Difference between revisions of "Dalai Lama" - New World Encyclopedia

Revision as of 20:56, 23 September 2007

Note: This article is about the Dalai Lama lineage. For information on the 14th and current Dalai Lama, see Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama

File:8thDalaiLama.jpg

There have been numerous Dalai Lamas throughout history. Depicted here is the Eight Dalai Lama, Jamphel Gyatso, who reigned from 1786-1804.

The Dalai Lama (meaning "Ocean of Wisdom") is an institution and position of great importance in Tibetan Buddhism, whose incumbant is considered to be the spiritual figurehead of the Tibetan people.^[1] In addition to his supreme religious and temporal authority, the Dalai Lama is also widely revered as an incarnation of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara ("Chenrezig" in Tibetan), known as the embodiment of compassion.^[2] Though especially important within the Gelug sect, all four Tibetan schools of Buddhism respect the Dalai Lama, despite their different Buddhist teachings.

Historically, the title of the Dalai Lama was intoduced in 1578 C.E., when Altan Khan of the Mongols bestowed it upon Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588), the third leader of the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism, commonly called the Yellow Hat sect. The title was then retroactively given to his two predecessors dating back to 1391 C.E. Ever since that time, it is believed that the institution of the Dalai Lama has been maintained through a successive lineage of reborn Tulkus. Between the 17th century and 1959, the Dalai Lama was the head of the Tibetan government, administering a large portion of the country from the capital of Lhasa. Since 1959, however, the current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, has lived in exile from his homeland due to the Chinese takeover of the country. It should be noted that the institution of the Dalai Lama is much older than the current incumbent of the position, Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama.^[3]

In 1989, the 14th Dalai Lama won the Noble Peace Prize for his efforts to negotiate a peaceful resolution to the Chinese occupation of Tibet. He is viewed by many as a voice of peace, dialogue, and reason in our modern world. Thus the office of the Dalai Lama commands a great deal of respect and admiration among millions of Buddhists and non-Buddhist alike. While the Dalai Lama is deeply respected today, some of the position's former incumbents were conspicious for their worldly habits, and the position has not been without controversy, power struggles, and political intreague.

History

The word "Dalai" means "Ocean" (in Mongolian) while "Lama" means "spiritual teacher".^[4] Together these words mean "Ocean of Wisdom." This title was first used in 1578 when the Mongolian ruler Altan Khan conferred it upon Sonam Gyatso, abbot at the Drepung monastery. Since Sonam Gyatso was the third member of his lineage, he became known as the "3rd Dalai Lama." The previous two titles were conferred posthumously upon his earlier incarnations. Thus, from the perspective of this school, the history of the Dalai Lama begins with Gendun Drup (1391 – 1474) who was the first Dalai Lama. Gendun Drup (born Pema Dorje) was the son of nomadic tribespeople, and raised as a shepherd until the age of seven. After this he was placed in Nartang (Nar-thang) monastery, and by the middle of his life he had become one of the most esteemed scholar-saints in the country. He was a student of Tsongkhapa.

Some of the most famous texts attributed to Gendun Drup wrote are:

Sunlight on the Path to Freedom (a commentary on Abhidharma-kosha)
Crushing the Forces of Evil to Dust (an epic poem on the life and liberating deeds of Buddha Shakyamuni)
Song of the Eastern Snow Mountain (a poem dedicated to Je Tsongkhapa (Btsong-ka-pa))
Praise of the Venerable Lady Khadiravani Tara (an homage to the Goddess Tara)

The second retroactive Dalai Lama was Gendun Gyatso Palzangpo (Wylie transliteration: Dge-'dun Rgya-mtsho), also Gendun Gyatso ("Sublimely Glorious Ocean of Spiritual Aspirants," layname: Yonten Phuntsok) (1475 – 1541). He was proclaimed the reincarnation of Gendun Drup as a young boy.

Legend has it that soon after he learned to speak, he told his parents his name was Pema Dorje, the birth name of the first Dalai Lama. later, when he was four, he reportedly told his parents he wished to live in the Tashilhumpo monastery to be with his monks. He became a renowned scholar and composer of mystical poetry, who traveled widely to extend Gelugpa influence, and became abbot of the largest Gelugpa monastery, Drepung, which from this time on was closely associated with the Dalai Lamas.

The Third Dalai Lama (and the first officially recoognized Dala Lama) was Sonam Gyatso (1543 – 1588), a monk of the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat) school of Buddhism. He found a foreign patron for his school in the Altan Khan of Tümed, who issued a Twofold Edict, ordering Mongols to follow orthodox Buddhism, and bestowing on Sonam Gyatso the title "Dalai Lama."

The alliance with the Mongols would later prove instrumental in establishing the Gelukpa as the rulers of Tibet during the reign of the Great Fifth Dalai Lama.

The fourth Dalai Lama was Yonten Gyatso (1589 – 1616), the grandson of Altan Khan. Yonten Gyatso was a Mongolian, making him the only non-Tibetan to be recognized as Dalai Lama.^[5] He was a contemporary and student of the First Panchen Lama Lobsang Chokyi Gyeltsen.

The fifth Dalai Lama, with the support of Gushri Khan, a Mongol ruler of Khökh Nuur, united Tibet. Lobsang Gyatso (Wylie transliteration: Blo-bzang Rgya-mtsho), the Great Fifth Dalai Lama, (1617-1682) was the first Dalai Lama to wield effective political power over central Tibet. He unified Tibet under the control of the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism, after defeating the rival Kagyu and Jonang sects and the secular ruler, the prince of Shang, in a prolonged civil war. His efforts were successful in part because of aid from Gushi Khan, a powerful Oirat military leader. The Jonang monasteries were either closed or forcibly converted, and that school remained in hiding until the latter part of the 20th century.

The Potala Palace in Lhasa

The fifth Dalai lama initiated the construction of the Potala Palace in Lhasa, and moved the centre of government there from Drepung. In 1652, the Fifth Dalai Lama also visited the Manchu emperor, Shunzhi. During the rule of the Great Fifth, the first Europeans visited Tibet. Two Jesuit missionaries, Johannes Gruber and Albert D'Orville, reached Lhasa in 1661. They failed to win any Tibetan converts to Christianity. Other Christian missionaries spent time in Tibet, with equal lack of success, until all were expelled in 1745.

The death of the fifth Dalai Lama in 1680 was kept hidden for 15 years by his assistant, confidant, and possibly son Desi Sangay Gyatso (De-srid Sangs-rgyas Rgya-'mtsho). The Dalai Lamas remained Tibet's titular heads of state until 1959.

The Sixth Dalai Lama, Tsangyang Gyatso, (1683–1706) enjoyed a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, and writing love songs. Declaring him to be unworthy as a monk, Mongol leader Lha-bzang Khan invaded Tibet with the approval of China's Kangxi emperor in 1705. The sixth Dalai Lama died soon afterwards, possibly murdered. Tibetans angrily rejected the spurious Dalai Lama candidate that Lha-bzang brought with him and turned to the Dzungar (or Oyrat) Mongols for relief. The Dzungars defeated and killed Lha-bzang, but then proceeded to sack Lhasa and loot the tomb of the fifth Dalai Lama. They stayed until a Chinese expedition expelled them in 1720. The Chinese were hailed as liberators and patrons of Kelzang Gyatso, who they installed as the seventh Dalai Lama. Following the Qing withdrawal from central Tibet in 1723, there was a period of civil war. Amdo, meanwhile, was declared a Chinese territory under the name Koko Nor (blue lake). (This became the province of Qinghai in 1929.)

Pho-lha-nas ruled Tibet with Chinese support in 1728-47. He moved the Dalai Lama from Lhasa to Litang to make it more difficult for him to influence the government. After Pho-lha-nas died, his son ruled until he was killed by the ambans in 1750. This provoked riots during which the ambans were killed. A Chinese army entered the country and restored order. In 175,1 the Qianlong emperor issued a 13-point decree which abolished the position of regent (desi), put the Tibetan government in the hands of a four-man kashag, or council of ministers, and gave the ambans formal powers. The Dalai Lama moved back to Lhasa to preside over the new government.

In 1792, the Qianlong emperor issued a 29-point decree which appeared to tighten Chinese control over Tibet. It strengthened the powers of the ambans, who were in theory put on a par with the Dalai and Panchen Lamas and given authority over financial, diplomatic and trade affairs. It also outlined a new method to select both the Dalai and Panchen Lama by means of a lottery administered by the ambans in Lhasa. In this lottery, the names of the competing candidates were written on folded slips of paper which were placed in a golden urn.^[6] The tenth, eleventh and twelfth Dalai Lamas were selected by the golden urn method.^[7] The ninth, thirteen, and fourteenth Dalai Lamas, however, were selected by the previous incarnation's entourage, or labrang, with the selection being approved after the fact by Beijing.

In 1910, the Qing government sent a military expedition of its own to establish direct Chinese rule and deposed the Dalai Lama in an imperial edict. The Dalai Lama fled to India.

In early 1913, the Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa and issued a proclamation distributed throughout Tibet which condemned, "The Chinese intention of colonizing Tibet under the patron-priest relationship" and stated that, "We are a small, religious, and independent nation."^[8] Tibet and Mongolia are said to have signed a treaty in 1913 recognizing each other's independence; but independent verification of such a document has been disputed.^[9]

The Dalai Lamas continued to partially rule in Tibet with, to some extent, autonomous power given by contemporary Chinese governments, until the People's Republic of China invaded the region in 1949 and then took full control in 1959. By the mid-1950s there was unrest in eastern Kham and Amdo, where land reform had been implemented. These rebellions eventually spread into western Kham and Ü-Tsang. In 1959 (at the time of the Great Leap Forward in China), the Chinese authorities treated the Dalai Lama, by now an adult, with open impiety. In some parts of the country Chinese Communists tried to establish rural communes, as was happening in the whole of China. These events triggered riots in Lhasa, and then a full-scale rebellion occurred.

File:Tenzin Gyatzo foto 2.jpg

The 14th and current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (born 1935).

The resistance in Lhasa was soon crushed, and the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India, although resistance continued in other parts of the country for several years. Although he remained a virtual prisoner, the Chinese set the Panchen Lama as a figurehead in Lhasa, claiming that he headed the legitimate Government of Tibet in the absence of the Dalai Lama, the traditional head of the Tibetan government. In 1965, the area that had been under the control of the Dalai Lama's government from the 1910s to 1959 (Ü-Tsang and western Kham) was renamed the Tibet Autonomous Region or TAR. Autonomy provided that the head of government would be an ethnic Tibetan; however, de facto power in the TAR was held by the general secretary of the Communist Party, who, as of 2006, has always been a Han Chinese from outside of Tibet. The role of ethnic Tibetans in the higher levels of the TAR Communist Party remains limited.

In 1989, the tenth Panchen Lama died. The 14th Dalai Lama named Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th Panchen Lama but without confirmation from the Chinese government, while the PRC named another child, Gyancain Norbu. Gyancain Norbu was raised in Beijing and has appeared occasionally on state media. The whereabouts of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima and his family are unknown. It is widely believed that they are imprisoned, while Beijing contends that they are living under a secret identity for protection and privacy.[1]

List of Dalai Lamas

There have been 14 Dalai Lamas:

	Name	Lifespan	Reign	Tibetan/Wylie	PRC transcription	Other English spelling(s)
.1	Gendun Drup	1391–1474	^[10]	དྒེ་འདུན་འགྲུབ་ dge ‘dun ‘grub	Gêdün Chub	Gedun Drub, Gedün Drup, Gendun Drup
.2	Gendun Gyatso	1475–1541	^[10]	དགེ་འདུན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ dge ‘dun rgya mtsho	Gêdün Gyaco	Gedün Gyatso, Gendün Gyatso
3.	Sonam Gyatso	1543–1588	1578–1588	བསོད་ནམས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ bsod nams rgya mtsho	Soinam Gyaco	Sönam Gyatso
4.	Yonten Gyatso	1589–1616		ཡོན་ཏན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ yon tan rgya mtsho	Yoindain Gyaco	Yontan Gyatso
5.	Lobsang Gyatso	1617–1682	1642–1682	བློ་བཟང་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ blo bzang rgya mtsho	Lobsang Gyaco	Lobzang Gyatso, Lopsang Gyatso
6.	Tsangyang Gyatso	1683–1706	?–1706	ཚང་དབྱངས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ tshang dbyangs rgya mtsho	Cangyang Gyaco
7.	Kelzang Gyatso	1708–1757	1751–1757	བསྐལ་བཟང་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ bskal bzang rgya mtsho	Gaisang Gyaco	Kelsang Gyatso, Kalsang Gyatso
8.	Jamphel Gyatso	1758–1804	1786–1804	བྱམས་སྤེལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ byams spel rgya mtsho	Qambê Gyaco	Jampel Gyatso, Jampal Gyatso
9.	Lungtok Gyatso	1806–1815	(1808–1815)^[10]	ལུང་རྟོགས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ lung rtogs rgya mtsho	Lungdog Gyaco	Lungtog Gyatso
10.	Tsultrim Gyatso	1816–1837		ཚུལ་ཁྲིམ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ tshul khrim rgya mtsho	Cüchim Gyaco	Tshültrim Gyatso
11.	Khendrup Gyatso	1838–1856	1844–1856	མཁས་གྲུབ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ mkhas grub rgya mtsho	Kaichub Gyaco	Kedrub Gyatso
12.	Trinley Gyatso	1857–1875		འཕྲིན་ལས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ ‘phrin las rgya mtsho	Chinlai Gyaco	Trinle Gyatso
13.	Thubten Gyatso	1876–1933		ཐུབ་བསྟན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ thub bstan rgya mtsho	Tubdain Gyaco	Thubtan Gyatso, Thupten Gyatso
14.	Tenzin Gyatso	1935–present	1950–present (currently in exile)	བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ bstan ‘dzin rgya mtsho	Dainzin Gyaco

Epithets

The title "Dalai Lama" is usually translated as meaning "Ocean of Wisdom." In addition to this title, the Dalai Lama is also called Gyalwa Rinpoche (Rgyal-ba Rin-po-che) meaning "Precious Victor," and Yishin Norbu (Yid-bzhin Nor-bu) meaning "Wish-fulfilling Jewel." In English, the words "His Holiness" (H.H.) are often placed before his title.

Residence

Potala Palace.

Starting with the 5th Dalai Lama and until the 14th Dalai Lama's flight into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lamas resided during winter at the Potala Palace, and in the summer at the Norbulingka palace. Both residences are located in Lhasa, Tibet, approximately three km apart. In 1959, subsequent to the then ongoing Chinese occupation of Tibet, the 14th Dalai Lama sought refuge within India. The then Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was instrumental in granting safe refuge to the Dalai Lama and his fellow Tibetans. The Dalai Lama has since been living in exile in Dharamsala, where the Central Tibetan Administration (Government in Exile) is also established. Tibetan refugees have constructed and opened many schools and Buddhist temples in Dharamsala.^[11]^[12]

The future of the Dalai Lama

Throne awaiting Dalai Lama's return. Summer residence of 13th Dalai Lama, Nechung, Tibet.

Upon the death of the Dalai Lama, his monks institute a search for the Lama's reincarnation, or yangsi (yang srid), a small child. Familiarity with the possessions of the previous Dalai Lama is considered the main sign of the reincarnation. The search for the reincarnation typically requires a few years. The reincarnation is then brought to Lhasa to be trained by the other Lamas.

Despite its officially secular stance, the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) has claimed the power to approve the naming of high reincarnations in Tibet. This decision cites a precedent set by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing Dynasty, who instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama by means of a lottery that utilised a golden urn with names wrapped in barley balls. Controversially, this precedent was called upon by the PRC to name their own Panchen Lama. The Dalai Lama and the majority of Tibetan Buddhists in exile do not regard this to be the legitimate Panchen Lama. The Dalai Lama has recognized a different child, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, as the reincarnated Panchen Lama. This child and his family have been taken into 'protective custody' according to the PRC, and all attempts to garner guarantees of the family's safety have been denied by the PRC. There is some speculation that with the death of the current Dalai Lama, the People's Republic of China will attempt to direct the selection of a successor, using the authority of their chosen Panchen Lama.

The current Dalai Lama has repeatedly stated that he will never be reborn inside territory controlled by the People's Republic of China,^[13] and has occasionally suggested that he might choose to be the last Dalai Lama by not being reborn at all. However, he has also stated that the purpose of his repeated incarnations is to continue unfinished work and, as such, if the situation in Tibet remains unchanged, it is very likely that he will be reborn to finish his work.^[14]

Notes

↑ The Dalai Lama is often thought to be the head of the Gelug sect, but this position officially belongs to the Ganden Tripa (Dga'-ldan Khri-pa).
↑ His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition.
↑ For a fuller account of the life of the current Dalai Lama, see Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama.
↑ Art Hughes. "The Thirteen Previous Dalai Lamas", Part of MPR's special report, Ocean of Wisdom: The Dalai Lama's Visit, Minnesota Public Radio, May 7, 2001.
↑ The Sixth Dalai Lama, Tsangyang Gyatso, was from Monpa stock, which can be seen either as a Tibetan subgroup or a closely related people.
↑ Goldstein, Melvyn C. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State, Berkeley, 1989, p44, n13
↑ W.D Shakabpa's "Tibet: A Political History" (1967) claimed that the tenth Dalai Lama was not selected by the mean of the lottery. J. Wang and Nyima Gyaincain, however, provided totally different accounts in "Historical Status of China's Tibet" (1997) controverting Shakabpa's statement. According to Shakabpa, the twelfth Dalai Lama was selected by the Tibetan method but was confirmed by the mean of the lottery. See Smith, Warren, "Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations," p140, n59
↑ "Proclamation Issued by His Holiness the Dalai Lama XIII (1913)"
↑ There was not, at the time, nor has there been since, any official publication of the treaty's text by either party. Moreover, a Tibetan official pointed out years later that "[t]here [was] no need for a treaty, we would always help each other if we could." Bell, Charles, Tibet and Her Neighbours, 1937, pp. 435-436; For the English text, please see Michael C. Van Praag, The Status of Tibet, pp. 320-32.1 According to his British advisor Charles Bell, the 13th Dalai Lama denied the existence of such a treaty. The Tibetan leader told Bell that he has never ratified, or appointed any plenipotentiary to sign, any treaty with Mongolia. Bell, Charles, Tibet Past and Present, 1924, p. 151
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 The title "Dalai Lama" was conferred posthumously to the first and second Dalai Lamas. The 9th Dalai Lama was officially enthroned, but never reigned.
↑ A Guide to Little Lhasa in India
↑ Buddhist Temples Dharamsala
↑ "Dalai's reincarnation will not be found under Chinese control", The Indian Express, Tibetan Government in Exile, 1999-07-06. Retrieved 2007-01-27.
↑ Questions & Answers, The Website of The Office of His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Beckwith, Christopher I (1987). The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3
Goldstein, Melvyn C. The Snow Lion and the Dragon China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999 ISBN 9780585087030
Goldstein, Melvyn C., with the help of Gelek Rimpche. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers (1993). ISBN 81-215-0582-8; University of California edition (1991). ISBN 0-520-07590-0
Laird, Thomas, and Bstan-ʼdzin-rgya-mtsho. The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama. NY: Grove Press, 2006 ISBN 9780802118271
Marcello, Patricia Cronin. The Dalai Lama: A Biography. Greenwood biographies. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003 ISBN 9780313322075
Mullin, Glenn H. (translator). Essence of Refined Gold by the Third Dalai Lama: with related texts by the Second and Seventh Dalai Lamas. (1978) Tushita Books, Dharamsala, H.P., India.
Perez, Louis G. The Dalai Lama. Rourke Biographies. Vero Beach, Fla: Rourke Publications, 1993. ISBN 9780866254809
Piburn, Sidney. The Dalai Lama, a Policy of Kindness: An Anthology of Writings by and About the Dalai Lama. Ithaca, N.Y., USA: Snow Lion Publications, 1990. ISBN 9780937938911
Shakya, Tsering,The Dragon in the Land of Snows : A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947 Penguin, (2000) paperback, 608 pages, ISBN 0-14-019615-3
Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain (1997). The Historical Status of China's Tibet. China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 7-80113-304-8.

External links

The official site of the current Dalai Lama Retrieved Aug. 3, 2007.
Namgyal - The official site of the current Dalai Lama's personal monastery in Ithaca NY USA Retrieved Aug 3, 2007.
The 13 Previous Dalai Lamas Retrieved Aug 3, 2007.

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[1] The Dalai Lama is often thought to be the head of the Gelug sect, but this position officially belongs to the Ganden Tripa (Dga'-ldan Khri-pa).

[2] His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition.

[3] For a fuller account of the life of the current Dalai Lama, see Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama.

[4] Art Hughes. "The Thirteen Previous Dalai Lamas", Part of MPR's special report, Ocean of Wisdom: The Dalai Lama's Visit, Minnesota Public Radio, May 7, 2001.

[5] The Sixth Dalai Lama, Tsangyang Gyatso, was from Monpa stock, which can be seen either as a Tibetan subgroup or a closely related people.

[6] Goldstein, Melvyn C. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State, Berkeley, 1989, p44, n13

[7] W.D Shakabpa's "Tibet: A Political History" (1967) claimed that the tenth Dalai Lama was not selected by the mean of the lottery. J. Wang and Nyima Gyaincain, however, provided totally different accounts in "Historical Status of China's Tibet" (1997) controverting Shakabpa's statement. According to Shakabpa, the twelfth Dalai Lama was selected by the Tibetan method but was confirmed by the mean of the lottery. See Smith, Warren, "Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations," p140, n59

[Dalai1913-8] "Proclamation Issued by His Holiness the Dalai Lama XIII (1913)"

[9] There was not, at the time, nor has there been since, any official publication of the treaty's text by either party. Moreover, a Tibetan official pointed out years later that "[t]here [was] no need for a treaty, we would always help each other if we could." Bell, Charles, Tibet and Her Neighbours, 1937, pp. 435-436; For the English text, please see Michael C. Van Praag, The Status of Tibet, pp. 320-32.1 According to his British advisor Charles Bell, the 13th Dalai Lama denied the existence of such a treaty. The Tibetan leader told Bell that he has never ratified, or appointed any plenipotentiary to sign, any treaty with Mongolia. Bell, Charles, Tibet Past and Present, 1924, p. 151

[posthumous-10] 10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 The title "Dalai Lama" was conferred posthumously to the first and second Dalai Lamas. The 9th Dalai Lama was officially enthroned, but never reigned.

[11] A Guide to Little Lhasa in India

[12] Buddhist Temples Dharamsala

[13] "Dalai's reincarnation will not be found under Chinese control", The Indian Express, Tibetan Government in Exile, 1999-07-06. Retrieved 2007-01-27.

[14] Questions & Answers, The Website of The Office of His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama.

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-{{Contracted}}
+{{Images OK}}{{Contracted}}
 :''Note: This article is about the Dalai Lama lineage. For information on the 14th and current Dalai Lama, see [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama]]''
+[[Image:8thDalaiLama.jpg|thumb|right|250px|There have been numerous Dalai Lamas throughout history. Depicted here is the Eight Dalai Lama, Jamphel Gyatso, who reigned from 1786-1804.]]
-[[Image:Tenzin Gyatzo foto 2.jpg|right|thumb|260px|The 14th and current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (born 1935).]]
+The '''Dalai Lama''' (meaning "Ocean of Wisdom") is an institution and position of great importance in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], whose incumbant is considered to be the spiritual figurehead of the Tibetan people.<ref>The Dalai Lama is often thought to be the head of the Gelug sect, but this position officially belongs to the Ganden Tripa (Dga'-ldan Khri-pa).</ref>  In addition to his supreme religious and temporal authority, the Dalai Lama is also widely revered as an incarnation of the [[bodhisattva]] [[Avalokitesvara]] ("Chenrezig" in Tibetan), known as the embodiment of compassion.<ref>[http://www.fpmt.org/teachers/hhdl/default.asp His Holiness the Dalai Lama], Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition.</ref> Though especially important within the [[Gelug]] sect, all four Tibetan schools of Buddhism respect the Dalai Lama, despite their different [[Vajarayana|Buddhist teachings]].
-The '''Dalai Lama''' (meaning "Ocean of Wisdom) is an institution and position of great importance in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], whose incumbant is considered to be the spiritual figurehead of the Tibetan people.<ref>The Dalai Lama is often thought to be the head of the Gelug sect, but this position officially belongs to the Ganden Tripa (Dga'-ldan Khri-pa).</ref>  In addition to his supreme religious and temporal authority, the Dalai Lama is also widely revered as an incarnation of the [[bodhisattva]] [[Avalokitesvara]] ("Chenrezig" in Tibetan), the embodiment of compassion.<ref>[http://www.fpmt.org/teachers/hhdl/default.asp His Holiness the Dalai Lama], Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition.</ref> Though especially important within the [[Gelug]] sect, all four Tibetan schools of Buddhism respect the Dalai Lama, despite their different Buddhist teachings. It should be noted then that the institution of the Dalai Lama is much older than the current incumbent of the position, Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama (see picture inset).<ref>For a fuller account of the life of the current Dalai Lama, see [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama]]''.</ref>
-Historically, the title of the Dalai Lama was intoduced in 1578 C.E., when Altan Khan of the Mongols bestowed it upon Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588), the third hierarch of the [[Geluk]] school of Tibetan Buddhism, commonly called the Yellow Hat sect. The title was then retroactively given to two predecessors dating back to 1391 C.E.  Ever since, it is believed that the institution of the Dalai Lama has been maintained through a successive lineage of reborn [[Tulku]]s.
-While the Dalai Lama is deeply respected today, some of the position's former incumbents were conspicious for their worldly habits, and the position has not been without controversy, power struggles, and political intreague.  Between the 17th century and 1959, the Dalai Lama was the head of the Tibetan government, administering a large portion of the country from the capital of Lhasa.  Since 1959, however, the current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, has lived in exile from his homeland due to the Chinese takeover of the country. The future of the position in Chinese occupied Tibet is uncertain.  Tha Dalai Lama's current residence in exile is located in the town of Dharamsala, India.
+Historically, the title of the Dalai Lama was intoduced in 1578 C.E., when Altan Khan of the Mongols bestowed it upon Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588), the third leader of the [[Geluk]] school of Tibetan Buddhism, commonly called the Yellow Hat sect. The title was then retroactively given to his two predecessors dating back to 1391 C.E. Ever since that time, it is believed that the institution of the Dalai Lama has been maintained through a successive lineage of reborn [[Tulku]]s.  Between the 17th century and 1959, the Dalai Lama was the head of the Tibetan government, administering a large portion of the country from the capital of Lhasa.  Since 1959, however, the current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, has lived in exile from his homeland due to the Chinese takeover of the country. It should be noted that the institution of the Dalai Lama is much older than the current incumbent of the position, Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama.<ref>For a fuller account of the life of the current Dalai Lama, see [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama]]''.</ref>
-In 1989, the 14th Dalai Lama won the [[Noble Peace Prize]] for his ongoing efforts to negotiate a peaceful resolution to the Chinese occupation of Tibet. He is viewed by many as a voice and spiritual embodiment of peace, dialogue, and reason in our modern world. Thus the office of the Dalai Lama commands a great deal of respect and admiration among millions of Buddhists and non-Buddhist around the world.
+In 1989, the 14th Dalai Lama won the [[Noble Peace Prize]] for his efforts to negotiate a peaceful resolution to the Chinese occupation of Tibet. He is viewed by many as a voice of peace, dialogue, and reason in our modern world. Thus the office of the Dalai Lama commands a great deal of respect and admiration among millions of Buddhists and non-Buddhist alike. While the Dalai Lama is deeply respected today, some of the position's former incumbents were conspicious for their worldly habits, and the position has not been without controversy, power struggles, and political intreague.
 ==History==
-[[Image:8thDalaiLama.jpg|thumb|left|200px|8th Dalai Lama]]
+The word "Dalai" means "Ocean" (in Mongolian) while "Lama" means "spiritual teacher".<ref>{{cite news |author=Art Hughes |title=The Thirteen Previous Dalai Lamas  |url=http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200105/07_newsroom_dalai/bios.shtml |work=Part of MPR's special report, [http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200105/07_newsroom_dalai/index.shtml Ocean of Wisdom: The Dalai Lama's Visit] |publisher=Minnesota Public Radio |date=May 7, 2001}}</ref> Together these words mean "Ocean of Wisdom." This title was first used in 1578 when the Mongolian ruler Altan Khan conferred it upon Sonam Gyatso, abbot at the Drepung monastery. Since Sonam Gyatso was the third member of his lineage, he became known as the "3rd Dalai Lama." The previous two titles were conferred posthumously upon his earlier incarnations. Thus, from the perspective of this school, the history of the Dalai Lama begins with ''Gendun Drup'' (1391 &ndash; 1474) who was the first Dalai Lama. Gendun Drup (born ''Pema Dorje'') was the son of nomadic tribespeople, and raised as a shepherd until the age of seven. After this he was placed in Nartang (Nar-thang) monastery, and by  the middle of his life he had become one of the most esteemed scholar-saints in the country. He was a student of Tsongkhapa.
-{{main|History of Tibet}}
-"Dalai" means "Ocean" in [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], and "[[Lama]]" ''(bla ma)'' is the Tibetan equivalent of the [[Sanskrit]] word "[[guru]]," and is commonly translated to mean "spiritual teacher".<ref>{{cite news |author=Art Hughes |title=The Thirteen Previous Dalai Lamas  |url=http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200105/07_newsroom_dalai/bios.shtml |work=Part of MPR's special report, [http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200105/07_newsroom_dalai/index.shtml Ocean of Wisdom: The Dalai Lama's Visit] |publisher=Minnesota Public Radio |date=May 7, 2001}}</ref> The actual title was first bestowed by the Mongolian ruler [[Altan Khan]] upon Sonam Gyatso in 1578. Gyatso was an abbot at the Drepung monastery who was widely considered the most eminent lama of his time. Although Sonam Gyatso became the first lama to hold the title "Dalai Lama," due to the fact that he was the third member of his lineage, he became known as the "3rd Dalai Lama." The previous two titles were conferred posthumously upon his earlier incarnations.
+Some of the most famous texts attributed to Gendun Drup wrote are:
+* ''Sunlight on the Path to Freedom'' (a commentary on Abhidharma-kosha)
+* ''Crushing the Forces of Evil to Dust'' (an epic poem on the life and liberating deeds of [[Buddha|Buddha Shakyamuni]])
+* ''Song of the Eastern Snow Mountain'' (a poem dedicated to Je Tsongkhapa (Btsong-ka-pa))
+* ''Praise of the Venerable Lady Khadiravani Tara'' (an homage to the Goddess [[Tara]])
+The second retroactive Dalai Lama was ''Gendun Gyatso Palzangpo'' (Wylie transliteration: ''Dge-'dun Rgya-mtsho''), also ''Gendun Gyatso'' ("Sublimely Glorious Ocean of Spiritual Aspirants," layname: Yonten Phuntsok) (1475 &ndash; 1541). He was proclaimed the [[reincarnation]] of Gendun Drup as a young boy.
+Legend has it that soon after he learned to speak, he told his parents his name was Pema Dorje, the birth name of the first Dalai Lama. later, when he was four, he reportedly told his parents he wished to live in the Tashilhumpo monastery to be with his monks. He became a renowned scholar and composer of mystical poetry, who traveled widely to extend [[Gelug|Gelugpa]] influence, and became [[abbot]] of the largest Gelugpa monastery, Drepung, which from this time on was closely associated with the Dalai Lamas.
-'''Gendun Drup''' (1391 &ndash; 1474) is retrospectively considered to be the first in the line of [[Dalai Lama]]s of [[Tibet]], who are believed to be reincarnations. Gendun Drup was a student of [[Tsongkhapa]]. His birth name was '''Pema Dorje''' ({{bo|t=པད་མ་རྡོ་རྗེ་|w=pad ma rdo rje}}).
+The Third Dalai Lama (and the first officially recoognized Dala Lama) was ''Sonam Gyatso''  (1543 &ndash; 1588), a monk of the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat) school of Buddhism. He found a foreign patron for his school in the Altan Khan of Tümed, who issued a Twofold Edict, ordering [[Mongols]] to follow orthodox Buddhism, and bestowing on Sonam Gyatso the title "Dalai Lama."
-Gendun Drup was born in a cowshed as the son of nomadic tribespeople, and raised as a shepherd until the age of seven. After this he was placed in [[Nartang Monastery|Nartang (Nar-thang) monastery]], and by  the middle of his life he had become one of the most esteemed scholar-saints in the country.
+The alliance with the Mongols would later prove instrumental in establishing the Gelukpa as the rulers of [[Tibet]] during the reign of the Great Fifth Dalai Lama.
-Some of the most famous texts Gendun Drup wrote were:
+The fourth Dalai Lama was ''Yonten Gyatso'' (1589 &ndash; 1616), the grandson of Altan Khan. Yonten Gyatso was a [[Mongolia]]n, making him the only non-Tibetan to be recognized as Dalai Lama.<ref>The Sixth Dalai Lama, Tsangyang Gyatso, was from Monpa stock, which can be seen either as a Tibetan subgroup or a closely related people.</ref> He was a contemporary and student of the First [[Panchen Lama]] Lobsang Chokyi Gyeltsen.
-* ''Sunlight on the Path to Freedom'', a commentary on [[Abhidharma-kosha]]
-* ''Crushing the Forces of Evil to Dust'', an epic poem on the life and liberating deeds of [[Buddha Shakyamuni]]
-* ''Song of the Eastern Snow Mountain'', a poem dedicated to [[Je Tsongkhapa|Je Tsongkhapa (Btsong-ka-pa)]]
-* ''Praise of the Venerable Lady Khadiravani Tara'', an homage to the Goddess [[Tara (Buddhist)|Tara]]
-Glenn Mullin's collection of translations of Gendun Drup's commentaries is a good start to learning more about the writings and teachings of this prolific and important Tibetan Buddhist teacher.
+The fifth Dalai Lama, with the support of Gushri Khan, a Mongol ruler of Khökh Nuur, united Tibet. Lobsang Gyatso (Wylie transliteration: Blo-bzang Rgya-mtsho), the Great Fifth Dalai Lama, (1617-1682) was the first Dalai Lama to wield effective political power over central Tibet. He unified Tibet under the control of the [[Geluk]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], after defeating the rival [[Kagyu]] and [[Jonang]] sects and the secular ruler, the prince of Shang, in a prolonged civil war. His efforts were successful in part because of aid from Gushi Khan, a powerful Oirat military leader. The Jonang monasteries were either closed or forcibly converted, and that school remained in hiding until the latter part of the [[20th century]].
-[[Image:2ndDalaiLama.jpg|left|200px]]
-'''Gendun Gyatso Palzangpo''' ([[Wylie transliteration]]: '''Dge-'dun Rgya-mtsho'''), also '''Gendun Gyatso''' ("Sublimely Glorious Ocean of Spiritual Aspirants," layname: Yonten Phuntsok) (1475 &ndash; 1541) was the second [[Dalai Lama]]. He was proclaimed the [[reincarnation]] of [[Gendun Drup, 1st Dalai Lama|Gendun Drup]] as a young boy.
-Legend has it that soon after he learned to speak, he told his parents his name was Pema Dorje, the birth name of the first Dalai Lama. When he was four, he reportedly told his parents he wished to live in the Tashilhumpo monastery to be with his monks. He was a renowned scholar and composer of mystical poetry, who traveled widely to extend [[Gelugpa]] influence, and became [[abbot]] of the largest Gelugpa monastery, Drepung, which from this time on was closely associated with the Dalai Lamas.
-When the high priests came looking for the incarnation of the previous Dalai Lama, they found him when he was 17 years old. Apparently, he told the priests that he had been waiting for them.
-'''Sonam Gyatso''' ({{bo|t=བསོད་ནམས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་|w=Bsod-nams Rgya-mtsho|z=Soinam Gyaco}}) (1543 &ndash; 1588) was the first officially recognized [[Dalai Lama]] by the [[Mongolians]], who gave this teacher the name Dalai Lama, a combination of the Mongolian ''Dalai'' meaning "ocean" and the Tibetan honorific ''lama'', "teacher."  Combined they imply "ocean of wisdom teacher."
-Sonam Gyatso, a monk of the [[Gelugpa]] (Yellow Hat) school of Buddhism, was responsible for finding a foreign patron for Gelugpa institutions. He found this patron in the [[Altan Khan]], who issued a Twofold Edict, ordering [[Mongols]] to follow orthodox Buddhism, and bestowing on Sonam Gyatso the title "Dalai Lama."
-The alliance with the Mongols would later prove instrumental in establishing the Gelukpa as the rulers of [[Tibet]] during the reign of the [[5th Dalai Lama|Great Fifth Dalai Lama]].
-'''Yonten Gyatso''' (1589 &ndash; 1616) was the 4th [[Dalai Lama]].  As a grandson of [[Altan Khan]] of [[Tümed]], Yonten Gyatso was a [[Mongolia]]n, making him the only non-Tibetan to be recognized as Dalai Lama other than the [[Tsangyang Gyatso, 6th Dalai Lama|6th Dalai Lama]], who was a [[Monpa]]&mdash;Monpas can be seen either as a Tibetan subgroup or a closely related people. He was a contemporary and student of the First [[Panchen Lama]] [[Lobsang Chokyi Gyeltsen]].
-The 5th Dalai Lama, with the support of Gushri Khan, a Mongol ruler of Khökh Nuur, united Tibet. The Dalai Lamas continued to partially rule in [[Tibet]] with, to some extent, autonomous power given by contemporary Chinese governments, until the People's Republic of China invaded the region in 1949 and then took full control in 1959. The 14th Dalai Lama then fled to India and has since ceded temporal power to an elected government-in-exile. The current 14th Dalai Lama seeks greater autonomy for Tibet.
-[[Lobsang Gyatso, 5th Dalai Lama|Lobsang Gyatso]] ([[Wylie transliteration]]: Blo-bzang Rgya-mtsho), the Great Fifth Dalai Lama, (1617-1682) was the first Dalai Lama to wield effective political power over central Tibet.
-The 5th Dalai Lama is known for unifying Tibet under the control of the [[Geluk]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], after defeating the rival [[Kagyu]] and [[Jonang]] sects and the secular ruler, the prince of Shang, in a prolonged civil war. His efforts were successful in part because of aid from [[Gushi Khan]], a powerful [[Oirat]] military leader. The Jonang monasteries were either closed or forcibly converted, and that school remained in hiding until the latter part of the [[20th century]].
-In 165,2 the Fifth Dalai Lama visited the [[Manchu]] emperor, [[Shunzhi Emperor|Shunzhi]].
-The fifth Dalai lama initiated the construction of the [[Potala Palace]] in [[Lhasa]], and moved the centre of government there from [[Drepung]].
 [[Image:Potala Palace.jpg|right|thumb|350px|The Potala Palace in Lhasa]]
-The death of the fifth Dalai Lama in 1680 was kept hidden for 15 years by his assistant, confidant, and possibly son [[Desi Sangay Gyatso]] (''De-srid Sangs-rgyas Rgya-'mtsho''). The Dalai Lamas remained Tibet's titular heads of state until 1959.
+The fifth Dalai lama initiated the construction of the [[Potala Palace]] in [[Lhasa]], and moved the centre of government there from [[Drepung]]. In 1652, the Fifth Dalai Lama also visited the [[Manchu]] emperor, Shunzhi. During the rule of the Great Fifth, the first Europeans visited Tibet. Two [[Jesuit]] missionaries, Johannes Gruber and Albert D'Orville, reached Lhasa in 1661. They failed to win any Tibetan converts to [[Christianity]]. Other Christian missionaries spent time in Tibet, with equal lack of success, until all were expelled in 1745.
-During the rule of the Great Fifth, the first Europeans visited Tibet. Two [[Jesuit]] missionaries, [[Johannes Gruber]] and [[Albert D'Orville]], reached Lhasa in 1661.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}<!—(this needs a source:) They described the Dalai Lama as a "powerful and compassionate leader" and "a devilish God-the-father who puts to death such as refuse to adore him."—> They failed to win any Tibetan converts to [[Christianity]]. Other Christian missionaries spent time in Tibet, with equal lack of success, until all were expelled in 1745.
+The death of the fifth Dalai Lama in 1680 was kept hidden for 15 years by his assistant, confidant, and possibly son Desi Sangay Gyatso (''De-srid Sangs-rgyas Rgya-'mtsho''). The Dalai Lamas remained Tibet's titular heads of state until 1959.
-The Sixth Dalai Lama enjoyed a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, and writing love songs. Declaring him to be unworthy as a monk, Mongol leader [[Lha-bzang Khan]] invaded Tibet with the approval of China's Kangxi emperor in 1705. The Dalai Lama died soon afterwards, probably killed by some one. Tibetans angrily rejected the spurious Dalai Lama candidate Lha-bzang brought with him and turned to the [[Dzungar]] (or Oyrat) Mongols for relief. The Dzungars defeated and killed Lha-bzang, but then proceeded to sack Lhasa and loot the tomb of the fifth Dalai Lama. They stayed until a Chinese expedition expelled them in 172.0 The Chinese were hailed as liberators and patrons of Kelzang Gyatso, who they installed as the seventh Dalai Lama. Following the Qing withdrawal from central Tibet in 1723, there was a period of civil war. Amdo, meanwhile, was declared a Chinese territory under the name Koko Nor (blue lake). (This became the province of [[Qinghai]] in 1929.)
+The Sixth Dalai Lama, Tsangyang Gyatso, (1683–1706) enjoyed a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, and writing love songs. Declaring him to be unworthy as a monk, Mongol leader Lha-bzang Khan invaded Tibet with the approval of China's Kangxi emperor in 1705. The sixth Dalai Lama died soon afterwards, possibly murdered. Tibetans angrily rejected the spurious Dalai Lama candidate that Lha-bzang brought with him and turned to the Dzungar (or Oyrat) Mongols for relief. The Dzungars defeated and killed Lha-bzang, but then proceeded to sack Lhasa and loot the tomb of the fifth Dalai Lama. They stayed until a Chinese expedition expelled them in 1720. The Chinese were hailed as liberators and patrons of Kelzang Gyatso, who they installed as the seventh Dalai Lama. Following the Qing withdrawal from central Tibet in 1723, there was a period of civil war. Amdo, meanwhile, was declared a Chinese territory under the name Koko Nor (blue lake). (This became the province of Qinghai in 1929.)
-Pho-lha-nas ruled Tibet with Chinese support in 1728-47. He moved the Dalai Lama from Lhasa to Litang to make it more difficult for him to influence the government. After Pho-lha-nas died, his son ruled until he was killed by the ambans in 175.0 This provoked riots during which the ambans were killed. A Chinese army entered the country and restored order. In 175,1 the [[Qianlong]] emperor issued a 13-point decree which abolished the position of regent ''(desi)'', put the Tibetan government in the hands of a four-man ''kashag,'' or council of ministers, and gave the ambans formal powers. The Dalai Lama moved back to Lhasa to preside over the new government.
+Pho-lha-nas ruled Tibet with Chinese support in 1728-47. He moved the Dalai Lama from Lhasa to Litang to make it more difficult for him to influence the government. After Pho-lha-nas died, his son ruled until he was killed by the ambans in 1750. This provoked riots during which the ambans were killed. A Chinese army entered the country and restored order. In 175,1 the Qianlong emperor issued a 13-point decree which abolished the position of regent ''(desi)'', put the Tibetan government in the hands of a four-man ''kashag,'' or council of ministers, and gave the ambans formal powers. The Dalai Lama moved back to Lhasa to preside over the new government.
-The [[Qianlong]] emperor was disappointed with the results of his 1751 decree and the performance the ambans. "Tibetan local affairs were left to the willful actions of the Dalai Lama and the shapes [Kashag members]," he said. "The Commissioners were not only unable to take charge, they were also kept uninformed. This reduced the post of the Residential Commissioner in Tibet to name only."<ref name="wang">Wang Lixiong, [http://www.newleftreview.net/NLR24805.shtml "Reflections on Tibet"], ''New Left Review'' 14, March-April 2002</ref> In 179,2 the emperor issued a 29-point decree which appeared to tighten Chinese control over Tibet. It strengthened the powers of the ambans, who were in theory put on a par with the Dalai and Panchen Lamas and given authority over financial, diplomatic and trade affairs. It also outlined a new method to select both the Dalai and Panchen Lama by means of a lottery administered by the ambans in Lhasa. In this lottery the names of the competing candidates were written on folded slips of paper which were placed in a golden urn.<ref>Goldstein, Melvyn C. ''A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State'', Berkeley, 1989, p44, n13</ref> The tenth, eleventh and twelfth Dalai Lamas were selected by the golden urn method.<ref>W..D Shakabpa's "''Tibet: A Political History''"(1967) claimed that the tenth Dalai Lama was not selected by the mean of the lottery. J. Wang and Nyima Gyaincain, however, provided totally different accounts in "Historical Status of China's Tibet"(1997) [http://www.tibet-china.org/historical_status/english/e0403.html controverting Shakabpa's statement]. According to Shakabpa, the twelfth Dalai Lama was selected by the Tibetan method but was confirmed by the mean of the lottery. See Smith, Warren, "''Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations''," p14,0 n59</ref> The ninth, thirteen, and fourteenth Dalai Lamas, however, were selected by the previous incarnation's entourage, or ''labrang,'' with the selection being approved after the fact by Beijing.
+In 1792, the Qianlong emperor issued a 29-point decree which appeared to tighten Chinese control over Tibet. It strengthened the powers of the ambans, who were in theory put on a par with the Dalai and Panchen Lamas and given authority over financial, diplomatic and trade affairs. It also outlined a new method to select both the Dalai and Panchen Lama by means of a lottery administered by the ambans in Lhasa. In this lottery, the names of the competing candidates were written on folded slips of paper which were placed in a golden urn.<ref>Goldstein, Melvyn C. ''A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State'', Berkeley, 1989, p44, n13</ref> The tenth, eleventh and twelfth Dalai Lamas were selected by the golden urn method.<ref>W.D Shakabpa's "''Tibet: A Political History''" (1967) claimed that the tenth Dalai Lama was not selected by the mean of the lottery. J. Wang and Nyima Gyaincain, however, provided totally different accounts in "Historical Status of China's Tibet" (1997) [http://www.tibet-china.org/historical_status/english/e0403.html controverting Shakabpa's statement]. According to Shakabpa, the twelfth Dalai Lama was selected by the Tibetan method but was confirmed by the mean of the lottery. See Smith, Warren, "''Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations''," p140, n59</ref> The ninth, thirteen, and fourteenth Dalai Lamas, however, were selected by the previous incarnation's entourage, or ''labrang,'' with the selection being approved after the fact by Beijing.
-When the British mission reached Lhasa, the Dalai Lama had already fled to [[Urga]] in [[Mongolia]], Younghusband found the option of returning to India empty-handed untenable, he proceeded to draft a treaty unilaterally, and have it signed in the Potala by the regent, Ganden Tri Rinpoche, and any other Tibetan officials he could gather together as an ''ad hoc'' government. The Tibetan ministers whom Younghusband dealt with had apparently, unknown to him, just been appointed to their posts. The regular ministers had been imprisoned for suspected pro-British leanings and it was feared they would be too accomodating to Younghusband.<ref>Grunfeld, A. Tom, ''The Making of Modern Tibet.'' ISBN 1-56324-713-5, p57</ref>
+In 1910, the Qing government sent a military expedition of its own to establish direct Chinese rule and deposed the Dalai Lama in an imperial edict. The Dalai Lama fled to India.
-A [[treaty]] was concluded which required Tibet to open its border with British India, to allow British and Indian traders to travel freely, not to impose [[customs duties]] on trade with India, a demand from British that Lhasa had to pay 2.5 million rupees as indemnity and not to enter into relations with any foreign power without British approval.<ref name=anglotibetan1904>[http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties10.html Convention Between Great Britain and Thibet (1904)]</ref>
+In early 1913, the Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa and issued a proclamation distributed throughout Tibet which condemned, "The Chinese intention of colonizing Tibet under the patron-priest relationship" and stated that, "We are a small, religious, and independent nation."<ref name="Dalai1913">[http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/tibet/tibet1.html "Proclamation Issued by His Holiness the Dalai Lama XIII (1913)"]</ref> Tibet and Mongolia are said to have signed a treaty in 1913 recognizing each other's independence; but independent verification of such a document has been disputed.<ref>There was not, at the time, nor has there been since, any official publication of the treaty's text by either party. Moreover, a Tibetan official pointed out years later that "[t]here [was] no need for a treaty, we would always help each other if we could." Bell, Charles, ''Tibet and Her Neighbours'', 1937, pp. 435-436; For the English text, please see Michael C. Van Praag, ''The Status of Tibet'', pp. 320-32.1 According to his British advisor Charles Bell, the 13th Dalai Lama denied the existence of such a treaty. The Tibetan leader told Bell that he has never ratified, or appointed any plenipotentiary to sign, any treaty with Mongolia. Bell, Charles, ''Tibet Past and Present'', 1924, p. 151</ref>
-The Anglo-Tibetan treaty was accordingly confirmed by a Sino-British treaty in 1906 by which the "Government of Great Britain engages not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet. The Government of China also undertakes not to ''permit'' any other foreign State to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet."<ref name=anglochinese1906>[http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties11.html Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet (1906)]</ref> Moreover, Beijing agreed to pay London 2.5 million rupees which Lhasa was forced to agree upon in the Anglo-Tibetan treaty of 1904.<ref>Melvyn C. Goldstein, [http://cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/article/art4.html ''Tibet, China and the United States: Reflections on the Tibet Question.''], 1995</ref> In 1907, Britain and Russia agreed that in "conformity with the ''admitted principle'' of the suzerainty of China over Thibet"<ref name=anglorussian1907>[http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties12.html Convention Between Great Britain and Russia (1907)]</ref><ref>A suzerain is a nation which has certain authority over a dependency.</ref> both nations "engage not to enter into negotiations with Thibet except through the intermediary of the Chinese Government."<ref name=anglorussian1907/> In 191,0 the Qing government sent a military expedition of its own to establish direct Chinese rule and deposed the Dalai Lama in an imperial edict. The Dalai Lama once again fled, this time to India. "By going in and then coming out again, we knocked the Tibetans down and left them for the first comer to kick," wrote Charles Albert Bell, a British diplomatic officer stationed in [[Sikkim]] and a [[critic]] of the Liberal government's policy.
+The Dalai Lamas continued to partially rule in [[Tibet]] with, to some extent, autonomous power given by contemporary Chinese governments, until the People's Republic of China invaded the region in 1949 and then took full control in 1959. By the mid-1950s there was unrest in eastern Kham and Amdo, where land reform had been implemented. These rebellions eventually spread into western Kham and Ü-Tsang. In 1959 (at the time of the [[Great Leap Forward]] in China), the Chinese authorities treated the Dalai Lama, by now an adult, with open impiety. In some parts of the country Chinese Communists tried to establish rural communes, as was happening in the whole of China. These events triggered riots in Lhasa, and then a full-scale rebellion occurred.
-In early 1913, the Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa and issued a proclamation distributed throughout Tibet which condemned, "The Chinese intention of colonizing Tibet under the patron-priest relationship" and stated that, "We are a small, religious, and independent nation."<ref name="Dalai1913">[http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/tibet/tibet1.html "Proclamation Issued by His Holiness the Dalai Lama XIII (1913)"]</ref> Tibet and Mongolia are said to have signed a [[Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet|treaty]] in 1913 recognizing each other's independence; however there is no way to verify the existence of such document.<ref>There was not, at the time, nor has there been since, any official publication of the treaty's text by either party. Moreover, a Tibetan official pointed out years later that "[t]here [was] no need for a treaty, we would always help each other if we could." Bell, Charles, ''Tibet and Her Neighbours'', 1937, pp. 435-436; For the English text, please see Michael C. Van Praag, ''The Status of Tibet'', pp. 320-32.1 According to his British advisor Charles Bell, the 13th Dalai Lama denied the existence of such a treaty. The Tibetan leader told Bell that he has never ratified, or appointed any plenipotentiary to sign, any treaty with Mongolia. Bell, Charles, ''Tibet Past and Present'', 1924, p. 151</ref>
+[[Image:Tenzin Gyatzo foto 2.jpg|right|thumb|260px|The 14th and current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (born 1935).]]
-Tibet established at Foreign Office in 1942 and in 1946 it sent congratulatory missions to China and India (related to the end of World War II). The mission to China was given a letter addressed to Chinese President Chiang Kai-sek which states that, "We shall continue to maintain the independence of Tibet as a nation ruled by the successive Dalai Lamas through an authentic religious-political rule." The mission agreed to attend a Chinese constitutional assembly in Nanjing as observers.<ref name="Smith">Smith, Daniel, [http://www.canonymous.com/press/ecritique2/part2.html "Self-Determination in Tibet: The Politics of Remedies"].</ref>
-By the mid-1950s there was unrest in eastern Kham and Amdo, where land reform had been implemented in full. These rebellions eventually spread into western Kham and Ü-Tsang. In 1959 (at the time of the [[Great Leap Forward]] in China), the Chinese authorities treated the Dalai Lama, by now an adult, with open impiety. In some parts of the country Chinese Communists tried to establish rural communes, as was happening in the whole of China. These events triggered riots in Lhasa, and then a full-scale rebellion occurred.
-The resistance in Lhasa was soon crushed, and the Dalai Lama fled to India, although resistance continued in other parts of the country for several years. Although he remained a virtual prisoner, the Chinese set the [[Panchen Lama]] as a figurehead in Lhasa, claiming that he headed the legitimate Government of Tibet in the absence of the Dalai Lama, the traditional head of the Tibetan government. In 1965, the area that had been under the control of the Dalai Lama's government from the 1910s to 1959 (Ü-Tsang and western Kham) was renamed the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] or TAR. Autonomy provided that head of government would be an ethnic Tibetan; however, de facto power in the TAR is held by the general secretary of the Communist Party, who, as of [[as of 2006|2006]], has always been a [[Han Chinese]] from outside of Tibet. The role of ethnic Tibetans in the higher levels of the TAR Communist Party remains limited.
-In 1989. the Panchen Lama died. The Dalai Lama named [[Gedhun Choekyi Nyima]] as the 11th Panchen Lama but without confirmation from the Chinese government, while the PRC named another child, [[Gyancain Norbu]]. Gyancain Norbu was raised in Beijing and has appeared occasionally on state media. The whereabouts of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima and his family are unknown. It is widely believed that they are imprisoned, while Beijing contends that they are living under a secret identity for protection and privacy.[http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA170071996]
+The resistance in Lhasa was soon crushed, and the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India, although resistance continued in other parts of the country for several years. Although he remained a virtual prisoner, the Chinese set the [[Panchen Lama]] as a figurehead in Lhasa, claiming that he headed the legitimate Government of Tibet in the absence of the Dalai Lama, the traditional head of the Tibetan government. In 1965, the area that had been under the control of the Dalai Lama's government from the 1910s to 1959 (Ü-Tsang and western Kham) was renamed the Tibet Autonomous Region or TAR. Autonomy provided that the head of government would be an ethnic Tibetan; however, de facto power in the TAR was held by the general secretary of the Communist Party, who, as of 2006, has always been a Han Chinese from outside of Tibet. The role of ethnic Tibetans in the higher levels of the TAR Communist Party remains limited.
-The Dalai Lama is now seventy-one years old, and when he dies a new child Dalai Lama will, by tradition, have to be found. In 1997, the 14th Dalai Lama indicated that his [[reincarnation]] "will definitely not come under Chinese control; it will be outside, in the free world." [http://www.tibet.ca/wtnarchive/1997/6/3-2_1.html]
+In 1989, the tenth [[Panchen Lama]] died. The 14th Dalai Lama named Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th Panchen Lama but without confirmation from the Chinese government, while the PRC named another child, Gyancain Norbu. Gyancain Norbu was raised in Beijing and has appeared occasionally on state media. The whereabouts of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima and his family are unknown. It is widely believed that they are imprisoned, while Beijing contends that they are living under a secret identity for protection and privacy.[http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA170071996]
 ==List of Dalai Lamas==
@@ Line 112: / Line 78: @@
 | 9. || Lungtok Gyatso || 1806–1815 || (1808–1815)<ref name="posthumous" /> || ལུང་རྟོགས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་<br/>''lung rtogs rgya mtsho'' || Lungdog Gyaco || Lungtog Gyatso
 |-----
-| 1.0 || Tsultrim Gyatso || 1816–1837 ||  || ཚུལ་ཁྲིམ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་<br/>''tshul khrim rgya mtsho'' || Cüchim Gyaco || Tshültrim Gyatso
+| 10. || Tsultrim Gyatso || 1816–1837 ||  || ཚུལ་ཁྲིམ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་<br/>''tshul khrim rgya mtsho'' || Cüchim Gyaco || Tshültrim Gyatso
 |-----
-| 1.1 || Khendrup Gyatso || 1838–1856 || 1844–1856 || མཁས་གྲུབ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་<br/>''mkhas grub rgya mtsho'' || Kaichub Gyaco || Kedrub Gyatso
+| 11. || Khendrup Gyatso || 1838–1856 || 1844–1856 || མཁས་གྲུབ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་<br/>''mkhas grub rgya mtsho'' || Kaichub Gyaco || Kedrub Gyatso
 |-----
-| 1.2 || Trinley Gyatso || 1857–1875 ||  || འཕྲིན་ལས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་<br/>''‘phrin las rgya mtsho'' || Chinlai Gyaco || Trinle Gyatso
+| 12. || Trinley Gyatso || 1857–1875 ||  || འཕྲིན་ལས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་<br/>''‘phrin las rgya mtsho'' || Chinlai Gyaco || Trinle Gyatso
 |-----
 | 13. || Thubten Gyatso || 1876–1933 || || ཐུབ་བསྟན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་<br/>''thub bstan rgya mtsho'' || Tubdain Gyaco || Thubtan Gyatso, Thupten Gyatso
@@ Line 124: / Line 90: @@
 ==Epithets==
-The title "Dalai Lama" is usually translated as meaning "Ocean of Wisdom."  In addition to this title, the Dalai Lama is also called Gyalwa Rinpoche (Rgyal-ba Rin-po-che) meaning "Precious Victor," and Yishin Norbu (Yid-bzhin Nor-bu) meaning "Wish-fulfilling Jewel"  the Tibetan language.  In English, the words "His Holiness" (HH) are often placed before his title.
+The title "Dalai Lama" is usually translated as meaning "Ocean of Wisdom."  In addition to this title, the Dalai Lama is also called Gyalwa Rinpoche (Rgyal-ba Rin-po-che) meaning "Precious Victor," and Yishin Norbu (Yid-bzhin Nor-bu) meaning "Wish-fulfilling Jewel." In English, the words "His Holiness" (H.H.) are often placed before his title.
 ==Residence==
 [[Image:Potala from W.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Potala Palace]].]]
-Starting with the 5th Dalai Lama and until the 14th Dalai Lama's flight into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lamas resided during winter at the Potala Palace, and in the summer at the Norbulingka palace and park. Both residences are located in Lhasa, [[Tibet]], approximately 3 km apart. In 1959, subsequent to the then ongoing Chinese occupation of Tibet, the 14th Dalai Lama sought refuge within [[India]]. The then Indian Prime Minister, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], was instrumental in granting safe refuge to the Dalai Lama and his fellow Tibetans. The Dalai Lama has since been in refuge in Dharamsala, in the state of Himachal Pradesh in northern India, where the Central Tibetan Administration (The Tibetan Government in Exile) is also established. Tibetan refugees have constructed and opened many schools and Buddhist temples in Dharamsala.<ref>[http://www.tibet.com/dasaguide.html A Guide to Little Lhasa in India]</ref><ref>[http://www.buddhist-temples.com/dharamsala.html Buddhist Temples Dharamsala]</ref>
+Starting with the 5th Dalai Lama and until the 14th Dalai Lama's flight into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lamas resided during winter at the [[Potala Palace]], and in the summer at the Norbulingka palace. Both residences are located in Lhasa, [[Tibet]], approximately three km apart. In 1959, subsequent to the then ongoing Chinese occupation of Tibet, the 14th Dalai Lama sought refuge within [[India]]. The then Indian Prime Minister, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], was instrumental in granting safe refuge to the Dalai Lama and his fellow Tibetans. The Dalai Lama has since been living in exile in Dharamsala, where the Central Tibetan Administration (Government in Exile) is also established. Tibetan refugees have constructed and opened many schools and Buddhist temples in Dharamsala.<ref>[http://www.tibet.com/dasaguide.html A Guide to Little Lhasa in India]</ref><ref>[http://www.buddhist-temples.com/dharamsala.html Buddhist Temples Dharamsala]</ref>
-==Succession==
-The title "Dalai Lama" is presently granted to each of the spiritual leader's successive incarnations (for example, The 14th Dalai Lama's next incarnation will hold the title "the 15th Dalai Lama").
+==The future of the Dalai Lama==
+[[Image:Throne awaiting Dalai Lama's return. Summer residence Nechung. 1993.JPG|thumb|230px|Throne awaiting Dalai Lama's return. Summer residence of 13th Dalai Lama, Nechung, Tibet.]]
 Upon the death of the Dalai Lama, his monks institute a search for the Lama's [[reincarnation]], or ''yangsi'' ''(yang srid)'', a small child. Familiarity with the possessions of the previous Dalai Lama is considered the main sign of the reincarnation.  The search for the reincarnation typically requires a few years. The reincarnation is then brought to Lhasa to be trained by the other Lamas.
-==The future of the Dalai Lama==
+Despite its officially secular stance, the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) has claimed the power to approve the naming of high reincarnations in Tibet.  This decision cites a precedent set by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing Dynasty, who instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the [[Panchen Lama]] by means of a lottery that utilised a golden urn with names wrapped in barley balls.  Controversially, this precedent was called upon by the PRC to name their own Panchen Lama. The Dalai Lama and the majority of Tibetan Buddhists in exile do not regard this to be the legitimate Panchen Lama. The Dalai Lama has recognized a different child, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, as the reincarnated Panchen Lama. This child and his family have been taken into 'protective custody' according to the PRC, and all attempts to garner guarantees of the family's safety have been denied by the PRC. There is some speculation that with the death of the current Dalai Lama, the People's Republic of China will attempt to direct the selection of a successor, using the authority of their chosen Panchen Lama.
-[[Image:Throne awaiting Dalai Lama's return. Summer residence Nechung. 1993.JPG|thumb|230px|Throne awaiting Dalai Lama's return. Summer residence of 13th Dalai Lama, Nechung, Tibet.]]
-Despite its officially secular stance, the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) has claimed the power to approve the naming of high reincarnations in Tibet.  This decision cites a precedent set by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing Dynasty, who instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the [[Panchen Lama]] by means of a lottery that utilised a golden urn with names wrapped in barley balls.  Controversially, this precedent was called upon by the PRC to name their own Panchen Lama. The Dalai Lama and the majority of Tibetan Buddhists in exile do not regard this to be the legitimate Panchen Lama. The Dalai Lama has recognized a different child, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, as the reincarnated Panchen Lama. This child and his family have been taken into 'protective custody' according to the PRC, and all attempts by members of the EU parliament and US government to garner guarantees of the family's safety have been denied by the PRC. There is some speculation that with the death of the current Dalai Lama, the People's Republic of China will attempt to direct the selection of a successor, using the authority of their chosen Panchen Lama.
-The current Dalai Lama has repeatedly stated that he will never be reborn inside territory controlled by the People's Republic of China<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Dalai's reincarnation will not be found under Chinese control |url= http://www.tibet.com/DL/next-reincarnation.html |work=The Indian Express |publisher=Tibetan Government in Exile |date=1999-07-06 |accessdate=2007-01-27}}</ref>, and has occasionally suggested that he might choose to be the last Dalai Lama by not being reborn at all. However, he has also stated that the purpose of his repeated incarnations is to continue unfinished work and, as such, if the situation in Tibet remains unchanged, it is very likely that he will be reborn to finish his work.<ref>[http://dalailama.com/page.54.htm Questions & Answers], The Website of The Office of His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama.</ref>
+The current Dalai Lama has repeatedly stated that he will never be reborn inside territory controlled by the People's Republic of China,<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Dalai's reincarnation will not be found under Chinese control |url= http://www.tibet.com/DL/next-reincarnation.html |work=The Indian Express |publisher=Tibetan Government in Exile |date=1999-07-06 |accessdate=2007-01-27}}</ref> and has occasionally suggested that he might choose to be the last Dalai Lama by not being reborn at all. However, he has also stated that the purpose of his repeated incarnations is to continue unfinished work and, as such, if the situation in Tibet remains unchanged, it is very likely that he will be reborn to finish his work.<ref>[http://dalailama.com/page.54.htm Questions & Answers], The Website of The Office of His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama.</ref>
 ==Notes==
@@ Line 145: / Line 108: @@
 == References ==
-*Beckwith, Christopher I (1983). “The Revolt of 755 in Tibet” ''Contributions on Tibetan Language, History, and Culture.'' Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher eds. Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde; Heft 1.0  Wien: Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien, Universität Wien, pp. 1-16. reprinted in: ''The History of Tibet''. ed. Alex Mckay. London: Routledge Curzon, 2003: 273-285.
 *Beckwith, Christopher I (1987). ''The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3
-*{{cite book | first=Isabel | last=Hilton | title=The Search for the Panchen Lama | publisher=W. W. Norton and Company | location=New York and London | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-393-04969-8}}
-* Carrington, Michael. "Officers Gentlemen and Thieves: The Looting of Monasteries during the 1903/4 Younghusband Mission to Tibet," ''Modern Asian Studies'' 37, 1 (2003), PP 81-109.
-* Cutler, H. "THE DALAI LAMA: THE MINDFUL MONK This humble man is bridging the gap between Eastern wisdom and Western psychology," ''Psychology Today,'' 34, part 3, 34-39, 2009 ISSN 0033-3107
 * Goldstein, Melvyn C. ''The Snow Lion and the Dragon China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama''. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999 ISBN 9780585087030
 * Goldstein, Melvyn C., with the help of Gelek Rimpche. ''A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State'', Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers (1993).  ISBN 81-215-0582-8; University of California edition (1991). ISBN 0-520-07590-0
@@ Line 155: / Line 114: @@
 * Marcello, Patricia Cronin. ''The Dalai Lama: A Biography''. Greenwood biographies. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003 ISBN 9780313322075
 * Mullin, Glenn H. (translator). ''Essence of Refined Gold by the Third Dalai Lama: with related texts by the Second and Seventh Dalai Lamas''. (1978)  Tushita Books, Dharamsala, H.P., India.
-*Norbu, Thubten Jigme and Turnbull, Colin. ''Tibet: Its History, Religion and People.'' Reprint: Penguin Books, 1987.
+* Perez, Louis G. ''The Dalai Lama''. Rourke Biographies. Vero Beach, Fla: Rourke Publications, 1993. ISBN 9780866254809
-*Petech, Luciano (1988). "The Succession to the Tibetan Throne in  704-5." ''Orientalia Iosephi Tucci Memoriae Dicata'', Serie Orientale Roma 41.3. pp. 1080-1087.
+*Piburn, Sidney. ''The Dalai Lama, a Policy of Kindness: An Anthology of Writings by and About the Dalai Lama''. Ithaca, N.Y., USA: Snow Lion Publications, 1990. ISBN 9780937938911
-*Richardson, Hugh E. (1965). "How Old was Srong Brtsan Sgampo" ''Bulletin of Tibetology'' 2..1 pp. 5-8.
-* Perez, Louis G. ''The Dalai Lama''. Rourke biographies. Vero Beach, Fla: Rourke Publications, 1993 ISBN 9780866254809
-*Piburn, Sidney. ''The Dalai Lama, a Policy of Kindness: An Anthology of Writings by and About the Dalai Lama''. Ithaca, N.Y., USA: Snow Lion Publications, 1990 ISBN 9780937938911
-*Richardson, Hugh E. (1988) "The Succession to Lang Darma." ''Orientalia Iosephi Tucci Memoriae Dicata'', Serie Orientale Roma 41.3. pp. 1221-1229
 *Shakya, Tsering,''The Dragon in the Land of Snows : A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947'' Penguin, (2000)  paperback, 608 pages, ISBN 0-14-019615-3
-* Stein, R. A. 196.2 ''Tibetan Civilization''. First published in French. English translation by J. E. Stapelton Driver. Reprint: Stanford University Press (with minor revisions from 1977 Faber & Faber edition), 1995. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (hbk); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 (sbk).
 *{{cite book | last=Wang Jiawei | coauthors=Nyima Gyaincain | title=The Historical Status of China's Tibet | publisher=China Intercontinental Press | year=1997 | id=ISBN 7-80113-304-8}}
-*Wylie, Turnell V. (1977) "The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted" ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'' 37.1: 103-133.
-*Yeshe De Project. 1986. ''ANCIENT TIBET: Research Materials from The Yeshe De Project''. Dharma Publishing. Berkeley. ISBN 0-89800-146-3
-*Zuiho Yamaguchi (1996) “The Fiction of King Dar-ma’s persecution of Buddhism” ''De Dunhuang au Japon: Etudes chinoises et bouddhiques offertes à Michel Soymié''.  Genève : Librarie Droz S.A.
 ==External links==