pope. Later, papal blessing would sanction the imperial projects of Spain and Portugal. Born in France, Henry II was as much French as English and ruled at a time when kingdoms were regarded as the personal possessions of their rulers, rather than as deriving any legitimacy from the people. He regarded France as his territory just as he did the whole of the British Isles. His own son, however, John of England, due to his own indifferent and oppressive rule, would concede to the barons in the Magna Carta rights, which included the right to life, liberty, property, and justice, that recognized that ordinary citizens, or subjects, could not be treated as if they were the king's possessions.
Biography
Territorial holdings and gains
Prior to coming to the throne, Henry already controlled Normandy and Anjou on the continent; his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine on May 18, 1152, added her holdings to his, including Touraine, Aquitaine, and Gascony. He thus effectively became more powerful than the king of France, having an empire (the Angevin Empire) that stretched from the Solway Firth almost to the Mediterranean and from the Somme to the Pyrenees. As king, he would make Ireland a part of his vast domain. He also maintained lively communication with the Emperor of Byzantium Manuel I Comnenus.
Life before accession
He was born on March 5, 1133 at Le Mans to the Empress Matilda and her second husband, Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou. Brought up in Anjou, he visited England in 1149 to help his mother in her disputed claim to the English throne.
He married Eleanor of Aquitaine on May 18, 1152, but from May to August he was occupied in fighting Eleanor's ex-husband Louis VII of France and his allies. In August Henry rushed back to her, and they spent several months together. Around the end of November 1152 they parted—Henry went to spend some weeks with his mother and then sailed for England, arriving on January 6, 1153. Henry's succession was established by the Treaty of Wallingford in 1153, after he had challenged Stephen's forces at Wallingford Castle. It was agreed that Henry would become king upon Stephen's death.
Civil and legal reform: struggle with the barons
During Stephen's reign the barons had subverted the state of affairs to undermine the monarch's grip on the realm; Henry II saw it as his first task to reverse this shift in power. For example, Henry had castles torn down which the barons had built without authorization during Stephen's reign, and by 1159, scutage, a fee paid by vassals in lieu of military service, had become a central feature of the king's military system. Record keeping improved dramatically in order to streamline this taxation.
Henry II established courts in various parts of England and first instituted the royal practice of granting magistrates the power to render legal decisions on a wide range of civil matters in the name of the Crown. His reign saw the production of the first written legal textbook, providing the basis of today's "Common Law."
By the Assize of Clarendon (1166), trial by jury became the norm. Since the Norman Conquest, jury trials had been largely replaced by trial by ordeal and "wager of battel" (which English law did not abolish until 1819). Provision of justice and landed security was further toughened in 1176 with the Assize of Northampton, built on the earlier agreements at Clarendon. This reform proved one of Henry's major contributions to the social history of England.
Dealings with Ireland
Shortly after his coronation, Henry sent an embassy to the newly elected Pope Adrian IV. Led by Bishop Arnold of Lisieux, the group of clerics requested from Adrian a privilege authorizing Henry to invade Ireland. Most historians agree that this was the papal bull Laudabiliter. W.L. Warren asserts that Henry acted under the influence of a "Canterbury plot;" Archbishop Theobald of Bec, John of Salisbury, and other Canterbury clergy wished to assert their hierarchical supremacy over the newly created Irish diocesan structure. Other historians have argued instead that Henry intended to secure Ireland as a lordship for his younger brother William.
Shortly thereafter, Henry's continental affairs distracted him. William died, and the English ignored Ireland. It was not until 1166 that it came to the surface again. In that year, Dermot MacMurrough, having been driven from his kingdom in Leinster, followed Henry to Aquitaine. He asked the English king to help him reassert control; Henry agreed to allow Dermot to gather supporters from among his Norman vassals. The most prominent of these was a Welsh Norman, Richard de Clare, Second Earl of Pembroke, nicknamed "Strongbow." In exchange for his loyalty, Dermot offered Earl Richard his daughter Aoife (Eve) in marriage and made him heir to the kingdom.
The Normans quickly restored Dermot to his traditional holdings, and he even toyed with the idea of challenging for the title of Ard Ri, or High King, a title no one had held since Brian Boru (940-1014) had succeeded in unifying Ireland under his rule. However, in 1171, Henry arrived from France to assert his overlordship. All of the Normans, along with many Irish princes, took oaths of homage to Henry, and he left after six months. He never returned, but he later named his young son, the future King John of England, Lord of Ireland.
The struggle with the church and Thomas Becket
As a consequence of the improvements in the legal system, the power of church courts waned. The church naturally opposed this and found its most vehement spokesman in Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, formerly a close friend of Henry's and his Chancellor.
The conflict with Becket effectively began with a dispute over whether the secular courts could try clergy who had committed a secular offence. Henry attempted to subdue Becket and his fellow churchmen by making them swear to obey the "customs of the realm," but controversy ensued over what constituted these customs, and the church proved reluctant to submit. Following a heated exchange at Henry's court, Becket left England in 1164 for France to solicit in person the support of King Louis VII of France and of Pope Alexander III, who was in exile in France due to dissension in the college of Cardinals. Due to his own precarious position, Alexander remained neutral in the debate, although Becket remained in exile loosely under the protection of Louis and Pope Alexander until 1170. After reconciliation between Henry and Becket in Normandy in 1170, Becket returned to England. Becket again confronted Henry, this time over the coronation of Prince Henry. The much-quoted, although probably apocryphal, words of Henry II echo down the centuries: "Will no one rid me of this meddlesome priest?" Although Henry's violent rants against Becket over the years were well documented, this time four of his knights took their king literally (as he may have intended for them to do, although he later denied it) and traveled immediately to England, where they assassinated Becket in Canterbury Cathedral on December 29, 1170.
For this act Henry was excommunicated but obtained his rehabilitation thanks to the efforts of Robert de Torigny, abbot of Mont St. Michel. As part of his penance for the death of Becket, Henry made a pilgrimage in sackcloth to his tomb (see also St. Dunstan's, Canterbury), and agreed to send money to the Crusader states in Palestine, which the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar would guard until Henry arrived to make use of it on pilgrimage or crusade. Henry delayed his crusade for many years and in the end, never went at all, despite a visit to him by Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem in 1184 and being offered the crown of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1188 he levied the Saladin tithe to pay for a new crusade; the cleric and courtier Gerald of Wales suggested his death was a divine punishment for the tithe, imposed to raise money for an abortive crusade to recapture Jerusalem, which had fallen to Saladin in 1187.[1]
Coat of arms
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Henry II's coat of arms were displayed as gules, a lion rampant Or red background, with a golden lion on hind legs facing to the side.
Issue
Legitimate
Henry's first son, William, Count of Poitiers, had died in infancy. In 1170, Henry and Eleanor's 15-year-old son, Henry, was crowned king (another reason for rupture with Thomas Becket, whose other bishops agreed to this during Becket's exile), but he never actually ruled and does not figure in the list of the monarchs of England; he became known as Henry the Young King to distinguish him from his nephew Henry III of England.
Henry and his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, had five sons and three daughters: William, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, John, Matilda, Eleanor, and Joan. Henry's attempts to wrest control of Eleanor’s lands from her (and from their heir Richard) led to confrontations between Henry on the one side and his wife and legitimate sons on the other.
Illegitimate
Henry's notorious liaison with Rosamund Clifford, the "fair Rosamund" of legend, probably began in 1165 during one of his Welsh campaigns and continued until her death in 1176. However, it was not until 1174, at around the time of his break with Eleanor, that Henry acknowledged Rosamund as his mistress. Almost simultaneously he began negotiating the annulment of his marriage in order to marry Alys, daughter of King Louis VII of France, who was already betrothed to Henry's son Richard. Henry's affair with Alys continued for some years, and, unlike Rosamund Clifford, Alys allegedly gave birth to one of Henry's illegitimate children.
Henry also had a number of illegitimate children by various women, and Eleanor had several of those children reared in the royal nursery with her own children; some remained members of the household in adulthood. Among them were William de Longespee, Third Earl of Salisbury, whose mother was Ida, Countess of Norfolk; Geoffrey, Archbishop of York, son of a woman named Ykenai; Morgan, Bishop of Durham; and Matilda, Abbess of Barking.
Succession crisis
Henry II's attempt to divide his titles amongst his sons but keep the power associated with them provoked them into trying to take control of the lands assigned to them, which amounted to treason, at least in Henry's eyes. Gerald of Wales reports that when King Henry gave the kiss of peace to his son Richard, he said softly, "May the Lord never permit me to die until I have taken due vengeance upon you."
When Henry's legitimate sons rebelled against him, they often had the help of King Louis VII of France. Henry the Young King died in 1183. After his death, there was a power struggle between the three sons who were left. Henry had wanted John to be the next king, but Eleanor favored Richard. Henry had always loved John more than any of the other sons. Geoffrey tried to overcome both John and Richard, but he was unsuccessful; a horse trampled him to death in 1186. Henry's third son, Richard the Lionheart (1157–1199), with the assistance of Philip II Augustus of France, attacked and defeated Henry on July 4, 1189; Henry died at the Chateau Chinon on July 6, 1189, and lies entombed in Fontevraud Abbey, near Chinon and Saumur in the Anjou Region of present-day France. Henry's illegitimate son Geoffrey, Archbishop of York stood by his father the whole time and he alone among Henry’s sons attended on Henry's deathbed. Henry’s last words, according to Gerald of Wales, were “Shame, shame on a conquered king.” Another version of the king's last words, “my other sons are the real bastards," alludes to the fact that the only son to attend his deathbed was his illegitimate son Geoffrey.
Richard the Lionheart then became King of England. John succeeded to the throne upon Richard's death in 1199, laying aside the claims of Geoffrey's children Arthur of Brittany and Eleanor.
Appearance
Peter of Blois left a description of Henry II in 1177:
…the lord king has been red-haired so far, except that the coming of old age and grey hair has altered that color somewhat. His height is medium, so that neither does he appear great among the small, nor yet does he seem small among the great…curved legs, a horseman's shins, broad chest, and a boxer's arms all announce him as a man strong, agile and bold…he never sits, unless riding a horse or eating. In a single day, if necessary, he can run through four or five day-marches and, thus foiling the plots of his enemies, frequently mocks their plots with surprise sudden arrivals. Always are in his hands bow, sword, spear, and arrow, unless he be in council or in books."[2]
Another contemporary, Gerald of Wales, described Henry thus:
A man of reddish, freckled complexion, with a large, round head, grey eyes that glowed fiercely and grew bloodshot in anger, a fiery countenance and a harsh, cracked voice. His neck was poked forward slightly from his shoulders, his chest was broad and square, his arms strong and powerful. His body was stocky, with a pronounced tendency toward fatness, due to nature rather than self-indulgence—which he tempered with exercise.[3]
In the arts
- Thirteenth Century: "Book of the Civilized Man" is a poem believed to have been written in Henry's court and is the first "book of manners" or "courtesy book" in English history, representing the start of a new awakening to etiquette and decorum in English culture.
- 1935: The assassination of Archbishop Thomas Becket is the subject of the celebrated 1935 play Murder in the Cathedral by T. S. Eliot.
- 1964: A fuller account of the struggle between Henry II and Becket is portrayed in the film Becket based on the Jean Anouilh play and starring Peter O'Toole as Henry and Richard Burton as Becket.
- 1966: The treasons associated with the royal and ducal successions formed the main theme of the play The Lion in Winter, which also served as the basis of a 1968 film with O'Toole reprising the role of Henry and Katharine Hepburn as Eleanor of Aquitaine. In 2003, the film was remade as a television film with Patrick Stewart and Glenn Close in the leading roles.
- 1978: Henry II and his sons King Richard and King John also provided the subjects of the BBC2 television series The Devil's Crown. The 1978 book of the same title was written by Richard Barber and published as a guide to the broadcast series, which starred Brian Cox as Henry and Jane Lapotaire as Eleanor.
- 1989: The final chapters of Ken Follett's novel The Pillars of the Earth concern the assassination of Thomas Becket and end with Henry's penance.
- 1994: The first decade of Henry's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine is portrayed in the novel Beloved Enemy: The Passions of Eleanor of Aquitaine, a Novel by Ellen Jones.
Notes
- ↑ Cambrensis, Giraldus. De instructione principis. London: Anglia Christiana. Vol 3: 9. 1846.
- ↑ of Blois, Peter. Letter No. 66 to Walter, Bishop of Palermo, 1177: Description of Henry II Retrieved June 5, 2007.
- ↑ Cambrensis, Giraldus. De Instructione Principis. 2.29.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Barber, Richard. The Devil's Crown: A History of Henry II and His Sons. Conshohocken, PA: 1996. ISBN 9780585100098 Retrieved June 5, 2007.
- Bartlett, Robert. England Under The Norman and Angevin Kings 1075-1225. NY: Oxford University. 2000. ISBN 9780198227410 Retrieved June 5, 2007.
- Warren, W. L. Henry II. Berkeley, CA: University of California. 1973. ISBN 9780520022829 Retrieved June 5, 2007.
External links
- World History Database. Henry II Retrieved June 5, 2007.
- Baldwin, Stewart. Henry II of England Retrieved June 5, 2007.
- Internet Medieval Sourcebook. Angevin England Retrieved June 5, 2007.
| Preceded by: Stephen |
King of England 1154–1189 |
Succeeded by: Richard I |
| Duke of Normandy 1150–1189 | ||
| Preceded by: Geoffrey V |
Count of Anjou 1151–1189 with Henry the Young King | |
| Count of Maine 1151–1189 with Henry the Young King | ||
| Preceded by: Louis and Eleanor |
Duke of Aquitaine 1152–1189 with Eleanor | |
| Count of Poitiers 1152–1189 with Eleanor |
Succeeded by: William | |
| Preceded by: Geoffrey V |
Count of Mortain 1151–1153 |
Succeeded by: William III |
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