Difference between revisions of "Ganesha" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Hdeity infobox| <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology—>
 
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| Name                    = Ganesha (Gaṇeśa)
 
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| Caption                  = '''Ganesha'''
 
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| Devanagari              = गणेश
 
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| Sanskrit_Transliteration = {{IAST|gaṇeśa}}
 
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| Pali_Transliteration    =
 
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| Tamil_script            =
 
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| Affiliation              = [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
 
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| Weapon                  =
 
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| Consort                  = [[Buddhi]] (wisdom),<br/>Riddhi (prosperity),<br/>[[Siddhi]] (attainment)
 
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| Mount                    = mouse
 
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'''Ganesha''' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|गणेश}}; {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}; {{Audio|Ganesha.ogg|listen}}, also spelled '''Ganesa''') is one of the best-known and most beloved representations of divinity in [[Hinduism]]. <ref>Rao, p. 1.</ref> Although he is known by multifarious attributes, Ganesha's elephant head renders him one of the most identifiable Hindu deities. <ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 2.</ref> Ganesha is worshipped as the lord of beginnings and also the lord of obstacles ('''Vighnesha'''),<ref>These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, "Ganesha: Lord of Obstacle, Lord of Beginnings".  For the name Vighnesha see Courtright pp. 156, 213.</ref> patron of arts and sciences, and the god of intellect and wisdom.<ref>Heras, p. 58.</ref>  He is honoured with affection at the start of any ritual or ceremony and invoked as the "Patron of Letters" at the beginning of any writing.<ref>Getty, p. 5.</ref>
 
  
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Ganesha appears as a distinct deity in recognizable form beginning in the fourth to fifth centuries AD, during the [[Gupta|Gupta Period]].  His popularity rose quickly, and he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of [[Smartism]], a Hindu denomination, in the ninth century AD. Many millions of Hindu worshippers recognize him as their Ishta devata, or "chosen divinity". The principal scriptures dedicated to his worship are the ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'', the ''[[Mudgala Purana]]'', and the ''[[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]]''. Today, Ganesha is the most-worshipped divinity in India. <ref> Brown, p. 1.</ref> Worship of Ganesha is considered complementary with the worship of other forms of the divine, and various Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations with other gods.<ref>Rao, p. 1.</ref><ref>Martin-Dubost, pp. 2-4.</ref><ref>Brown, p. 1.</ref> The devotional cult of Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains, Buddhists, and even beyond India.<ref>For a review of Ganesha's geographic spread and popularity outside of India see: Nagar.</ref>
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[[Image:GanpatiTibetan.jpg|thumb|right|Tibetan depiction of Ganapati as ''Maha-Rakta'' (The Great Red One)]]
  
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== Names ==
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'''Ganesha''' is one of the most easily recognizable gods in the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] pantheon, known as the elephant-headed deity. He is usually praised with affection at the start of any Hindu ritual or ceremony and at the beginning of any writing.<ref>Getty, p. 5.</ref> His elephantine representation has deeper symbolic meaning as Ganesha's large size represents his metaphysical ability to remove obstacles in his devotees' lives. Widely worshiped among Hindus as the lord of beginnings, Ganesha is honored as the patron of arts and sciences, intellect and wisdom.<ref>Heras, p. 58.</ref>
  
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===Etymology===
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Historically, Ganesha appeared as a distinct deity in recognizable form beginning in the fourth to fifth centuries C.E., during the [[Gupta|Gupta Period]] (c. 320-600 C.E.) of Indian history. His popularity rose quickly, and he was formally included among the five primary deities of [[Smartism]], an influential stream of [[Hinduism]] that began in the ninth century C.E. The principal [[scripture]]s dedicated to his worship are the ''Ganesha Purana'', the ''Mudgala Purana'', and the ''Ganapati Atharvashirsa''. Ganesha is deeply beloved by Hindus around the world today, with many millions recognizing him as their ''Ishta devata'', or "chosen divinity." <ref> Brown, p. 1.</ref>  
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The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words ''[[gana]]'' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|गण}}; {{IAST|gaṇa}}), meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and ''isha'' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|ईश}}; {{IAST|īśa}}), meaning lord or master.<ref name=Narain>Narain, A. K. "Gaṇeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon". Brown, pp. 21-22.</ref><ref name=apte395>Apte, p. 395.</ref> The word ''[[gana|gaņa]]'' in association with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a group of semi-divine beings that form part of Lord Śiva's retinue.<ref>For derivation of the name and relationship with the gaņas, see: Martin-Dubost. p. 2.</ref> The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.<ref name = apte395/> Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of created categories," such as the elements, etc. <ref>Bhāskararāya, ''Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita''.  (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991).</ref> The translation "Lord of Hosts" may convey a familiar sense to Western readers.
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In Hinduism, the worship of Ganesha is considered to be compatible with devotion to other deities, and various Hindu sects worship him regardless of their affiliations with other gods.<ref>Martin-Dubost, pp. 2-4.</ref> In this capacity, Ganesha is a deity that overcomes religious sectarianism because virtually all Hindu groups agree to revere Ganesha, regardless of their particular affiliation. Thus, Ganesha can be seen as a remover of religious intolerance and intellectual [[exclusivism]].  
  
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===Epithets===
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==Etymology and epithets==
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The name Ganesha derives from the Sanskrit words ''gana'' (meaning "a group") and ''isha'' (meaning "lord" or "master"),<ref name=Narain>Narain, A. K. "Gaṇeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon." Brown, pp. 21-22.</ref><ref name=apte395>Apte, p. 395.</ref><ref>Bhāskararāya, ''Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita''. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991).</ref> togther translated as "Lord of Hosts" - a familiar phrase to many Christians and Jews. <ref>Others have noted that the word ''gana'' in association with Ganesha may refer to the ''gaņas'', a group of semi-divine beings that form part of Shiva's retinue. See Martin-Dubost. p. 2.</ref>
  
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Ganesha has many other titles and epithets, including ''Ganapati'' and ''Vighneśvara''. ''Ganapati'' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|गणपति}}; {{IAST|gaṇapati}}) is a synonym for ''Ganesha'', being a compound composed of ''{{IAST|gaṇa}}'', meaning "group", and ''{{IAST|pati}}'', meaning "ruler" or "lord").<ref name = apte395/> The name ''Vignesha'', meaning "Lord of Obstacles", refers to his primary function in Hindu mythology as being able to both create and remove obstacles in the lives of his followers (''{{IAST|vighna}}''). ''Vināyaka'' is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.<ref>Thapan, p. 20.</ref> The earliest name referring to Ganesha is '''Ekadanta''' ("One Tusk"), referring to his single tusk; the other is broken off. <ref>Getty, p. 1.</ref> Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.<ref>Heras, p. 29.</ref> The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the fact that, according to the ''[[Mudgala Purana]]'', the name of Ganesha's second [[avatar|incarnation]] is Ekadanta.<ref>Granoff, Phyllis. "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor". Brown, p. 90.</ref>  
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Ganesha has many other titles and epithets, including most prominently ''Ganapati'' (meaning "lord of the group"), and ''Vignesha'', (meaning "Lord of Obstacles"). The Sanskrit names ''Vighnakartā'' ("obstacle-creator") and ''Vighnahartā'' ("obstacle-destroyer") are also used to summarize the Ganesha's dual functions pertaining to obstacles. Another name employed in the ''Ganesha Purana'' and ''Ganesha Sahasranama'' is ''Buddhipriya'' or "lover of intelligence"<ref>''Ganesha Purana'' I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition.</ref>
  
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One of the main names for Ganesha in the [[Tamil language]] is ''Pille'' or ''Pillaiyar'', which means "Little Child".<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 367.</ref> A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that ''pille'' means a "child" and ''pillaiyar'' a "noble child", and adds that the words ''pallu'', ''pella'', and ''pell'' in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk of an elephant" but more generally "elephant".<ref>Narain, A. K. "Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon". Brown, p. 25.</ref> In discussing the name ''Pillaiyar'', Anita Raina Thapan notes that since the [[Pali]] word ''pillaka'' has the significance of "a young elephant" it is possible that ''pille'' originally meant "the young of the elephant".<ref>Thapan, p. 62.</ref>  
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Some of Ganesha's epithets refer to his physical features. The earliest name referring to Ganesha is ''Ekadanta'' ("One Tusk"), referring to his single tusk; the other is broken off. <ref>Getty, p. 1.</ref> According to the ''Mudgala Purana'' two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on Ganesha's paunch: ''Lambodara'' ("Pot Belly," or literally "Hanging Belly") and ''Mahodara'' ("Great Belly").<ref>Granoff, Phyllis. "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor." Brown, p. 91.</ref>
  
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These names figure into worship of Ganesha, as well. One common form of Ganesha worship is by chanting one of the ''[[Ganesha Sahasranama]]s'', which literally means "a thousand names of Ganesha". Each name in the [[sahasranama]] conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha.
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One of the main names for Ganesha in the [[Tamil language]] is ''Pille'' or ''Pillaiyar'', which means "Little Child".<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 367.</ref> A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that ''pille'' means a "child" and ''pillaiyar'' a "noble child," and adds that the words ''pallu'', ''pella'', and ''pell'' in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk of an elephant" but more generally an elephant alone. <ref>Narain, A. K. "Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon." Brown, p. 25.</ref> In discussing the name ''Pillaiyar'', Anita Raina Thapan notes that since the [[Pali]] word ''pillaka'' has the significance of "a young elephant," it is possible that ''pille'' originally meant "the young of the elephant."<ref>Thapan, p. 62.</ref>
  
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==Attributes==
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==History==  
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[[Image:13th century Ganesha statue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|This statue of Ganesha was created in the [[Mysore District]] of [[Karnataka]] in the 13th century.]]
 
  
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===Iconography===
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===Iconographic history===
  
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Ganesha is a popular figure in [[Indian art]], <ref>Pal, p. ix.</ref> and so Representations of Ganesha are widely varied, with distinct patterns changing over time. He may be portrayed  standing, dancing, taking heroic action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down, or engaging in a remarkable range of contemporary situations.
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Ganesha appears as a distinct deity in clearly-recognizable form beginning in the fourth to fifth centuries C.E., suggesting the emergence of the ''Ganapatya'' (Ganesh-worshipping) sect (probably an offshoot of mainstream [[Shaivism]]).<ref name="Narainp19">Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon." Brown, p. 19.</ref> The earliest cult image of Ganesha so far known is found in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]].<ref>Nagar, p. 4.</ref> By about the tenth century C.E., Ganesha's independent cult had come into existence.<ref name="Narainp19"/>
  
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Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the sixth century AD.<ref>Brown, p. 175.</ref> The figure shown to the right is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900-1200 B.C.E., after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own cult. The example shown here features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973-1200 C.E. by Martin-Dubost<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 213. In upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973-1200).</ref>, and another similar statue is dated ''circa'' twelfth century by Pal.<ref>Pal, p. vi.</ref>  
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Despite these fragments of information, questions as to Ganesha's historical origin are still largely unanswered, and many theories persist as to how he came into being. One theory of Ganesha's origin states that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four ''Vināyakas,'' from whom he gains one of his epithets (see above) <ref>Rocher, Ludo "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature." Brown, pp. 70-72.</ref> In Hindu mythology, the ''Vināyakas'' were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties,<ref>''Aitareya Brāhmana'', I, 21.</ref> but who were easily propitiated.<ref>Bhandarkar ''Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects''. pp. 147-48.</ref> Krishan is among the academics who accept this view, and states flatly that Ganesha "is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four ''Vināyakas,'' evil spirits, of the ''Mānavagŗhyasūtra'' (seventh–fourth century B.C.E.) who cause various types of evil and suffering."<ref>Krishan, p. vii.</ref> While none of these gods are conceived to be elephant-headed, they are held to be responsible for the creation of obstacles.
  
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He has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds some form of delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet which he holds in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.<ref>Brown, p. 176.</ref> A more primitive statue in one of the [[Ellora Caves]] with this general form has been dated to the 7th century AD.<ref>See photograph 2, "Large Ganesh", in: Pal, p. 16.</ref> Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown; in this standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds either an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a noose in the other upper arm as symbols of his ability to cut through obstacles or to create them as needed.  
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Other scholars have interpreted the myths of Ganesha as revelatory of his status as a former [[totemism|totemic]] emblem. In this way, Ganesha's adoption by [[Shiva]] (see below) is a mythological illustration of syncretism, in which a tribe under the banner of the elephant is assimilated into the Brahmanic fold. <ref>Courtright, 10.</ref> Numerous possibilities for this hypothesis have been suggested, including South India tribal traditions, the Pillayar caste, the Munda of central India, the Gajas of the northeast, and the Naga cult of Western India. <ref>Courtright, 10-11</ref> However, all these possibilities are problematic because there is no independent evidence for the existence of an elephant cult or a totem in any of these regions. <ref>Courtright, 11</ref>
  
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The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one common modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but rather is turned toward the viewer in the gesture of protection or "no fear" (abhaya [[mudra]]).<ref>Martin-Dubost, pp. 197-198.</ref><ref>For an example of a large image of this type being carried in a festival procession, see photograph 9, "Ganesh images being taken for immersion", in: Pal, pp. 22-23.  For two similar statues about to be immersed, see: Pal, p. 25.</ref> The same combination of four arms and attributes also occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing,<ref>For many examples of Ganesha dancing, see: Pal, pp. 41-64.</ref> which is a very popular theme.<ref>For popularity of the dancing form, see: Brown, p. 183.</ref>
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Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the ninth century C.E. when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of [[Smartism]]. The "worship of the five forms" ''(pañcāyatana pūjā)'' system, which was popularized by the ninth-century philosopher [[Shankara|Śaṅkarācārya]] among orthodox Brahmins of the Smārta tradition, invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devī, and Sūrya.<ref>Grimes, p. 162.</ref><ref>Courtright, p. 163.</ref><ref>Pal, p. ix.</ref> It was instituted by ''Śaṅkarācārya'' primarily to unite the principal deities of the foremost sects of Hinduism at the time ''(Gāṇapatya, Śaiva, Vaiṣṇava, and Sūrya)'' by giving them equal status. The monistic philosophy preached by ''Śaṅkarācārya'' made it possible to choose any one of these figures as a preferred principal deity while at the same time worshiping the other four deities as different forms of the same all-pervading [[Brahman]]. This served to formalize the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.
  
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Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.<ref>Nagar, p. 77.</ref> Ganesha is also notable for his one missing tusk. Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk. His has a comfortable pot-belly. The number of Ganesha's arms varies between two and sixteen, though he usually has at least four.  
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India had an impact on many countries throughout Asia as a result of commercial and cultural contacts. In particular, the period from approximately the tenth century C.E. onwards was marked by the development of new networks of exchange and a resurgence of money circulation throughout Asia, and it was during this time that Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.<ref>Thapan, p. 170.</ref> These traders prayed that the god would grant them success and remove obstacles in their path as they went outside of India to pursue commercial ventures; accordingly, the earliest inscriptions where Ganesha is invoked before any other deity were composed by the merchant community.<ref>Thapan, p. 152.</ref> Since Ganesha was widely worshipped by these enterprising travelers, he became one of the most prevalent Hindu deities in foreign lands. <ref>Nagar, p. 174-175.</ref> As could be expected, the worship of Ganesha by Hindus outside of India shows much regional variation.
  
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Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.<ref>Nagar, p. 77.</ref>
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The gradual emigration of Hindus to Southeast Asia also established Ganesha in modified forms in mostly Buddhist nations such as Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In these nations Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side-by-side, and mutual influences can be seen in Ganesha iconography in these regions.<ref>Getty, p. 52.</ref> Among Buddhists in Thailand, for example, Ganesha maintained his traditional Hindu function as a remover of obstacles and is therefore considered a god of success.<ref>Brown, p. 182.</ref> In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha known as ''Heramba'' has traditionally been very popular, and is often depicted with five heads and riding upon a lion.<ref>Getty, p. 40.</ref> Tibetan representations of Ganesha are usually more ambivalent in nature;<ref>Nagar, p. 185.</ref> in one Tibetan form he is shown being trodden underfoot by ''Mahākala,'' a popular Tibetan deity,<ref>Getty, p. 42</ref><ref>Nagar, p. 185.</ref> while in other depictions he is shown as the Destroyer of Obstacles, sometimes dancing in jubilation over his successes.<ref>Nagar, pp. 185-186.</ref> This dancing form, called ''Nṛtta Ganapati,'' originally gained popularity in North India and was later adopted in Nepal before arriving in Tibet.<ref>Getty, p. 38.</ref> In Buddhism in general, Ganesha is seen not only as a benevolent deity, but also in the form of a demon called ''Vināyaka.''<ref>Getty, pp. 37-45. "Chapter 4: Ganesha in Buddhism".</ref> Such images may be found among Buddhist sculptures of the late Gupta period.<ref>Getty, 37.</ref>
  
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Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries AD).<ref>"Ganesha in Indian Plastic Art" and ''Passim''. Nagar, p. 101.</ref> This feature is so important that according to the ''Mudgala Purana'' two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it, '''Lambodara''' ("Pot Belly", or literally "Hanging Belly") and '''Mahodara''' ("Great Belly").<ref>Granoff, Phyllis. "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor". Brown, p. 91.</ref> Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|udara}}'').<ref>For translation of ''udara'' as "belly" see: Apte, p. 268.</ref><!-- CLARIFY: if Lambodara is the name of both Ganesha and his avatar, please clarify as you have done in the preceding paragraph.—> The ''Brahmanda Purana'' says that he has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., [[World egg|cosmic eggs]]; Sanskrit ''{{IAST|brahmāṇḍas}}'') of the past, present, and future are present in Ganesha.<ref>''Br. P.'' 2.3.42.34</ref><ref>For a description of how a variant of this story is used in the ''Mudgala Purana'' 2.56.38-9, see: Thapan, p. 200.</ref>
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Ganesha also spread into a wide variety of additional cultures. Hindus brought Ganesh with them to the Malay Archipelago, and statues to the deity can be found throughout the region in great numbers, often beside sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva <ref>Getty, p. 55.</ref> Before the arrival of Islam, [[Afghanistan]] had close cultural ties with India, and Afghans venerated both Hindu and Buddhist deities. A few examples of sculptures from the period fifth-seventh century C.E. have survived in this region, including some depicting Ganesha, suggesting that the worship of the deity was in vogue in the region at that time.<ref>Nagar, p. 175.</ref><ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 311.</ref> Ganesha also appears in both [[China]] and [[Japan]] in forms that show distinct regional character. In North China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated 531 C.E.. <ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 311.</ref> while in Japan a cult dedicated to the deity was first mentioned in 806 C.E.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 313.</ref>
  
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The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.<ref>For an inconographical chart showing number of arms and attributes classified by source and named form, see: Nagar, pp. 191-195. Appendix I.</ref> Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.<ref>Krishan, p. 89.</ref>  His earliest images had two arms, <ref>Krishan, p. 89.</ref><ref>Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri say in "Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism" that presence of only two arms on a Ganesha image points to an early date. See: Brown, p. 103.</ref> and forms with fourteen and twenty arms appeared in Central India in the 9th and 10th century AD.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 120.</ref> 
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===Scriptural history===
  
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The colors most-often associated with Ganesha are red <ref>Nagar, Preface.</ref> and yellow, but specific other colors are prescribed for use in cetain forms.<ref>"The Colors of Ganesha". Martin-Dubost, pp. 221-230.</ref> Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the [[Sritattvanidhi]], a treatise on iconography that includes a section on variant forms of Ganesha. For example, the color white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati <!-- TRANSLATION? —>and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati.("Ganapati Who Releases From Bondage").<ref>Martin-Dubost, pp. 224-228</ref> Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation on that form.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 228.</ref>
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Ganesha as we know him today does not appear in the Vedas, at least not explicitly. Rg Veda 2.23.1 calls upon a deity also known as ''Ganapati,'' the "leader of hosts." While most devotees of Ganesha accept this as proof of their chosen deity's Vedic origin, scholars have suggested that this text is actually referring to ''Brhaspati,'' the teacher of the gods, rather than Ganesh.<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature." Brown, p. 69.</ref> Similarly, the [[Yajur Veda]] invokes "one having a trunk," although this phrase is located within a larger litany to [[Rudra]], Shiva's prototype. <ref>Renou, 273.</ref> Hence, this and other Vedic references to trunks and tusks are most likely referring in actuality to the elephantine features assumed by Shiva after he slayed an elephant demon. <ref>Courtright, 9.</ref> Ganesha also does not appear in literature of the epic period, save for a brief passage in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' in which he serves as Vyasa's scribe. However, this singular story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the ''Mahabharata'',<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature." Brown, pp. 71-72.</ref> where the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.<ref>''Mahābhārata'' Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.</ref>  
  
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It was not until the Puranas that Ganesha became an established figure in Hindu scripture. While the Puranas defy precise chronological ordering, the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life appear in the later texts, ''circa'' 600–1300 C.E. <ref>Brown, p. 183.</ref> References to Ganesha occuring in Puranas predating this (such as those in the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas), are considered to be later interpolations made during the seventh to tenth centuries C.E.<ref>Krishan, p. 103.</ref> Between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries, Ganesha also became the focal point of two Puranic texts of his own, the ''Ganesha Purana'' and the ''Mudgala Purana''.<ref>See: Preston, Lawrence W., "Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to Gaṇeśa," in: N. K. Wagle, ed., ''Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India''. p.103.</ref> <ref>Thapan, op. cit., pp. 30-33.</ref> His pivotal role in these texts reflects Ganesha's acceptance as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism and the subsequent development of the [[Ganapatya]] tradition in which some ''brāhmaṇas'' chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity <ref>Thapan, pp. 196-7.</ref> These two scriptures, along with the [[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]] (a text composed during the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries C.E.) remain the core texts involved in devotion to Ganesha. <ref>Courtright, op. cit., p. 252.</ref>
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The earliest Ganesha images are without a [[Vahana]] (mount).<ref>Krishan, pp. 48, 89, 92.</ref> Of the eight [[avatars|incarnations]] of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha has a mouse in five of them, but uses a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation of Vikata, and [[Shesha]], the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.<ref>Krishan, p. 49.</ref> Of the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana, Mohotkata has a lion, Mayura has a peacock, Dhumraketu has a horse, and Gajanana has a rat.<ref>Krishan, pp. 48-49.</ref>  In Jain depictions of Ganesha his vahana is shown variously as a mouse,<ref>Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri, "Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism", in: Brown, pp.101.</ref> an elephant,<ref>Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri, "Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism", in: Brown, pp.102.</ref>  a tortoise, a ram, or a peacock.<ref>Krishan, p. 49.</ref>
 
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Ganesha is often shown riding on, or attended by, a [[mouse]].<ref>Nagar. Preface.</ref><ref>Martin-Dubost, pp. 231-244.</ref> Martin-Dubost says that in central and western India the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Gaṇeśa in the 7th century C.E., always placing the rat close to his feet.<ref>See note on figure 43 in: Martin-Dubost, p. 144.</ref> The mouse as a [[Vahana|mount]] is mentioned for the first time in written sources in the ''[[Matsya Purana]]'', and later in the ''Brahmananda Purana'' and in the ''Ganesha Purana'' where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle only in his last incarnation.<ref>Citations to ''Matsya Purana'' 260.54, ''Brahmananda Purana Lalitamahatmya'' XXVII, and ''Ganesha Purana'' 2.134-136 are provided by: Martin-Dubost, p. 231.</ref> The [[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]] includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 232.</ref> The names Mūṣakavāhana ("Mouse-mount") and Ākhuketana ("Rat-banner") appear in the ''[[Ganesha Sahasranama]]''.<ref>For Mūṣakavāhana see v. 6. For Ākhuketana see v. 67. In: ''Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita''. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit. </ref>
 
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Devotee literature provides a variety of interpretations regarding what the mouse means. Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.<ref> A Student's Guide to AS Religious Studies for A Student's Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification By Michael Wilcockson pg.117</ref> Martin-Dubost thinks it is a symbol of the fact that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 231.</ref> Another interpretation by David Brown says that:
 
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">In reality, it (vahana) also tells us about the nature of the God concerned. Thus, to take a different example, Ganesha, the god of enterprise, has rat as his vahana precisely because the rat is viewed rivaling the god in his ability to past any obstacle.<ref>"God and Enchantment of Place: reclaiming human experience", p. 101.</ref></blockquote>
 
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A completely different interpretation is given by Krishan, who notes that the rat is a destructive creature and a menace to crops.  The Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|mūṣaka}}'' (mouse) is derived from the root ''{{IAST|mūṣ}}'' which means "stealing, robbing".  It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of ''vighna'' (impediment) that needed to be overcome.  By this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat proclaimed his function as Vigneshvara, and also gives evidence of his possible role as a folk ''grāmata-devatā'' (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.<ref>Krishnan pp. 49-50.</ref>
 
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==Associations==
 
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===Obstacles===
 
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He is the ''Lord of Obstacles'' both of a material and spiritual order.<ref>"Lord of Obstacles", a common name, appears in the title of Courtright's ''Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings''. For equivalent Sanskrit names ''Vighneśvara'' and ''Vighnarāja'', see: Courtright, p. 136.</ref>  He can place obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked, and can remove blockages just as easily. The Sanskrit terms ''vighnakartā'' ("obstacle-creator") and ''vighnahartā'' ("obstacle-destroyer") summarize the dual functions. <ref>Yuvraj Krishhan notes that some of his names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have shifted over time in this quote: "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} has a dual nature; as Vināyaka, as a ''grāmadevatā'', he is ''vighnakartā'', and as Gaṇeśa he is ''vighnahartā'', a ''paurāṇic devatā''." Krishan, p. viii.</ref> Both functions are vital to his character, as Robert Brown explains:
 
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">Even after the {{IAST|Purāṇic Gaṇeśa}} is well-defined, in art {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} remained predominantly important for his dual role as creator and remover of obstacles, thus having both a negative and a positive aspect.<ref>Brown, p. 6.</ref></blockquote>
 
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Paul Courtright says that:
 
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">Gaṇeśa is also called Vighneśvara or Vighnarāja, the Lord of Obstacles. His task in the divine scheme of things, his ''dharma'', is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation.<ref>Courtright, p. 136.</ref></blockquote>
 
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=== Buddhi ===
 
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Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of Intelligence.<ref>Nagar, p. 5.</ref>  In Sanskrit, the word ''buddhi'' is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.<ref>Apte, p. 703.</ref> The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, where many stories develop that showcase his cleverness and love of intelligence.  One of Ganesha's names in the ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'' and in the ''[[Ganesha Sahasranama]]'' is ''Buddhipriya''.<ref>''Ganesha Purana'' I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary.</ref> This name also appears in a special list of twenty-one names that Gaṇeśa says are of special importance at the end of the ''Ganesha Sahasranama''.<ref>Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204-206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma reads Buddhipriya, Bailey translates "Granter-of-lakhs."</ref> The word ''priya'' can mean "fond of", but in a marital context, it can mean "a lover" or "husband".  Buddhipriya probably refers to Ganesha's well-known association with intelligence.
 
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This association with wisdom also appears in the name ''Buddha'', which appears as a name of Ganesha in the second verse of the ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'' version of the ''[[Ganesha Sahasranama]]''.<ref>''Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita''. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Includes the full source text and the commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit. The name "Buddha" is in verse 7 of the volume cited, which corresponds to verse 2 of the śasahasranāma proper.</ref> The positioning of this name at the beginning of the ''Ganesha Sahasranama'' indicates that the name was of importance.  [[Bhaskararaya]]'s commentary on the ''Ganesha Sahasranama'' says that this name for Ganesha means that the Buddha was an avatar of Ganesha.<ref>Bhaskararaya's commentary on the name Buddha with commentary verse number is: "नित्यबुद्धस्वरूपत्वात् अविद्यावृत्तिनाशनः । यद्वा जिनावतारत्वाद् बुद्ध इत्यभिधीयते ॥ १५ ॥"</ref>  This interpretation is not widely known even among [[Ganapatya]], and the Buddha is not mentioned in the lists of Ganesha's incarnations given in the main sections of the ''Ganesha Purana'' and ''[[Mudgala Purana]]''.  Bhaskararaya also provides a more general interpretation of this name as simply meaning that Ganesha's very form is "eternal elightenment"  ({{IAST|nityabuddaḥ}}), so he is named Buddha.
 
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===Aum===
 
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[[Image:Ganesha-aum.jpg|180px|thumb|right|Ganesha Aum jewel]]
 
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Ganesha is identified with the Hindu [[mantra]] [[Aum]] ({{lang|sa|ॐ}}, also called ''Om'', ''Omkara'', {{IAST|oṃkāra}}, or ''Aumkara'').  The term ''oṃkārasvarūpa'' ("Aum is his form") in connection with Ganesha refers to this belief that he is the personification of the primal sound.<ref>Grimes, p. 77.</ref> This association is attested in the ''[[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]]''.  The relevant passage is translated by Paul Courtright as follows:
 
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">You are {{IAST|Brahmā}}, {{IAST|Vişņu}}, and Rudra [{{IAST|Śiva}}]. You are Agni, {{IAST|Vāyu}}, and {{IAST|Sūrya}}. You are Candrama. You are earth, space, and heaven. You are the manifestation of the mantra "{{IAST|Oṃ}}".<ref>Translation. Courtright, p. 253.</ref></blockquote>
 
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A variant version of this passage is translated by Chinmayananda as follows:
 
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire and air. You are the sun and the moon. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka, Antariksha-loka, and Swargaloka. You are Om. (that is to say, You are all this).<ref>Chinmayananda, p. 127. In Chinmayananda's numbering system, this is ''upamantra'' 8.</ref></blockquote>
 
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Some devotees see similarities between the shape of his body and the shape of Om in the [[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] scrips.<ref>For examples of both, see: Grimes, pp. 79-80.</ref>
 
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===First chakra===
 
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Ganesha is associated with the first or "root" [[chakra]] ({{IAST|mūlādhāra}}).  This association is attested in the ''[[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]]''.  As translated by Courtright this passage reads:
 
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [{{IAST|mūlādhāra cakra}}].<ref>Translation. Courtright, p. 253.</ref></blockquote>
 
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A variant version of this passage is translated by Chinmayananda:
 
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">You have a permanent abode (in every being) at the place called "Muladhara".<ref>Chinmayananda, p. 127. In Chinmayananda's numbering system, this is part of ''upamantra'' 7.</ref></blockquote>
 
  
 
==Mythology==
 
==Mythology==
  
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===Origins===
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===Birth===
  
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Puranic myths provide a wide variety of explanations for how he got this form.<ref>Brown, p. 3.</ref> One of his popular images (called Heramba-Ganapati) has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.<ref>Nagar, p. 78.</ref> While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, in most stories he acquires the head later, with several different accounts given.<ref>Brown, p. 76.</ref> The most common theme in these stories is that Ganesha was born with a human head and body but was beheaded by Shiva during a battle that arose when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati, and that Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.<ref>Brown, p. 77.</ref>  Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary according to different sources.<ref>Brown, pp. 77-78.</ref> In a different story, when Ganesha was born his mother Parvati showed off her new baby to the other gods.  Unfortunately, the god [[Shani]] (Saturn) – who is said to have the "evil eye" – looked at him, causing the baby's head to be burned to ashes. The god [[Visnu]] came to the rescue and replaced the missing head with that of an elephant.<ref>Brown, pp. 76-77.</ref>  In another story, Ganesha is created directly by Shiva's laughter, and Shiva became concerned that Ganesha was too alluring, so he cursed Ganesha to have the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.<ref>For creation of Ganesha from Shiva's laughter and subsequent curse by Shiva, see ''Varaha Purana'' 23.17 as cited in Brown: p. 77.</ref>
+
In popular Hindu mythology, Ganesha is considered to be the son of the Hindu deity [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]]. The most common account of his birth begins with Shiva leaving his wife Parvati for an extended period of time in order to [[Meditation|meditate]] upon Mount Kailasa. This inspired intense loneliness within the goddess. Longing for a son, she gave birth to the young man, Ganesha. She quickly ordered him to stand guard at the door of her private chamber while she bathed. Eventually, Shiva returned from his meditation and attempted to access Parvati's private chamber. Ganesha refused to let him in and a struggle ensued, after which Shiva beheaded Ganesha. Hearing the commotion, Parvati came out of her bath and informed Shiva that he had just killed her child, and threatened to destroy the universe if the situation was not rectified. Shiva promptly sent his servants to the North, the holy direction, so that they could find a new head for Ganesha. Details as to where this replacement head came from vary according to different sources.<ref>Brown, pp. 77-78.</ref> Eventually, the servants found an elephant and cut off its head, which they placed upon Ganesh's shoulders upon their return. When Ganesh came back to consciousness, Shiva adopted him as his own. <ref>Courtright, 5.</ref>
  
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===Family and consorts===
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Puranic myths provide a wide variety of other explanations for Ganesha's form.<ref>Brown, p. 3.</ref> Some texts say that he was actually born with his elephant head (or heads), though in most stories he acquires the head later. <ref>Brown, p. 76.</ref> In a different story, when Ganesha was born his mother Parvati showed off her new baby to the other gods. Unfortunately, the god [[Shani]] (a deity corresponding to the planet [[Saturn]]) – who is said to have the "evil eye" – looked at him, causing the baby's head to be burned to ashes. The god [[Vishnu]] came to the rescue and replaced the missing head with that of an elephant.<ref>Brown, pp. 76-77.</ref>  In yet another story, Ganesha is created directly by Shiva's laughter. After Ganesha's birth, Shiva became concerned that the youth was excessively beautiful, and so he cursed Ganesha to have the head of an elephant and a protruding belly in order to make his appearance less appealing.<ref>Brown, 77.</ref>
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[[Image:Shiva parvati01.jpg|180px|right|thumb|Shiva and Parvati with their son Ganesh]]
 
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{{Details|Consorts of Ganesha}}
 
  
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While Ganesha is popularly considered to be the son of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]], the [[Puranas|Puranic]] myths relate several different versions of his birth.<ref>For a summary of Puranic variants of birth stories, see: Nagar, pp. 7-14.</ref><ref>Martin-Dubost, pp. 41-82. Chapter 2, "Stories of Birth According to the Purāṇas".</ref> These include versions in which he is created by Shiva,<ref>''Linga Purana''.</ref> by Parvati,<ref>''Shiva Purana'' IV. 17.47-57. ''Matsya Purana'' 154.547.</ref> by Shiva ''and'' Parvati,<ref>''Varāha Purana'' 23.18-59.</ref> or in a mysterious manner that is discovered by Shiva and Parvati<!-- Is Ganesha discovered by S&P or is the manner discovered ? The current sentence has the second meaning—>.<ref>''Brahmavaivarta Purana, Ganesha Khanda'', 10.8-37.</ref>
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===Brotherly rivalry===
  
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Ganesh's family includes a brother, [[Skanda]], who is also called Karttikeya, [[Murugan]], and other names.<ref>For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: Thapan, p. 300.</ref><ref>For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: Brown, p. 355.</ref> The legends as to which is the older brother show regional variations. In North India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder brother while in the South, Ganesha is considered the first born.<ref>Khokar and Saraswati, p.4.</ref> Prior to the emergence of Ganesha, Skanda had a long and glorious history as an important martial deity from about 500 BC to about 600 AD, when his worship declined significantly in North India concurrent with the rise of Ganesha. Several stories relate episodes of sibling rivalry between Ganesha and Skanda<ref>Brown, p. 4, 79.</ref> and may reflect historical tensions between the respective sects.<ref>Gupta, p. 38.</ref>
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Along with his mother and father, Ganesh's closest kin includes a brother, Karttikeya (also known as [[Skanda]])<ref>Thapan, p. 300.</ref> Prior to the emergence of Ganesha as a cult figure, Karttikeya had a long and glorious history as a martial deity from about 500 B.C.E. until approximately 600 C.E., when his worship declined significantly in North India in conjunction with the rise of Ganesha. Several stories relate episodes of sibling rivalry between Ganesha and Karttikeya, such as their competition over women, <ref>Brown, p. 4, 79.</ref> which may reflect historical tensions between the respective sects.<ref>Gupta, p. 38.</ref>
  
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Ganesha's marital status varies widely in mythological stories and the issue has been the subject of considerable scholarly review.<ref name="lawrence_cohen">For a review, see: Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown, pp. 115-140</ref>  One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as a ''[[Brahmacharya|brahmacharin]]'' ({{IAST|brahmacārin}}; celibate).<ref>Getty, p. 33.</ref> Another pattern associates him with the concepts of ''Buddhi'' (intellect), ''Siddhi'' (spiritual power), and ''Riddhi'' (prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified by goddesses who are considered to be Ganesha's wives.  A third pattern couples Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, [[Sarasvati]], and the goddess of luck and prosperity, [[Lakshmi]], symbolically indicating that these qualities always accompany one other. A fourth pattern, which is mainly prevalent in the [[Bengal]] region, links Ganesha with the [[banana]] tree, [[Kala Bo]].
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===Consorts===
  
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===Buddhi, Siddhi, and Riddhi===
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Ganesha's marital status varies widely in mythological stories. One pattern of myths based in various Puranas associates Ganesha with the concepts of ''Buddhi'' (intellect), ''Siddhi'' (spiritual power), and ''Riddhi'' (prosperity), three qualities personified as goddesses who are considered to be Ganesha's wives. <ref>Brown, pp. 115-140</ref> In Chapter I.18.24-39 of the ''Ganesha Purana'', Brahmā performs worship in honor of Ganesha. During the ''puja'', Ganesha himself causes ''Buddhi'' and ''Siddhi'' to appear so that Brahmā can offer them back to Ganesha. Ganesha happily accepts them as offerings.<ref name = Bailey>Bailey.</ref> In the ''Shiva Purana'' (Śiva Purāṇa), Ganesha cleverly wins the two desirable daughters of Prajāpati by outwitting Karttikeya.<ref>''Śiva Purāṇa'' 2.5.19.15-20. Translation. Courtright, pp. 123-125.</ref> Aside from Puranic texts, evidence of Ganesha's links to these goddesses can be found elsewhere. For instance, in the Ganesha Temple at Morgaon (the central shrine for the regional ''aṣṭavināyaka'' complex), ''Buddhi'' and ''Siddhi'' stand to the right and left sides of the Ganesha image.<ref>Courtright, pp. 212-213.</ref> In northern India, the two female figures are said to be ''Siddhi'' and ''Riddhi; Riddhi'' substitutes for ''Buddhi'' with no Puranic basis.<ref>Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa." Brown, p. 130.</ref> These female figures may have originally served as a symbolic suggestion that where Gaṇesha is present, success ''(siddhi)'' and wisdom ''(buddhi)'' are not far away; the idea that they were actually married to the god probably developed later.<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature." Brown, pp. 69-83.</ref>
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[[Image:ShriMayureshwar_Morgaon.jpg|thumb|169px|left|Shri Mayureshwar, Morgaon]]
 
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The ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'' and the ''[[Mudgala Purana]]'' contain descriptions of Ganesha flanked by Buddhi and Siddhi.<ref>''Mudgala Purana'' VI.9.8 and ''Ganesha Purana'' II.125.39, II.6.24, II.31.9. Citations for the ''Ganesha Purana'' are from the Yogindra Mata 1985 (Part II) editions.</ref> In Chapter I.18.24-39 of the ''Ganesha Purana'', Brahmā performs worship in honour of Ganesha. During the puja, Ganesha himself causes Buddhi and Siddhi to appear so that Brahmā can offer them back to Ganesha. Ganesha accepts them as offerings.<ref name = Bailey>Bailey.</ref> In a variant, the two are born from Brahmā's mind and are given by Brahmā to Ganesha.<ref name=Bailey/> Buddhi and Siddhi are best identified as his consorts in the ''Shiva Purana'' ({{IAST|Śiva Purāṇa}}), where Ganesha cleverly wins the two desirable daugters of Prajāpati over Skanda.<ref>''Śiva Purāṇa'' 2.5.19.15-20. Translation. Courtright, pp. 123-125.</ref> In the ''Shiva Purana'' version of the story, Ganesha begets two sons: Kshema ({{IAST|Kşema}}, prosperity) and Lâbha (profit). In the 1975 [[Hindi film]] ''[[Jai Santoshi Maa]]'', Ganesha, married to Riddhi and Siddhi, has a daugther named [[Santoshi Mata|Santoshi Ma]] — goddess of satisfaction. Santoshi Ma's cult has been cited by Anita Raina Thapan and Larence Cohen as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.<ref>Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown, pp. 130.</ref><ref>Thapan, pp. 15-16, 230, 239, 242, 251.</ref>
 
  
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Aside from Puranic texts, evidence of Ganesha's wives can be found elsewhere. In the [[Ganesha Temple at Morgaon]] (the central shrine for the regional [[Ashtavinayak|aṣṭavināyaka]] complex), Buddhi and Siddhi stand to the right and left sides of the Ganesha image.<ref>Courtright, pp. 212-213.</ref> In northern India, the two female figures are said to be Siddhi and Riddhi; Riddhi substitutes for Buddhi with no Puranic basis.<ref>Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown, p. 130.</ref> In the ''Ajitāgama'', a Tantric form of Ganesha called Haridra Ganapati is described as turmeric-colored and flanked by two unnamed wives distinct from shaktis.<ref>''Ajitāgama'' Vol. III. 55.18.</ref>  The word "wives" ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|दारा}}; {{IAST|dārā}}) is specifically used ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|दारायुगलम्}}; {{IAST|dārāyugalam}}).<ref>Macdonell, p. 118.</ref>
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A distinct type of iconographic image of Ganesha depicts him with human-looking females called ''[[shakti]]s'', referring to uniquely female creative energy. <ref>Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa." Brown, p. 120.</ref> These consorts generally lack distinctive personalities or iconographic repertoires. A common depiction of this motif shows Ganesha seated with the ''shakti'' upon his left hip. Meanwhile, he turns his trunk to his left to taste the flat cakes or round sweets that the ''shakti'' holds in a bowl. In some of the tantric forms of this image, the gesture is modified to take on sexual overtones.<ref>Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa." Brown, p. 121.</ref> According to [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]], the oldest known depiction of Ganesha with a ''shakti'' of this type dates from the sixth century C.E.<ref>Coomaraswamy, Ananda. ''Bulletin of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts'' 26, no. 153 (1928):30-31, cited in Getty, pp. 217-218.</ref>
  
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=== Interpretations of relationships ===
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==Worship==
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[[Image:Ganesha in Bangalore.jpg|right|thumb|275px|A [[murti]] of Ganesha in a temple at [[Bangalore]], capital of the Indian state of Karnataka.]]
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Whether one is concerned with the successful performance of a [[puja|religious ceremony]], the purchase of a new vehicle, the writing of an examination, the chanting of devotional hymns, or the beginning a business, Ganesha is worshipped. It is widely believed that wherever Ganesha is present, there is success and prosperity. By calling on him, people believe that he will come to their aid and grant them success in whatever endeavors they might be making.
  
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[[Image:AshtaSiddhi.jpg|right|frame|Ganesha with the Ashta (meaning eight) [[Siddhi]]. The Ashtasiddhi are associated with Ganesha. Painted by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] (1848-1906).]]
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In Hindu temples, [[Mantra]]s such as  ''Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah'' ("Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha"), are often used to channel Ganesha. Another common form of Ganesha worship is performed by chanting the ''Ganesha Sahasranamas'', which literally means "a thousand names of Ganesha." Each of the god's epithets symbolizes a different aspect of his divine personality, and so by chanting these worshipers are able to contemplate his various benevolent qualities. Offerings are commonly made to Ganesha, in the form of various sweets, such as small sweet balls (laddus).<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 204.</ref>  Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with ruddy objects or substances, such as red sandalwood paste ({{IAST|raktacandana}}),<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 369.</ref> or red flowers. The worship of Ganesha is considered complementary with the worship of other deities,<ref>Courtright, p. 163.</ref> thus, Hindus of all sects begin prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies with an invocation of Ganesha.
  
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In discussing the ''Shiva Purana'' version, Courtright comments that while Ganesha is sometimes depicted as sitting between these two feminine deities, "these women are more like feminine emanations of his androgynous nature, Shaktis rather than spouses having their own characters and spouses."<ref>Courtright, pp. 124, 213. "They are his śaktis (the feminine emanations of his creative powers)."</ref> Ludo Rocher says that "descriptions of Gaṇeśa as siddhi-buddhi-samanvita 'accompanied by, followed by siddhi and buddhi.' often seem to mean no more than that, when Gaṇeśa is present, siddhi 'success' and buddhi 'wisdom' are not far behind. Such may well have been the original conception, of which the marriage was a later development."<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 69-83.</ref> In verse 49a of the ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'' version of the ''[[Ganesha Sahasranama]]'', one of Ganesha's names is Ŗddhisiddhipravardhana ("Enhancer of material and spiritual success"). In the ''Matsya Purana'', Gaṇesha is identified as the "owner" of Riddhi (prosperity) and Buddhi (wisdom).<ref>''Matsya Purana'' 260.55. Edited by Jamna Das Akhtar (Delhi: Oriental Publishers, 1972), 310.</ref> In discussing the northern Indian sources, Cohen remarks:
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Considering his ubiquitous appeal, worship of Ganesh extends beyond the temple and is carried out in virtually all aspects of life. For example, throughout India and the Hindu diaspora, Ganesha is usually the first icon placed into any new home or abode. As well, Ganesha is particularly adored by dancers and musicians, who begin their performances of arts such as the [[Bharatnatyam]] dance with a prayer to him, particularly in [[South India]].<ref>Nagar, Preface.</ref>
  
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{{Quotation|They are depersonalized figures, interchangeable, and given their frequent depiction fanning Gaṇeśa are often referred to as ''dasīs'' — servants. Their names represent the benefits accrued by the worshipper of Gaṇeśa, and thus Gaṇeśa is said to be the owner of Ṛddhi and Siddhi; he similarly functions as the father of Śubha (auspiciousness) and Lābha (profit), a pair similar to the Śiva Purāṇa's Kṣema (prosperity) and Lābha. Though in Varanasi the paired figures were usually called Ṛddhi and Siddhi, Gaṇeśa's relationship to them was often vague.  He was their ''mālik'', their owner; they were more often dasīs than patnīs (wives).<ref>Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown, p. 130.</ref>}}
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Ganesha is also the focal point of a ten-day festival occurring in the late summer (between late August and mid-September) called [[Ganesha Chaturthi]]. On this first day, clay images ''([[murti]]s)'' of Ganesha, fashioned by sculptors, are installed in family homes. In this domestic setting, the image is then treated like a kingly guest.<ref> Courtright, 172.</ref> On the days and nights that follow, the larger community sets up similar images of Ganesha that serve as the foci for various public performances, including devotional songs, dramas, dances, films, lectures and speeches by public dignitaries. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi when the images of Ganesha are paraded through the streets and then immersed into water, be it an ocean, river or even a tank, where they quickly dissolve. While this festival is most popular in the state of [[Maharashtra]], it is celebrated by Hindus throughout the whole of India with great devotional fervor. <ref>"Gaṇeśa in a Regional Setting." Courtright, pp. 202-247.</ref>
  
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His relationship with the [[Siddhi|Ashtasiddhi]] — the eight spiritual attaintments obtained by the practice of yoga — is also of this depersonalized type. In later iconography, these eight marvellous powers are represented by a group of young women who surround Ganesha.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 332.</ref> [[Raja Ravi Varma]]'s painting illustrates a recent example of this iconographic form. The painting includes fans, which establish the feminine figures as attendants.
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==Iconography==
  
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=== Motif of shaktis ===
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Ganesha is a popular figure in [[Indian art]], <ref>Pal, p. ix.</ref> and representations of him are not only abundant but also widely varied. He is most consistently and obviously recognizable by way of his elephant head, a feature that has characterized the god since his earliest appearances in Indian art.<ref>Nagar, p. 77.</ref> Ganesha is also commonly depicted with a short, stocky build, and a comfortable pot-belly. It is explained in the ''Brahmanda Purana'' that Ganesha has the bulbous paunch due to the fact that all the universes of the past, present, and future exist inside him <ref>''Br. P.'' 2.3.42.34</ref> The number of Ganesha's arms varies between two and sixteen, though he is most often pictured with four, which is codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.<ref>Krishan, p. 89.</ref> His earliest images had two arms, and so the presence of only two arms on an image of Ganesha points toward an early origin. <ref>Brown, p. 103.</ref> In the typical four-arm configuration, Ganesha's lower right hand holds his broken tusk, a feature which was present even in early depictions. His lower-left hand often holds a bowl of sweet delicacies (modakapātra),<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 204.</ref> which he samples with his trunk, while his upper hands carry an axe and a noose as symbols of his ability to cut through obstacles or to create them as needed. The colors most-often associated with Ganesha are red <ref>Nagar, Preface.</ref> and yellow, but other colors are prescribed for use in specific forms and situations.<ref>"The Colors of Ganesha." Martin-Dubost, pp. 221-230.</ref> For example, the color white is associated with his representations as Rina-Mochana-Ganapati ("Ganapati Who Releases From Bondage"), while blue is associated with Ekadanta-Ganapati when engaged in meditation.<ref>Martin-Dubost, pp. 224-228</ref> He may be portrayed standing, dancing, taking heroic action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down, or else engaging in a remarkable range of contemporary activities.
  
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A distinct type of iconographic image of Ganesha shows him with a single human-looking ''shakti'' ({{IAST|śakti}}).<ref>Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown, p. 120.</ref>  According to Ananda Coomaraswamy, the oldest known depiction of Ganesha with a shakti of this type dates from the sixth century AD.<ref>Coomaraswamy, Ananda. ''Bulletin of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts'' 26, no. 153 (1928):30-31, cited in Getty, pp. 217-18.</ref> The consort lacks a distinctive personality or iconographic repertoire. According to Cohen and Alice Getty, the appearance of this shakti motif parallels the emergence of tantric branches of the Ganapatya cult. Six distinct forms of "Shakti Ganapati" can be linked to the Ganapatyas.<ref>Getty, pp. 20-21.</ref> Of the thirty-two standard meditation forms for Ganesha that appear in the [[Sritattvanidhi]] ({{IAST|Śrītattvanidhi}}), six include a shakti.<ref>In ''Glory of Ganesha'', they are: Shakti Ganapati, Ucchista Ganapati, Mahaganapati, Urdhva Ganapati, Uddanda Ganapati, Sankastharana Ganapati. For variations on this list, see: Getty, pp. 20-21.</ref> A common form of this motif shows Ganesha seated with the shakti upon his left hip, holding a bowl of flat cakes or round sweets, with him turning his trunk to his left to touch the tasty food. In some of the tantric forms of this image, the gesture is modified to take on erotic overtones.<ref>Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown, p. 121.</ref> Some tantric variants of this form are described in the ''Śāradātilaka Tantram.''<ref>Avalon. Section 13. An English translation of this section is also included in the introduction.</ref>
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===Vehicle===
  
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Prithvi Kumar Agrawala has traced at least six different lists of fifty or more aspects or forms of Ganesha each with their specific female consorts or shaktis.<ref>Agrawala. Appendix I: Multiple Gaṇapatis and their female Śaktis. Complete lists for all six variants identified by Agrawala are given in Appendix I in tabular form permitting easy comparison.</ref><ref>Nagar, pp. 197-198. A list of fifty aspects as described in the ''Yoginīhṛdaya'' that is similar to those identified by Agrawala.</ref> In these lists, goddess names such as Hrī, Śrī, and Puṣṭī are found. However, Buddhi, Siddhi, and Riddhi do not appear on any of these lists, which also do not provide any details about the personalities or distinguishing iconographic forms for these shaktis.  Agrawala concludes that all of the lists were derived from one original set of names. The earliest of the lists occurs in the ''Nārada Purāṇa'' (I.66.124-38), and appears to have been used with minor variations in the ''Ucchiṣṭagaṇapati Upāsanā''. These lists are of two types. In the first type the names of various forms of Ganesha are given with a clear-cut pairing of a named shakti for that form. In the second type, as found in the ''Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa'' (II.IV.44.63-76) and the commentary of Rāghavabhaṭṭa on the ''Śāradātilaka'' (I.115), fifty or more names of Ganesha are given collectively in one group, with the names of the shaktis given collectively in a second group. The second type of list poses some problems in separating and properly connecting the names into pairs due to ambiguities in the formation of Sanskrit compound words.
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Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a small rodent, either a [[mouse]] or a rat.<ref>Martin-Dubost, pp. 231-244.</ref> In the earliest known images of the god, he is shown without a [[Vahana]] (mount), an ommission highly uncharacteristic of most Hindu deities; <ref>Krishan, pp. 48, 89, 92.</ref> by the time of the Puranas however, the mouse as was well-established as Ganesha's mount. The mouse is first mentioned in the Matsya Purana, and later in the ''Brahmananda Purana'' as well as the ''Ganesha Purana'' <ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 231.</ref> The rodent is also the most common vehicle among Ganesha's [[avatar]]s. Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha has a mouse in five of them, although he uses a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation of Vikata, and a divine serpent in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.<ref>Krishan, p. 49.</ref> In popular iconography of central and western India, says Martin-Dubost, the rodent began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Gaṇeśa in the seventh century C.E., consistently placed in proximity to the god's feet <ref>See note on figure 43 in: Martin-Dubost, p. 144.</ref>
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Scholars have wagered many guesses as to what the rodent represents. David Brown suggests that it speaks to Ganesha's status as a god of enterprise, since the rodent rivals the god in his ability to get past any obstacle.<ref>Brown, "God and Enchantment of Place: reclaiming human experience," p. 101.</ref> A completely different interpretation is given by Krishan, who notes that the rat or the mouse is a destructive creature and a menace to crops. Thus, it was essential to subdue the destructive pest, a type of ''vighna'' or impediment to progress that needed to be overcome. By this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat proclaimed his function as remover of obstacles, and also suggests his possible role as a village deity who later rose to greater prominence. <ref>Krishnan pp. 49-50.</ref>
  
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==Worship and festivals==
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==Roles==
  
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[[Image:Ganesh Paris 2004 DSC08471.JPG|thumb|right|225px|Celebrations of Ganesh by the Indian and [[Sri Lankan Tamil]] community in [[Paris]], [[France]]]]
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Ganesha has three primary functions: he is 1) the remover or creator of obstacles, 2) the god of ''Buddhi'' (or intelligence), and 3) the personification of the primordial sound [[AUM]].
  
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Whether the reason has to do with a [[puja|religious ceremony]], a new vehicle, students taking exams, sessions of [[bhajan|devotional chanting]], or beginning a business, Ganesha is worshipped. Throughout India and the Hindu culture, Ganesha is the first icon placed into any new home or abode.  It is widely believed that wherever there is Ganesha, there is success and prosperity.  By calling on him people believe that he will come to their aid and grant them success in their endeavours.
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===Obstacles===
  
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The worship of Ganesha is considered complementary with the worship of other deities.<ref>Courtright, p. 163.</ref> Hindus of all sects begin prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies with an invocation of Ganesha. Ganesha is also adored by dancers and musicians, who begin their performances of arts such as [[Bharatnatyam]] dance with a prayer to him, particularly in [[South
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As the "Lord of Obstacles," Ganesha is responsible for creating obstructions of both a material and spiritual order. It is he who places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Thus, Ganesha is thought to be the gatekeeper of shrines, and he is said to corrupt all those who are unworthy of entering such holy places by further deluding their minds with desires. <ref>Courtright, 141.</ref> Ganesha can also remove obstacles for his devotees just as easily. Ganesha's diametrically opposed functions as both obstacle-creator and obstacle-destroyer are vital to his character, giving it significant depth as he is venerable for both negative and a positive reasons.<ref>Brown, p. 6.</ref>
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India]].<ref>Nagar, Preface.</ref> [[Mantra]]s such as  ''Om Shri {{IAST|Gaṇeshāya}} Namah'' ("Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha"), and others, are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is ''Om {{IAST|Gaṃ}} Ganapataye Namah'' (literally, "Om, {{IAST|Gaṃ}}, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts").
 
  
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Devotees offer Ganesha various sweets, such as [[modak|modaka]], small sweet balls ([[Laddu|laddus]]), and many others.<ref>The term modaka applies to all regional varieties of cakes or sweets offered to Ganesha. Martin-Dubost, p. 204.</ref>.  He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a ''{{IAST|modakapātra}}'', which is one of his iconographic elements.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 204.</ref> Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with things such as red sandalwood paste ({{IAST|raktacandana}}),<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 369.</ref> or red flowers. {{IAST|Dūrvā}} grass (''Cynodon dactylon'') and various other materials are used in his worship.<ref>Martin-Dubost, pp. 95-99.</ref>  
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However, Ganesha does not create or remove obstacles exclusively for the benefit of the righteous. In some cases, he has been known even to place obstacles in the path of the benevolent, as in situations where too many doers of good are going to heaven and thereby crowding the gods. This illustrates Ganesha's ultimate prerogative, which is to uphold the established cosmological hierarchy, whether it be by routing demons, bolstering the authority of the Brahmans, or protecting the interests of the gods. That said, even the gods are not immune from Ganesha's obstacles. In one variation of the famous Hindu myth of the cosmic milk-ocean, the gods churn its waters so singlemindedly that they neglect to pay homage to the supreme Lord Shiva. Although they sought the elixir of immortality, as the end result of their churning, their efforts yield only poison, which begins to spill out of the ocean. The poison spreads upward to the realm of the gods, and so they came to Shiva for refuge, who in turn went to Ganesha. Ganesha informed his father that it was he who had created the obstacle for the purpose of visiting punishment upon the gods for attempting to obtain immortality without Shiva or himself in mind.<ref>Courtright, 138-139.</ref> Thus, no entity in the universe is immune from Ganesha's obstacles.
  
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===Ganesh Chaturthi===  
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=== ''Buddhi'' ===
  
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In India, there is an important festival honouring Ganesha that is celebrated for ten days starting from [[Ganesh Chaturthi]]. This festival culminates on the day of [[Ananta Chaturdashi]] when images (''[[murti]]s'') of Ganesha are immersed into the most convenient body of water.  
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Ganesha is also considered to be the lord of ''buddhi'', which is a feminine noun that can be variously translated from Sanskrit to English as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.<ref>Apte, p. 703.</ref> The concept of ''buddhi'' is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, where many stories were developed in order to showcase his cleverness and love of intellect. For example, in a late interpolation to the massive epic poem ''[[Mahabharata]]'', it is written that the sage [[Vyasa]] ({{IAST|Vyāsa}}) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the entirety of the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed, but only on the condition that, in a truly miraculous exercise of memory, Vyasa recite the poem without interruption. The sage agreed to this condition, and found that in order to obtain occasional reprieve from this exhaustive feat, he needed to recite highly complex passages so that Ganesha would ask for clarifications.
  
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The Ganapati festival is celebrated by Hindus throughout India with great devotional fervour.  While it is most popular in the state of [[Maharashtra]], it is performed all over India.<ref>"Gaṇeśa in a Regional Setting". Courtright, pp. 202-247.</ref> In [[Mumbai]], the festival assumes huge proportions. On the last day of the festival, millions of people of all ages descend onto the streets leading up to the sea, dancing and singing, to the rhythmic accompaniment of drums and cymbals.
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===Aum===
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Ganesha is often identified with the Hindu [[mantra]] [[Aum]] ({{lang|sa|ॐ}}, also called ''Om'', ''Omkara'', {{IAST|oṃkāra}}, or ''Aumkara''), the fundamental sound of the universe. The term ''oṃkārasvarūpa'' ("Aum is his form") in connection with Ganesha refers to the belief that he alone is the personification of the primal sound.<ref>Grimes, p. 77.</ref> This association is attested in the ''Ganapati Atharvashirsa'', which describes Ganesha as an incarnation of the sacred sound.
  
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==Rise to prominence==
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Accordingly, some devotees have even claimed to have seen similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body and the shape of Om in the [[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] scripts.<ref>Grimes, pp. 79-80.</ref> With this in mind, numerous ornamentations have been made shaping Ganesha in the calligraphical form of the sacred word.
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===First appearance===
 
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Ganesha appears in his classic form as a distinct deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in clearly-recognizable form beginning in the fourth to fifth centuries AD.<ref name="Narainp19">Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon". Brown, p. 19.</ref> Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest cult image of Ganesha so far known is is found in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]].<ref>Nagar, p. 4.</ref> By about the tenth century AD his independent cult had come into existence.<ref name="Narainp19"/> Narain sums up controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:
 
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{{Quotation|[W]hat is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of ''this'' deity" before the fourth to fifth century C.E. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence or the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.<ref>Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon". Brown, pp. 19-20.</ref>}}
 
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===Possible influences===
 
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Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:
 
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{{Quotation|In this search for a historical origin for Gaņeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations.  There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaņeśsa.<ref>Courtright, pp. 10-11.</ref>}}
 
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Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India, but concludes that:
 
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{{Quotation|Although by the second century AD the elephant-headed ''yakṣa'' form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage.  Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut.<ref>Thapan, p. 75.</ref>}}
 
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One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four [[Vinayakas|{{IAST|Vināyakas}}]].<ref>''Passim''. Thapan.</ref><ref>Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 70-72.</ref> In [[Hindu mythology]] the {{IAST|Vināyakas}} were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties,<ref>''Aitareya Brāhmana'', I, 21.</ref> but who were easily propitiated.<ref>Bhandarkar. Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. pp. 147-48.</ref>  The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.<ref>Thapan, p. 20.</ref> Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha that "He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the ''Mānavagŗhyasūtra'' (7th-4th century B.C.E.) who cause various types of evil and suffering."<ref>Krishan, p. vii.</ref>
 
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===Vedic and epic literature===
 
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Ganesha as we know him today does not appear in the Vedas. The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit ''{{IAST|gaṇapati}}'') occurs twice in the ''Rig Veda'' but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for [[Brahmanaspati]], the teacher of the gods.  H. H. Wilson translates the Sanskrit verse "gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam" (RV 2.23.1 [2222]) as "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages".<ref>Wilson, H. H. ''Ŗgveda Saṃhitā''. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: Maṇḍalas 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). ISBN 81-7110-140-9 (Vol. II); ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set). RV 2.23.1 (2222) gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam | 2.23.1; "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages".</ref> While there is no doubt that this verse refers to Brahmanaspati, the verse was later adopted for use in worship of Ganesha even to this day.<ref>Nagar, p. 3.</ref><ref>Rao, p. 1.</ref> In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the ''Rig Veda'', Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati - who is the devatā of the hymn - and Bṛhaspati only."<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, p. 69. Bṛhaspati is a variant name for Brahamanaspati.</ref> The second passage (RV 10.112.9) equally clearly refers to [[Indra]].<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 69-70.</ref> Wilson translates the Sanskrit verse "ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām" as "Lord of the companies (of the ''Maruts''), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".<ref>Wilson, H. H. ''Ŗgveda Saṃhitā''. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses.  Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume IV: Maṇḍalas 9, 10.  Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). ISBN 81-7110-142-5 (Vol. IV); ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set).  RV 10.112.9 (10092)
 
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ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām; "Lord of the companies (of the ''Maruts''), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".</ref>
 
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Ganesha does not appear in literature of the epic period, but there is a late interpolation to the epic poem ''[[Mahabharata]]'', where it is written that the sage [[Vyasa]] ({{IAST|Vyāsa}}) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed, but only on the condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, without pausing. The sage agreed to this condition, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages in order to get Ganesha to ask for clarifications. This is the single passage in which Ganesha appears in that epic.  The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the ''Mahabharata'',<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 71-72.</ref> where the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote to an appendix.<ref>''Mahābhārata'' Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.</ref> Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is probably one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyasa's dictation of the ''Mahabharata'' in this interpolation to the text.<ref>Brown, p. 4.</ref> Richard L. Brown dates the story as 8th century AD, and Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900 C.E. but he maintains that it had not yet been added to the ''Mahabharata'' some 150 years later. Moriz Winternitz also drew attention to the fact that a distinctive feature of Southern manuscripts of the ''Mahabharata'' is their omission of this Ganesha legend.<ref>Winternitz, Moriz. "Gaṇeśsa in the Mahābhārata". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, p. 80.</ref>
 
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===Puranic period===
 
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Stories about Ganesha often occur in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, ''circa'' 600- 1300 C.E.<ref>Brown, p. 183.</ref> Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he came to acquire an elephant's head are to be found in the later Puranas composed from about 600 C.E. onwards, and that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are considered to be later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries AD.<ref>Krishan, p. 103.</ref>
 
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In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature Ludo Rocher notes that:
 
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{{Quotation|Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents.  These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk.  Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, p. 73.</ref>}}
 
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Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century AD when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of [[Smartism]].  The "worship of the five forms" ({{IAST|pañcāyatana pūjā}}) system, which was popularized by the ninth-century philosopher [[Adi Shankara|Śaṅkarācārya]] among orthodox Brahmins of the [[Smartism|Smārta]] tradition, invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devī, and Sūrya.<ref>Grimes, p. 162.</ref><ref>Dating for the pañcāyatana pūjā and its connection with Smārta Brahmins is from Courtright, p. 163.</ref><ref>Pal, p. ix.</ref> It was instituted by Śaṅkarācārya primarily to unite the principal deities of the five major sects (Gāṇapatya, Śaiva, Vaiṣṇava, and Sūrya) on an equal status.  This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.  The monistic philosophy preached by Śaṅkarācārya made it possible to choose one of these as a preferred principal deity and at the same time worship the other four deities as different forms of the same all-pervading [[Brahman]].
 
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==== Ganesha Scriptures ====
 
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:''For more detail see: [[Ganesha Purana]] and [[Mudgala Purana]]''
 
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Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some ''brāhmaṇas'' chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity, developing the [[Ganapatya]] tradition reflected in the ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'' and the ''[[Mudgala Purana]]''.<ref>Thapan, pp. 196-7. Addresses the pañcāyatana in the Smārta tradition and the relationship of the ''Ganesha Purana'' and the ''Mudgala Purana'' to it.</ref>
 
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The date of composition for both the ''Ganesha Purana'' and the ''Mudgala Purana'', and their dating relative to one another, has been a matter of academic debate. Both works developed over periods of time and  contain age-layered strata.
 
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Anita Thapan reviews different views on dating and states her own judgement that it appears likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana come into existence around the 12th and 13th centuries, being subject to interpolations during the succeeding ages.<ref>For a review of major differences of opinions between scholars on dating see Thapan, op. cit., pp. 30-33.</ref> Lawrence W. Preston considers that the period AD 1100-1400 is the most reasonable date for the ''Ganesha Purana'' because that period agrees with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by it.<ref>See: Preston, Lawrence W.,  "Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to Gaṇeśa", in: N. K. Wagle, ed., ''Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India''. p.103.</ref>
 
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R. C. Hazra suggested that the ''Mudgala Purana'' is earlier than the Ganesha Purana which he dates between 1100 and 1400 C.E.<ref>R. C. Hazra, "The Gaṇeśa Purāṇa," ''Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute'' (1951);79-99.</ref> However Phillis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the ''Mudgala Purana'' was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha because, among other internal evidence, the ''Mudgala Purana'' specifically mentions the ''Ganesha Purana'' as one of the four Puranas that deal at length with Ganesha (these are the ''Brahma'', the ''Brahmanda'', the ''Ganesha'', and the ''Mudgala'' puranas).<ref name=Granoff>Phyllis Granoff, "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor," in Brown, pp. 94-5, note 2.</ref> The ''Mudgala Purana'', like many other Puranas, contains multiple age strata, and that while the kernel of the text must be old it continued to receive interpolations until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.<ref>Thapan, pp. 30-33.</ref>
 
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Another scripture that is held in high regard is the [[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]], which was probably composed during the sixteenth or seventeenth centuried A.D.<ref>Courtright, op. cit., p. 252.</ref>
 
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==Beyond India and Hinduism==
 
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:''For more on this topic, see [[Ganesha outside Hinduism]].''
 
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[[Image:GanpatiTibetan.jpg|thumb|right|Tibetan depiction of Ganapati as Maha-Rakta (The Great Red One)]]
 
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India had an impact on many countries of West and South Asia as a result of commercial and cultural contacts.  Ganesha is one of many Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.<ref>Nagar, p. 175.</ref>  The worship of Ganesha by Hindus outside of India shows regional variation. 
 
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Ganesha was a deity particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.<ref>Nagar, p. 174.</ref>  The period from approximately the tenth century onwards was marked by the development of new networks of exchange, the formation of trade guilds, and a resurgence of money circulation, and it was during this time that Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.<ref>Thapan, p. 170.</ref> The earliest inscription where Ganesha is invoked before any other deity is by the merchant community.<ref>Thapan, p. 152.</ref>
 
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−
Hindus spread out to the Malay Archipelago and took their culture with them, including Ganesha.<ref>Getty, p. 55.</ref>  Statues of Ganesa are found throughout the Malay Archipelago in great numbers, often beside Shiva sanctuaries.  The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences.<ref>Getty, pp. 55-66.</ref>  The gradual emigration of Hindus to Indochina established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand.  In Indochina Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side-by-side, and mutual influences can be seen in Ganesha iconography of that region.<ref>Getty, p. 52.</ref>  In Thiland, Cambodia, and Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.<ref>Brown, p. 182.</ref> Even today, in Buddhist Thailand Ganesha is regarded as remover of obstacles and thus god of success.<ref>Brown, p. 182.</ref>
 
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−
Before the arrival of Islam, Afganistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced.  A few examples of sculptures from the period 5th-7th century AD have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was in vogue in the region at that time.<ref>Nagar, p. 175.</ref><ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 311.</ref>
 
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−
Ganesha also appears in Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god {{IAST|Vināyaka}}, but also portrayed as a Hindu demon form also called {{IAST|Vināyaka}}.<ref>Getty, pp. 37-45. "Chapter 4: Ganesha in Buddhism".</ref>  His image may be found on Buddhist sculptures of the late Gupta period.<ref>Getty, 37.</ref>  As the Buddhist god {{IAST|Vināyaka}}, he is often shown dancing, a form called Nṛtta Ganapati that was popular in North India and adopted in Nepal and then into Tibet.<ref>Getty, p. 38.</ref>  In Nepal the Hindu form of Ganesha known as Heramba was very popular, appearing with five heads and riding upon a lion.<ref>Getty, p. 40.</ref>  Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.<ref>Nagar, p. 185.</ref> In one Tibetan form he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākala, a popular Tibetan deity.<ref>Getty, p. 42</ref><ref>Nagar, p. 185.</ref>  Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, sometimes dancing.<ref>Nagar, pp. 185-186.</ref> Ganesha appears in both China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character.  In North China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated 531 C.E.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 311.</ref> In Japan the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806 C.E.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 313.</ref>
 
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The canonical literature of [[Jainism]] does not mention the cult of Ganesha.<ref>Krishan, p. 121.</ref> However Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of [[Kubera]].<ref>Thapan, p. 157.</ref> Jain connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up the worship of Ganesha as a result of commercial connections.<ref>Thapan, pp. 151, 158, 162, 164, 253.</ref> The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century AD.<ref>Krishan, p. 122.</ref> A 15th century Jain text provides procedures for the installation of Ganapati images.<ref>Krishan, p. 121.</ref> Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.<ref>Thapan, p. 158.</ref>
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
 +
{{reflist|2}}
  
−
<references/>
+
==References==
  
−
 
+
*Agrawala, Prithvi Kumar. ''Goddess Vināyakī: The Female Gaṇeśa.'' Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan. 1978.
−
==References==
+
*Apte, Vaman Shivram. ''The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary.''Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2014 (original 1965). ISBN 8120805674
−
[[Image:Ganesha in Bangalore.jpg|right|thumb|275px|A [[murti]] of Ganesha in a temple at [[Bangalore]], capital of the Indian state of Karnataka.]]
+
*Avalon, Arthur. & Woodroffe, John.(eds.).''Śāradā Tilaka Tantram: Text with Introduction''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2001 (original 1933). ISBN 8120813383
−
<div class="references-small">
+
*Bailey, Greg. ''Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index''. Harrassowitz, 1995. ISBN 3447036478
−
*{{cite book |series=Indian Civilization Series |last=Agrawala |first=Prithvi Kumar |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Goddess Vināyakī: The Female Gaṇeśa |year=1978 |publisher=Prithivi Prakashan |location=Varanasi |isbn= }}
+
*Bhandarkar, R.G. ''Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects''. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2001. ISBN 8121509998.
−
*{{cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivram |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1965 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0567-4 }} (fourth revised & enlarged edition).
+
*Brown, Robert L. ''Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God''. Albany: State University of New York, 1991. ISBN 0791406571
−
*{{cite book |last=Avalon |first=Arthur |authorlink=John Woodroffe |coauthors= |title=Śāradā Tilaka Tantram |year=1933 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |location= |isbn=81-208-1338-3 }} (1993 reprint edition).
+
*Chinmayananda, Swami. ''Glory of Ganesha''. Bombay: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, 1987.
−
*{{cite book |last=Bailey |first=Greg |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index |year=1995 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location= |isbn=3-447-03647-8 }}
+
*Courtright, Paul B. ''Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. ISBN 0195057422
−
*{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Robert L. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God |year=1991 |publisher=State University of New York |location=Albany |isbn=0-7914-0657-1 }}
+
*Flood, Gavin. ''An Introduction to Hinduism''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521438780
−
*{{cite book |last=Chinmayananda |first=Swami |authorlink=Chinmayananda |coauthors= |title=Glory of Ganesha |year=1987 |publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust |location=Bombay |isbn= }}
+
*Getty, Alice ''Gaņeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God.''2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936. {{ASIN|B00086EMBO}} 1971. ASIN: B0006C8E5K  Munshiram Manoharlal;   
−
*{{cite book |last=Courtright |first=Paul B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=ISBN 0-19-505742-2 }}
+
*Grimes, John A. ''Ganapati: Song of the Self''. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995. ISBN 0791424405
−
*{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn= ISBN 0-521-43878-0}}
+
*Gupta, Shakti M. ''Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva''. Bombay: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1988. ISBN 8170391865
−
*{{cite book |last=Getty |first=Alice |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Gaņeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God |year=1936 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=81-215-0377-X }} (1992 reprint edition).
+
*Heras, H. ''The Problem of Ganapati''. Delhi: Indological Book House, 1972.
−
*{{cite book |series=SUNY Series in Religious Studies |last=Grimes |first=John A. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Ganapati: Song of the Self |year=1995 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=0-7914-2440-5 }}
+
*Khokar, Ashish & Saraswati, S. ''Ganesha-Karttikeya''. New Delhi: Rupa and Co., 2005. ISBN 8129107767
−
*{{cite book |last=Gupta |first=Shakti M. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva|year=1988 |publisher=Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd.|location=Bombay|isbn=ISBN 81-7039-186-5}}
+
*Krishan, Yuvraj. ''Gaņeśa: Unravelling An Enigma''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1999. ISBN 8120814134
−
*{{cite book |last=Heras |first=H. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Problem of Ganapati |year=1972 |publisher=Indological Book House |location=Delhi |isbn= }}
+
*Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. ''A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary''. Munshiram Monoharlal Publishers, 1996. ISBN 8121507154
−
* Khokar, Ashish; Saraswati, S. (2005) ''Ganesha-Karttikeya''. Rupa and Co., New Delhi. ISBN 81-291-0776-7.
+
*Mate, M. S. ''Temples and Legends of Maharashtra''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1988.
−
*{{cite book |last=Krishan |first=Yuvraj |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Gaņeśa: Unravelling An Enigma |year=1999 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |location=Delhi |isbn= 81-208-1413-4}}
+
*Martin-Dubost, Paul. ''Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds''. Mumbai: Project for Indian Cultural Studies, 1997. ISBN 8190018434
−
*{{cite book |last=Macdonell |first=Arthur Anthony |authorlink=Arthur Anthony Macdonell |coauthors= |title=A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1996 |publisher=Munshiram Monoharlal Publishers |location= |isbn=81-215-0715-4 }}
+
*Nagar, Shanti Lai ''The Cult of Vinayaka''. New Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House, 1997 (original 1992). ISBN 978-8170765080
−
*{{cite book |last=Mate |first=M. S. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Temples and Legends of Maharashtra |year=1988 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |location=Bombay |isbn= }}
+
*Pal, Pratapaditya. ''Ganesh: The Benevolent''. Marg Publications, 1995. ISBN 8185026319
−
*{{cite book |last=Martin-Dubost |first=Paul |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds |year=1997 |publisher=Project for Indian Cultural Studies |location=Mumbai |isbn= 81-900184-3-4}}
+
*Renou, Louis. "Note sure les origine Vediques de Ganesa." ''Journal Asiatique 229'': 271-274.
−
*{{cite book |last=Nagar |first=Shanti Lal |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Cult of Vinayaka |year=1992 |publisher=Intellectual Publishing House |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7076-043-9 }}
+
*Rao, S. K. Ramachandra  ''The Compendium on Gaņeśa''. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1992. ISBN 8170308283
−
*{{cite book |last=Pal |first=Pratapaditya |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Ganesh: The Benevolent |year=1995 |publisher=Marg Publications |location= |isbn=81-85026-31-9 }}
+
*Thapan, Anita Raina. ''Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult''. Delhi: Manohar Publishers, 1997. ISBN 8173041954
−
*{{cite book |last=Ramachandra Rao |first=S. K. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Compendium on Gaņeśa |year=1992 |publisher=Sri Satguru Publications |location=Delhi |isbn=ISBN 81-7030-828-3 }}
 
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*{{cite book |last=Thapan |first=Anita Raina |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult |year=1997 |publisher=Manohar Publishers |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7304-195-4 }}
 
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* [http://hinduism.about.com/library/weekly/aa083000a.htm Ganesha: Lord of Success]  
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Most of the source scriptures on Ganesha are in [[Sanskrit]]. A collection of useful documents can be found [http://sanskrit.gde.to/doc_ganesha/doc_ganesha.html here]. At the same site can be found some documents and translations in English [http://sanskrit.gde.to/doc_z_otherlang_english/doc_z_otherlang_english.html here].
 
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* [http://ganapati.club.fr/anglais/indexe.html Ganesh: Symbol and presence]
 
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* [http://hinduism.about.com/library/weekly/aa083000a.htm Ganesha: The Elephant-God]
 
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[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]

Latest revision as of 04:23, 18 April 2024


Tibetan depiction of Ganapati as Maha-Rakta (The Great Red One)

Ganesha is one of the most easily recognizable gods in the Hindu pantheon, known as the elephant-headed deity. He is usually praised with affection at the start of any Hindu ritual or ceremony and at the beginning of any writing.[1] His elephantine representation has deeper symbolic meaning as Ganesha's large size represents his metaphysical ability to remove obstacles in his devotees' lives. Widely worshiped among Hindus as the lord of beginnings, Ganesha is honored as the patron of arts and sciences, intellect and wisdom.[2]

Historically, Ganesha appeared as a distinct deity in recognizable form beginning in the fourth to fifth centuries C.E., during the Gupta Period (c. 320-600 C.E.) of Indian history. His popularity rose quickly, and he was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism, an influential stream of Hinduism that began in the ninth century C.E. The principal scriptures dedicated to his worship are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Ganesha is deeply beloved by Hindus around the world today, with many millions recognizing him as their Ishta devata, or "chosen divinity." [3]

In Hinduism, the worship of Ganesha is considered to be compatible with devotion to other deities, and various Hindu sects worship him regardless of their affiliations with other gods.[4] In this capacity, Ganesha is a deity that overcomes religious sectarianism because virtually all Hindu groups agree to revere Ganesha, regardless of their particular affiliation. Thus, Ganesha can be seen as a remover of religious intolerance and intellectual exclusivism.

Etymology and epithets

The name Ganesha derives from the Sanskrit words gana (meaning "a group") and isha (meaning "lord" or "master"),[5][6][7] togther translated as "Lord of Hosts" - a familiar phrase to many Christians and Jews. [8]

Ganesha has many other titles and epithets, including most prominently Ganapati (meaning "lord of the group"), and Vignesha, (meaning "Lord of Obstacles"). The Sanskrit names Vighnakartā ("obstacle-creator") and Vighnahartā ("obstacle-destroyer") are also used to summarize the Ganesha's dual functions pertaining to obstacles. Another name employed in the Ganesha Purana and Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya or "lover of intelligence"[9]

Some of Ganesha's epithets refer to his physical features. The earliest name referring to Ganesha is Ekadanta ("One Tusk"), referring to his single tusk; the other is broken off. [10] According to the Mudgala Purana two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on Ganesha's paunch: Lambodara ("Pot Belly," or literally "Hanging Belly") and Mahodara ("Great Belly").[11]

One of the main names for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pille or Pillaiyar, which means "Little Child".[12] A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pille means a "child" and pillaiyar a "noble child," and adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk of an elephant" but more generally an elephant alone. [13] In discussing the name Pillaiyar, Anita Raina Thapan notes that since the Pali word pillaka has the significance of "a young elephant," it is possible that pille originally meant "the young of the elephant."[14]

History

Iconographic history

Ganesha appears as a distinct deity in clearly-recognizable form beginning in the fourth to fifth centuries C.E., suggesting the emergence of the Ganapatya (Ganesh-worshipping) sect (probably an offshoot of mainstream Shaivism).[15] The earliest cult image of Ganesha so far known is found in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the Gupta period.[16] By about the tenth century C.E., Ganesha's independent cult had come into existence.[15]

Despite these fragments of information, questions as to Ganesha's historical origin are still largely unanswered, and many theories persist as to how he came into being. One theory of Ganesha's origin states that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vināyakas, from whom he gains one of his epithets (see above) [17] In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties,[18] but who were easily propitiated.[19] Krishan is among the academics who accept this view, and states flatly that Ganesha "is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (seventh–fourth century B.C.E.) who cause various types of evil and suffering."[20] While none of these gods are conceived to be elephant-headed, they are held to be responsible for the creation of obstacles.

Other scholars have interpreted the myths of Ganesha as revelatory of his status as a former totemic emblem. In this way, Ganesha's adoption by Shiva (see below) is a mythological illustration of syncretism, in which a tribe under the banner of the elephant is assimilated into the Brahmanic fold. [21] Numerous possibilities for this hypothesis have been suggested, including South India tribal traditions, the Pillayar caste, the Munda of central India, the Gajas of the northeast, and the Naga cult of Western India. [22] However, all these possibilities are problematic because there is no independent evidence for the existence of an elephant cult or a totem in any of these regions. [23]

Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the ninth century C.E. when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The "worship of the five forms" (pañcāyatana pūjā) system, which was popularized by the ninth-century philosopher Śaṅkarācārya among orthodox Brahmins of the Smārta tradition, invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devī, and Sūrya.[24][25][26] It was instituted by Śaṅkarācārya primarily to unite the principal deities of the foremost sects of Hinduism at the time (Gāṇapatya, Śaiva, Vaiṣṇava, and Sūrya) by giving them equal status. The monistic philosophy preached by Śaṅkarācārya made it possible to choose any one of these figures as a preferred principal deity while at the same time worshiping the other four deities as different forms of the same all-pervading Brahman. This served to formalize the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

India had an impact on many countries throughout Asia as a result of commercial and cultural contacts. In particular, the period from approximately the tenth century C.E. onwards was marked by the development of new networks of exchange and a resurgence of money circulation throughout Asia, and it was during this time that Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.[27] These traders prayed that the god would grant them success and remove obstacles in their path as they went outside of India to pursue commercial ventures; accordingly, the earliest inscriptions where Ganesha is invoked before any other deity were composed by the merchant community.[28] Since Ganesha was widely worshipped by these enterprising travelers, he became one of the most prevalent Hindu deities in foreign lands. [29] As could be expected, the worship of Ganesha by Hindus outside of India shows much regional variation.

The gradual emigration of Hindus to Southeast Asia also established Ganesha in modified forms in mostly Buddhist nations such as Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In these nations Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side-by-side, and mutual influences can be seen in Ganesha iconography in these regions.[30] Among Buddhists in Thailand, for example, Ganesha maintained his traditional Hindu function as a remover of obstacles and is therefore considered a god of success.[31] In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha known as Heramba has traditionally been very popular, and is often depicted with five heads and riding upon a lion.[32] Tibetan representations of Ganesha are usually more ambivalent in nature;[33] in one Tibetan form he is shown being trodden underfoot by Mahākala, a popular Tibetan deity,[34][35] while in other depictions he is shown as the Destroyer of Obstacles, sometimes dancing in jubilation over his successes.[36] This dancing form, called Nṛtta Ganapati, originally gained popularity in North India and was later adopted in Nepal before arriving in Tibet.[37] In Buddhism in general, Ganesha is seen not only as a benevolent deity, but also in the form of a demon called Vināyaka.[38] Such images may be found among Buddhist sculptures of the late Gupta period.[39]

Ganesha also spread into a wide variety of additional cultures. Hindus brought Ganesh with them to the Malay Archipelago, and statues to the deity can be found throughout the region in great numbers, often beside sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva [40] Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and Afghans venerated both Hindu and Buddhist deities. A few examples of sculptures from the period fifth-seventh century C.E. have survived in this region, including some depicting Ganesha, suggesting that the worship of the deity was in vogue in the region at that time.[41][42] Ganesha also appears in both China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In North China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated 531 C.E. [43] while in Japan a cult dedicated to the deity was first mentioned in 806 C.E.[44]

Scriptural history

Ganesha as we know him today does not appear in the Vedas, at least not explicitly. Rg Veda 2.23.1 calls upon a deity also known as Ganapati, the "leader of hosts." While most devotees of Ganesha accept this as proof of their chosen deity's Vedic origin, scholars have suggested that this text is actually referring to Brhaspati, the teacher of the gods, rather than Ganesh.[45] Similarly, the Yajur Veda invokes "one having a trunk," although this phrase is located within a larger litany to Rudra, Shiva's prototype. [46] Hence, this and other Vedic references to trunks and tusks are most likely referring in actuality to the elephantine features assumed by Shiva after he slayed an elephant demon. [47] Ganesha also does not appear in literature of the epic period, save for a brief passage in the Mahabharata in which he serves as Vyasa's scribe. However, this singular story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata,[48] where the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.[49]

It was not until the Puranas that Ganesha became an established figure in Hindu scripture. While the Puranas defy precise chronological ordering, the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life appear in the later texts, circa 600–1300 C.E. [50] References to Ganesha occuring in Puranas predating this (such as those in the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas), are considered to be later interpolations made during the seventh to tenth centuries C.E.[51] Between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries, Ganesha also became the focal point of two Puranic texts of his own, the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.[52] [53] His pivotal role in these texts reflects Ganesha's acceptance as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism and the subsequent development of the Ganapatya tradition in which some brāhmaṇas chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity [54] These two scriptures, along with the Ganapati Atharvashirsa (a text composed during the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries C.E.) remain the core texts involved in devotion to Ganesha. [55]

Mythology

Birth

In popular Hindu mythology, Ganesha is considered to be the son of the Hindu deity Shiva and Parvati. The most common account of his birth begins with Shiva leaving his wife Parvati for an extended period of time in order to meditate upon Mount Kailasa. This inspired intense loneliness within the goddess. Longing for a son, she gave birth to the young man, Ganesha. She quickly ordered him to stand guard at the door of her private chamber while she bathed. Eventually, Shiva returned from his meditation and attempted to access Parvati's private chamber. Ganesha refused to let him in and a struggle ensued, after which Shiva beheaded Ganesha. Hearing the commotion, Parvati came out of her bath and informed Shiva that he had just killed her child, and threatened to destroy the universe if the situation was not rectified. Shiva promptly sent his servants to the North, the holy direction, so that they could find a new head for Ganesha. Details as to where this replacement head came from vary according to different sources.[56] Eventually, the servants found an elephant and cut off its head, which they placed upon Ganesh's shoulders upon their return. When Ganesh came back to consciousness, Shiva adopted him as his own. [57]

Puranic myths provide a wide variety of other explanations for Ganesha's form.[58] Some texts say that he was actually born with his elephant head (or heads), though in most stories he acquires the head later. [59] In a different story, when Ganesha was born his mother Parvati showed off her new baby to the other gods. Unfortunately, the god Shani (a deity corresponding to the planet Saturn) – who is said to have the "evil eye" – looked at him, causing the baby's head to be burned to ashes. The god Vishnu came to the rescue and replaced the missing head with that of an elephant.[60] In yet another story, Ganesha is created directly by Shiva's laughter. After Ganesha's birth, Shiva became concerned that the youth was excessively beautiful, and so he cursed Ganesha to have the head of an elephant and a protruding belly in order to make his appearance less appealing.[61]

Brotherly rivalry

Along with his mother and father, Ganesh's closest kin includes a brother, Karttikeya (also known as Skanda)[62] Prior to the emergence of Ganesha as a cult figure, Karttikeya had a long and glorious history as a martial deity from about 500 B.C.E. until approximately 600 C.E., when his worship declined significantly in North India in conjunction with the rise of Ganesha. Several stories relate episodes of sibling rivalry between Ganesha and Karttikeya, such as their competition over women, [63] which may reflect historical tensions between the respective sects.[64]

Consorts

Ganesha's marital status varies widely in mythological stories. One pattern of myths based in various Puranas associates Ganesha with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity), three qualities personified as goddesses who are considered to be Ganesha's wives. [65] In Chapter I.18.24-39 of the Ganesha Purana, Brahmā performs worship in honor of Ganesha. During the puja, Ganesha himself causes Buddhi and Siddhi to appear so that Brahmā can offer them back to Ganesha. Ganesha happily accepts them as offerings.[66] In the Shiva Purana (Śiva Purāṇa), Ganesha cleverly wins the two desirable daughters of Prajāpati by outwitting Karttikeya.[67] Aside from Puranic texts, evidence of Ganesha's links to these goddesses can be found elsewhere. For instance, in the Ganesha Temple at Morgaon (the central shrine for the regional aṣṭavināyaka complex), Buddhi and Siddhi stand to the right and left sides of the Ganesha image.[68] In northern India, the two female figures are said to be Siddhi and Riddhi; Riddhi substitutes for Buddhi with no Puranic basis.[69] These female figures may have originally served as a symbolic suggestion that where Gaṇesha is present, success (siddhi) and wisdom (buddhi) are not far away; the idea that they were actually married to the god probably developed later.[70]

A distinct type of iconographic image of Ganesha depicts him with human-looking females called shaktis, referring to uniquely female creative energy. [71] These consorts generally lack distinctive personalities or iconographic repertoires. A common depiction of this motif shows Ganesha seated with the shakti upon his left hip. Meanwhile, he turns his trunk to his left to taste the flat cakes or round sweets that the shakti holds in a bowl. In some of the tantric forms of this image, the gesture is modified to take on sexual overtones.[72] According to Ananda Coomaraswamy, the oldest known depiction of Ganesha with a shakti of this type dates from the sixth century C.E.[73]

Worship

A murti of Ganesha in a temple at Bangalore, capital of the Indian state of Karnataka.

Whether one is concerned with the successful performance of a religious ceremony, the purchase of a new vehicle, the writing of an examination, the chanting of devotional hymns, or the beginning a business, Ganesha is worshipped. It is widely believed that wherever Ganesha is present, there is success and prosperity. By calling on him, people believe that he will come to their aid and grant them success in whatever endeavors they might be making.

In Hindu temples, Mantras such as Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah ("Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha"), are often used to channel Ganesha. Another common form of Ganesha worship is performed by chanting the Ganesha Sahasranamas, which literally means "a thousand names of Ganesha." Each of the god's epithets symbolizes a different aspect of his divine personality, and so by chanting these worshipers are able to contemplate his various benevolent qualities. Offerings are commonly made to Ganesha, in the form of various sweets, such as small sweet balls (laddus).[74] Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with ruddy objects or substances, such as red sandalwood paste (raktacandana),[75] or red flowers. The worship of Ganesha is considered complementary with the worship of other deities,[76] thus, Hindus of all sects begin prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies with an invocation of Ganesha.

Considering his ubiquitous appeal, worship of Ganesh extends beyond the temple and is carried out in virtually all aspects of life. For example, throughout India and the Hindu diaspora, Ganesha is usually the first icon placed into any new home or abode. As well, Ganesha is particularly adored by dancers and musicians, who begin their performances of arts such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to him, particularly in South India.[77]

Ganesha is also the focal point of a ten-day festival occurring in the late summer (between late August and mid-September) called Ganesha Chaturthi. On this first day, clay images (murtis) of Ganesha, fashioned by sculptors, are installed in family homes. In this domestic setting, the image is then treated like a kingly guest.[78] On the days and nights that follow, the larger community sets up similar images of Ganesha that serve as the foci for various public performances, including devotional songs, dramas, dances, films, lectures and speeches by public dignitaries. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi when the images of Ganesha are paraded through the streets and then immersed into water, be it an ocean, river or even a tank, where they quickly dissolve. While this festival is most popular in the state of Maharashtra, it is celebrated by Hindus throughout the whole of India with great devotional fervor. [79]

Iconography

Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art, [80] and representations of him are not only abundant but also widely varied. He is most consistently and obviously recognizable by way of his elephant head, a feature that has characterized the god since his earliest appearances in Indian art.[81] Ganesha is also commonly depicted with a short, stocky build, and a comfortable pot-belly. It is explained in the Brahmanda Purana that Ganesha has the bulbous paunch due to the fact that all the universes of the past, present, and future exist inside him [82] The number of Ganesha's arms varies between two and sixteen, though he is most often pictured with four, which is codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.[83] His earliest images had two arms, and so the presence of only two arms on an image of Ganesha points toward an early origin. [84] In the typical four-arm configuration, Ganesha's lower right hand holds his broken tusk, a feature which was present even in early depictions. His lower-left hand often holds a bowl of sweet delicacies (modakapātra),[85] which he samples with his trunk, while his upper hands carry an axe and a noose as symbols of his ability to cut through obstacles or to create them as needed. The colors most-often associated with Ganesha are red [86] and yellow, but other colors are prescribed for use in specific forms and situations.[87] For example, the color white is associated with his representations as Rina-Mochana-Ganapati ("Ganapati Who Releases From Bondage"), while blue is associated with Ekadanta-Ganapati when engaged in meditation.[88] He may be portrayed standing, dancing, taking heroic action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down, or else engaging in a remarkable range of contemporary activities.

Vehicle

Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a small rodent, either a mouse or a rat.[89] In the earliest known images of the god, he is shown without a Vahana (mount), an ommission highly uncharacteristic of most Hindu deities; [90] by the time of the Puranas however, the mouse as was well-established as Ganesha's mount. The mouse is first mentioned in the Matsya Purana, and later in the Brahmananda Purana as well as the Ganesha Purana [91] The rodent is also the most common vehicle among Ganesha's avatars. Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha has a mouse in five of them, although he uses a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation of Vikata, and a divine serpent in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.[92] In popular iconography of central and western India, says Martin-Dubost, the rodent began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Gaṇeśa in the seventh century C.E., consistently placed in proximity to the god's feet [93]

Scholars have wagered many guesses as to what the rodent represents. David Brown suggests that it speaks to Ganesha's status as a god of enterprise, since the rodent rivals the god in his ability to get past any obstacle.[94] A completely different interpretation is given by Krishan, who notes that the rat or the mouse is a destructive creature and a menace to crops. Thus, it was essential to subdue the destructive pest, a type of vighna or impediment to progress that needed to be overcome. By this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat proclaimed his function as remover of obstacles, and also suggests his possible role as a village deity who later rose to greater prominence. [95]

Roles

Ganesha has three primary functions: he is 1) the remover or creator of obstacles, 2) the god of Buddhi (or intelligence), and 3) the personification of the primordial sound AUM.

Obstacles

As the "Lord of Obstacles," Ganesha is responsible for creating obstructions of both a material and spiritual order. It is he who places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Thus, Ganesha is thought to be the gatekeeper of shrines, and he is said to corrupt all those who are unworthy of entering such holy places by further deluding their minds with desires. [96] Ganesha can also remove obstacles for his devotees just as easily. Ganesha's diametrically opposed functions as both obstacle-creator and obstacle-destroyer are vital to his character, giving it significant depth as he is venerable for both negative and a positive reasons.[97]

However, Ganesha does not create or remove obstacles exclusively for the benefit of the righteous. In some cases, he has been known even to place obstacles in the path of the benevolent, as in situations where too many doers of good are going to heaven and thereby crowding the gods. This illustrates Ganesha's ultimate prerogative, which is to uphold the established cosmological hierarchy, whether it be by routing demons, bolstering the authority of the Brahmans, or protecting the interests of the gods. That said, even the gods are not immune from Ganesha's obstacles. In one variation of the famous Hindu myth of the cosmic milk-ocean, the gods churn its waters so singlemindedly that they neglect to pay homage to the supreme Lord Shiva. Although they sought the elixir of immortality, as the end result of their churning, their efforts yield only poison, which begins to spill out of the ocean. The poison spreads upward to the realm of the gods, and so they came to Shiva for refuge, who in turn went to Ganesha. Ganesha informed his father that it was he who had created the obstacle for the purpose of visiting punishment upon the gods for attempting to obtain immortality without Shiva or himself in mind.[98] Thus, no entity in the universe is immune from Ganesha's obstacles.

Buddhi

Ganesha is also considered to be the lord of buddhi, which is a feminine noun that can be variously translated from Sanskrit to English as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[99] The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, where many stories were developed in order to showcase his cleverness and love of intellect. For example, in a late interpolation to the massive epic poem Mahabharata, it is written that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the entirety of the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed, but only on the condition that, in a truly miraculous exercise of memory, Vyasa recite the poem without interruption. The sage agreed to this condition, and found that in order to obtain occasional reprieve from this exhaustive feat, he needed to recite highly complex passages so that Ganesha would ask for clarifications.

Aum

Ganesha is often identified with the Hindu mantra Aum (ॐ, also called Om, Omkara, oṃkāra, or Aumkara), the fundamental sound of the universe. The term oṃkārasvarūpa ("Aum is his form") in connection with Ganesha refers to the belief that he alone is the personification of the primal sound.[100] This association is attested in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, which describes Ganesha as an incarnation of the sacred sound.

Accordingly, some devotees have even claimed to have seen similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.[101] With this in mind, numerous ornamentations have been made shaping Ganesha in the calligraphical form of the sacred word.

Notes

  1. ↑ Getty, p. 5.
  2. ↑ Heras, p. 58.
  3. ↑ Brown, p. 1.
  4. ↑ Martin-Dubost, pp. 2-4.
  5. ↑ Narain, A. K. "Gaṇeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon." Brown, pp. 21-22.
  6. ↑ Apte, p. 395.
  7. ↑ Bhāskararāya, Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991).
  8. ↑ Others have noted that the word gana in association with Ganesha may refer to the gaņas, a group of semi-divine beings that form part of Shiva's retinue. See Martin-Dubost. p. 2.
  9. ↑ Ganesha Purana I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition.
  10. ↑ Getty, p. 1.
  11. ↑ Granoff, Phyllis. "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor." Brown, p. 91.
  12. ↑ Martin-Dubost, p. 367.
  13. ↑ Narain, A. K. "Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon." Brown, p. 25.
  14. ↑ Thapan, p. 62.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon." Brown, p. 19.
  16. ↑ Nagar, p. 4.
  17. ↑ Rocher, Ludo "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature." Brown, pp. 70-72.
  18. ↑ Aitareya Brāhmana, I, 21.
  19. ↑ Bhandarkar Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. pp. 147-48.
  20. ↑ Krishan, p. vii.
  21. ↑ Courtright, 10.
  22. ↑ Courtright, 10-11
  23. ↑ Courtright, 11
  24. ↑ Grimes, p. 162.
  25. ↑ Courtright, p. 163.
  26. ↑ Pal, p. ix.
  27. ↑ Thapan, p. 170.
  28. ↑ Thapan, p. 152.
  29. ↑ Nagar, p. 174-175.
  30. ↑ Getty, p. 52.
  31. ↑ Brown, p. 182.
  32. ↑ Getty, p. 40.
  33. ↑ Nagar, p. 185.
  34. ↑ Getty, p. 42
  35. ↑ Nagar, p. 185.
  36. ↑ Nagar, pp. 185-186.
  37. ↑ Getty, p. 38.
  38. ↑ Getty, pp. 37-45. "Chapter 4: Ganesha in Buddhism".
  39. ↑ Getty, 37.
  40. ↑ Getty, p. 55.
  41. ↑ Nagar, p. 175.
  42. ↑ Martin-Dubost, p. 311.
  43. ↑ Martin-Dubost, p. 311.
  44. ↑ Martin-Dubost, p. 313.
  45. ↑ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature." Brown, p. 69.
  46. ↑ Renou, 273.
  47. ↑ Courtright, 9.
  48. ↑ Rocher, Ludo. "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature." Brown, pp. 71-72.
  49. ↑ Mahābhārata Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.
  50. ↑ Brown, p. 183.
  51. ↑ Krishan, p. 103.
  52. ↑ See: Preston, Lawrence W., "Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to Gaṇeśa," in: N. K. Wagle, ed., Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India. p.103.
  53. ↑ Thapan, op. cit., pp. 30-33.
  54. ↑ Thapan, pp. 196-7.
  55. ↑ Courtright, op. cit., p. 252.
  56. ↑ Brown, pp. 77-78.
  57. ↑ Courtright, 5.
  58. ↑ Brown, p. 3.
  59. ↑ Brown, p. 76.
  60. ↑ Brown, pp. 76-77.
  61. ↑ Brown, 77.
  62. ↑ Thapan, p. 300.
  63. ↑ Brown, p. 4, 79.
  64. ↑ Gupta, p. 38.
  65. ↑ Brown, pp. 115-140
  66. ↑ Bailey.
  67. ↑ Śiva Purāṇa 2.5.19.15-20. Translation. Courtright, pp. 123-125.
  68. ↑ Courtright, pp. 212-213.
  69. ↑ Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa." Brown, p. 130.
  70. ↑ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature." Brown, pp. 69-83.
  71. ↑ Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa." Brown, p. 120.
  72. ↑ Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa." Brown, p. 121.
  73. ↑ Coomaraswamy, Ananda. Bulletin of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts 26, no. 153 (1928):30-31, cited in Getty, pp. 217-218.
  74. ↑ Martin-Dubost, p. 204.
  75. ↑ Martin-Dubost, p. 369.
  76. ↑ Courtright, p. 163.
  77. ↑ Nagar, Preface.
  78. ↑ Courtright, 172.
  79. ↑ "Gaṇeśa in a Regional Setting." Courtright, pp. 202-247.
  80. ↑ Pal, p. ix.
  81. ↑ Nagar, p. 77.
  82. ↑ Br. P. 2.3.42.34
  83. ↑ Krishan, p. 89.
  84. ↑ Brown, p. 103.
  85. ↑ Martin-Dubost, p. 204.
  86. ↑ Nagar, Preface.
  87. ↑ "The Colors of Ganesha." Martin-Dubost, pp. 221-230.
  88. ↑ Martin-Dubost, pp. 224-228
  89. ↑ Martin-Dubost, pp. 231-244.
  90. ↑ Krishan, pp. 48, 89, 92.
  91. ↑ Martin-Dubost, p. 231.
  92. ↑ Krishan, p. 49.
  93. ↑ See note on figure 43 in: Martin-Dubost, p. 144.
  94. ↑ Brown, "God and Enchantment of Place: reclaiming human experience," p. 101.
  95. ↑ Krishnan pp. 49-50.
  96. ↑ Courtright, 141.
  97. ↑ Brown, p. 6.
  98. ↑ Courtright, 138-139.
  99. ↑ Apte, p. 703.
  100. ↑ Grimes, p. 77.
  101. ↑ Grimes, pp. 79-80.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Agrawala, Prithvi Kumar. Goddess Vināyakī: The Female Gaṇeśa. Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan. 1978.
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External links

All links retrieved April 17, 2024.

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