Difference between revisions of "Cotton" - New World Encyclopedia

Revision as of 19:56, 14 October 2006

Gossypium

Ripening commercial cotton bolls in the field

Scientific classification

Kingdom:	Plantae
Division:	Magnoliophyta
Class:	Magnoliopsida
Order:	Malvales
Family:	Malvaceae
Genus:	Gossypium L.

Species

See text

Cotton ready for harvest. Photo courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Cotton plants are members of the genus Gossypium of flowering plants.

Cotton plants

Cotton plants are members of Malvaceae, the marsh mallow family. There are about 40 species of of wild cotton plants. They are found in both the Old and New Worlds, mainly in the tropics and subtropics. Of these four have been cultivated:

Gossypium arboreum – Tree cotton, native to southern Asia.
Gossypium barbadens – Creole cotton or Sea island cotton, native to tropical South America.
Gossypium herbaceum – Levant cotton, native to southern Africa
Gossypium hirsutum – American upland cotton, native to Central America, the Caribbean and southern Florida; by far the most important cultivated species today.

Most cotton plants are shrubs. Most species require a warm climate and fertile soil to grow; they are killed by frost.

Cotton fiber

The fruit of the cotton plant is called a "cotton boll". In it are the seeds which are surrounded by cellulose fibers. When the boll ripens it splits open and the fibers are exposed. The fiber's cellulose is arranged in a way that gives them a high degree of strength, durability, and absorbency. Each fiber is made up of twenty to thirty layers of cellulose coiled in a neat series of natural springs. When the boll is opened the fibers dry into flat, twisted, ribbon-like shapes and become kinked together and interlocked. This interlocked form is ideal for spinning into a fine yarn or thread.

Uses

File:Cotton towels.jpg

Cotton bath towels

Cotton is used to make a number of textile products. These include terrycloth, used to make highly absorbent bath towels and robes, denim, used to make blue jeans, chambray, popularly used in the manufacture of blue work shirts (from which we get the term "blue-collar"), along with corduroy, seersucker, and cotton twill. Socks, underwear, and most T-shirts are made from cotton. Bed sheets are also often made from cotton. Cotton is also used to make yarn used in crochet and knitting. While many fabrics are made completely of cotton, some materials blend cotton with synthetic fibers such as polyester or rayon.

In addition to the textile industry, cotton is used in fishnets, coffee filters, tents and in bookbinding. The first Chinese paper was made of cotton fibre, as is the modern US dollar bill and federal stationery.

The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce cottonseed oil, which after refining can be consumed by humans like any other vegetable oil. The cottonseed meal that is left is generally fed to livestock.

Cultivation and History

Picking cotton in south-eastern United States, early Twentieth Century

The cultivation of cotton began in several places independently. Gossypium barbadense was cultivated in South America about 5000 years ago, G. hirsutum in Mexico about the same time, G. arboreum in western Asia about 4000 years ago, and later G. herbaceum in Ethiopia or southern Arabia (Ikziko 2006).

After harvesting cotton fibers were separated from the seeds and spun into thread, most often on a spinning wheel. The threads then could be woven into cloth. A fragment of cotton cloth was found in the ancient Indian city of Mohenjo-daro, dating around 4000 years ago (Wolpert 1991 p27). Since the bolls had to be harvested and the fibers separated from the seeds by hand cotton cloth was very expensive in ancient and medieval times. It was valued for its durability and because it is more comfortable to wear in hot weather.

Cotton cultivation was widespread in both South and North America and in the Caribbean. The Aztec emperor was given bolts of cotton cloth as tribute from his provinces (Ikziko 2006). After 1492 South American cotton was introduced to Egypt, where it became known as "Egyptian cotton" and was possibly hybridized with African cotton, and also to the coast lands and coastal islands of southeastern North America, where it was called "sea island cotton". Mexican cotton was also grown in the American Southeast, where it was known as "upland cotton" since it was grown inland away from the coast. By the end of the 1600s, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in Africa, Eurasia and the Americas.

Cotton remained a fairly minor crop until the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 by American Eli Whitney. The cotton gin was a simple machine which removed the cotton fiber from the seeds so that part of the work no longer had to be done by hand. This led to a great reduction in the amount of labor and therefore the cost of producing cotton. About the same time new machines were being developed, especially in England, which likewise reduced the cost of spinning the fiber into thread and weaving it into cloth. This led to a tremendous increase in the amount of land used for cotton cultivation in the American South (Cooper 1991 pp 189-192). In 1850 cotton accounted for just over half the value of all goods exported from the United States (Dodd 1920). From 1850 to 1860 the value of the American cotton crop doubled and was ten times the value of the tobacco crop, which had been the main cash crop of the South in the century before (Dodd 1920 pp.10,25,27). Since most of the cotton was grown and harvested by slave labor, slavery expanded and became a much more important factor in American society. In 1784, when the first bale of American cotton was shipped to England, there were half a million slaves in the United States. In 1861, the start of the American Civil War, there were almost four million (Hobhouse 1985 p177).

Boll Weevil, Anthonomus grandis

The war, which was caused mainly by the conflict between northern and southern states over the issue of slavery, disrupted cotton cultivation and cut off its export to the mills in the northern states, France and England. During the war British and French traders invested heavily in Egyptian cotton plantations and the Egyptian government of Viceroy Isma'il took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the war ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton in favour of cheap exports from the United States, sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring bankruptcy in 1876. Other problems arose for American cotton growers, including the depeletion of the soil and the invasion of the boll weevil, a beetle which preys on the cotton bolls, which entered the United States from Mexico in 1892.

During this time cotton cultivation in English colonies, especially India, greatly increased to replace the lost production of the American South which had been the main supplier to the English mills. Through tariffs and other restrictions the English government discouraged the production of cotton cloth in India; rather the raw fiber was sent to England for processing. The Indian patriot Gandhi described the process:

1. You English buy Indian cotton in the field, picked by Indian labor at seven cents a day, through an optional monopoly.

2. This cotton is shipped on British bottoms, a three weeks journey across the Indian Ocean, down the Red Sea, across the Mediterranean, through Gibraltar, across the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean to London. One hundred per cent profit on this freight is regarded as small.

3. The cotton is turned into cloth in Lancashire. You pay shilling wages instead of Indian pennies to your workers. The English worker not only has the advantage of better wages, but the steel companies of England get the profit of building the factories and machines. Wages; profits; all these are spent in England.

4. The finished product is sent back to India at European shipping rates, once again on British ships. The captains, officers, sailors of these ships, whose wages must be paid, are English. The only Indians who profit are a few lascars who do the dirty work on the boats for a few cents a day.

5 The cloth is finally sold back to the kings and landlords of India who got the money to buy this expensive cloth out of the poor peasants of India who worked at seven cents a day. (Fisher 1932 pp 154-156)

Present status

Gossypium hirsutum: Cotton blossom with bumblebee pollinator, Hemingway, South Carolina

Today cotton is produced in many parts of the world. In 2006 the largest growers were in order of production: China, India, the United States, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Brazil, and Turkey (USDA 2006).

The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals such as fertilizers and insecticides, although a very small number of farmers are moving towards an organic model of production and organic cotton products are now available for purchase at limited locations. Historically, in North America, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the boll weevil. Due to the US Department of Agriculture's highly successful Boll Weevil Eradication Program (BWEP), this pest has been eliminated from cotton in most of the United States. This program, along with the introduction of genetically engineered cotton containing a gene that codes for a plant-produced protein that is toxic to a number of pests such as tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm and pink bollworm, has allowed a reduction in the use of synthetic insecticides.

File:Cotton harvest.jpg

Offloading freshly harvested cotton into a module builder in Texas. Previously built modules may be seen in the background.

Most cotton in the United States, Europe and Australia is harvested mechanically, either by a cotton picker, a machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a cotton stripper which strips the entire boll off the plant. Cotton strippers are generally used in regions where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton and generally used after application of a defoliant or natural defoliation occurring after a freeze. Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow.

The logistics of cotton harvesting and processing have been improved by the development of the cotton module builder, a machine that compresses harvested cotton into a large block, which is then covered with a tarp and temporarily stored at the edge of the field.

Genetically modified cotton

Genetically modified (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. GM cotton is widely used throughout the world with claims of requiring up to 80 percent less pesticide than ordinary cotton. The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA) said that worldwide GM cotton was planted on an area of 67,000 km² in 2002. This is 20% of the worldwide total area planted in cotton. The US cotton crop was 73 percent GM in 2003.

Organic cotton

Organic cotton is cotton grown without pesticides or chemical additives to fertilizer, relying instead on methods with less ecological impact. Organic cotton is used to manufacture everything from handkerchiefs to kimono robes. Different levels of certification exist, but at a minimum, a crop must be grown in soil that has been chemical-free for at least three years.

Fair trade

Cotton is an enormously important commodity throughout the world. However, many farmers in developing countries receive a low price for their produce, or find it difficult to compete with developed countries. This has led to 'fair trade' cotton clothing or footwear being available in some countries. The fair trade system was initiated in 2005 with producers from Cameroon, Mali and Senegal.[1]

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Cooper, J.C. & Terrill, T.E., 1990, The American South, New York : Alfred A. Knopf ISBN 0394589483
Dodd, W.E., 1920, The Cotton Kingdom: A Chronicle of the Old South New Haven, Connecticut : Yale University Press
Duke, J., 1983, "Gossypium hirsutum L." Purdue University[2]
Fisher, F.B., 1932 That Strange Little Brown Man Gandhi, New York : Ray Long & Richard Smith, Inc.,
Hobhouse, H., 1985, Seeds of Change, New York : Harper & Row ISBN 0060156317
Iziko, 2006, "Gossypium (Cotton)"[3]
National Cotton Council of America (NCC), 2006[4]
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 2006, "Cotton"[5]
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2006, Cotton World Markets and Trade [6]
Wolpert, S., 1991, India, Berkeley & Los Angeles, California : University of California Press ISBN 0520072170

Credits

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Cotton ^history
Gossypium ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

History of "Cotton"

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@@ Line 29: / Line 29: @@
 ==Cotton fiber==
-The fruit of the cotton plant is called a "cotton boll".  In it are the seeds which are surrounded by cellulose fibers.  When the boll ripens it splits open and the fibers are exposed.  The fiber's cellulose is arranged in a way that gives them a high degree of strength, durability, and absorbency. Each fiber is made up of twenty to thirty layers of cellulose coiled in a neat series of natural springs. When the cotton boll (seed case) is opened the fibers dry into flat, twisted, ribbon-like shapes and become kinked together and interlocked. This interlocked form is ideal for spinning into a fine yarn or thread.
+The fruit of the cotton plant is called a "cotton boll".  In it are the seeds which are surrounded by cellulose fibers.  When the boll ripens it splits open and the fibers are exposed.  The fiber's cellulose is arranged in a way that gives them a high degree of strength, durability, and absorbency. Each fiber is made up of twenty to thirty layers of cellulose coiled in a neat series of natural springs. When the  boll is opened the fibers dry into flat, twisted, ribbon-like shapes and become kinked together and interlocked. This interlocked form is ideal for spinning into a fine yarn or thread.
+==Uses==
+[[Image:Cotton towels.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Cotton bath towels]]
+Cotton is used to make a number of textile products.  These include terrycloth, used to make highly absorbent bath towels and robes, denim, used to make blue jeans, chambray, popularly used in the manufacture of blue work shirts (from which we get the term "blue-collar"), along with corduroy, seersucker, and cotton twill.  Socks, underwear, and most T-shirts are made from cotton.  Bed sheets are also often made from cotton.  Cotton is also used to make yarn used in crochet and knitting.  While many fabrics are made completely of cotton, some materials blend cotton with synthetic fibers such as polyester or rayon.
+In addition to the textile industry, cotton is used in fishnets, coffee filters, tents and in bookbinding. The first Chinese paper was made of cotton fibre, as is the modern US dollar bill and federal stationery.
+The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce cottonseed oil, which after refining can be consumed by humans like any other vegetable oil.  The cottonseed meal that is left is generally fed to livestock.
 ==Cultivation and History==
 [[Image:CottonNegrosSouth.jpg|thumb|Picking cotton in south-eastern United States, early Twentieth Century]]
-[[Image:Boll weevil.jpg|thumb|Boll Weevil, ''Anthonomus grandis'']]
 The cultivation of cotton began in several places independently. ''Gossypium barbadense'' was cultivated in South America about 5000 years ago, ''G. hirsutum'' in [[Mexico]] about the same time, ''G. arboreum'' in western Asia about 4000 years ago, and later ''G. herbaceum'' in [[Ethiopia]] or southern [[Arabia]] (Ikziko 2006).
 After harvesting cotton fibers were separated from the seeds and spun into thread, most often on a spinning wheel.  The threads then could be woven into cloth. A fragment of cotton cloth was found in the ancient Indian city of Mohenjo-daro, dating around 4000 years ago (Wolpert 1991 p27).  Since the bolls had to be harvested and the fibers separated from the seeds by hand cotton cloth was very expensive in ancient and medieval times.  It was valued for its durability and because it is more comfortable to wear in hot weather.
-Cotton cultivation was widespread in both South and North America and in the Caribbean.  The Aztec emperor was given bolts of cotton cloth as tribute from his provinces (Ikziko 2006).  After 1492 South American cotton was introduced to Egypt, where it became known as "Egyptian cotton" and was possibly hybridized with African cotton, and also to the coast lands and coastal islands of southeastern North America, where it was called "sea island cotton".  Mexican cotton was also grown in the American Southeast, where it was known as "upland cotton" since it was grown inland away from the coast.
+Cotton cultivation was widespread in both South and North America and in the Caribbean.  The Aztec emperor was given bolts of cotton cloth as tribute from his provinces (Ikziko 2006).  After 1492 South American cotton was introduced to Egypt, where it became known as "Egyptian cotton" and was possibly hybridized with African cotton, and also to the coast lands and coastal islands of southeastern North America, where it was called "sea island cotton".  Mexican cotton was also grown in the American Southeast, where it was known as "upland cotton" since it was grown inland away from the coast. By the end of the 1600s, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in Africa, Eurasia and the Americas.
 Cotton remained a fairly minor crop until the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 by American Eli Whitney.  The cotton gin was a simple machine which removed the cotton fiber from the seeds so that part of the work no longer had to be done by hand. This led to a great reduction in the amount of labor and therefore the cost of producing cotton.  About the same time new machines were being developed, especially in England, which likewise reduced the cost of spinning the fiber into thread and weaving it into cloth.  This led to a tremendous increase in the amount of land used for cotton cultivation in the American South (Cooper 1991 pp 189-192).  In 1850 cotton accounted for just over half the value of all goods exported from the United States (Dodd 1920). From 1850 to 1860 the value of the American cotton crop doubled and was ten times the value of the [[tobacco]] crop, which had been the main cash crop of the South in the century before (Dodd 1920 pp.10,25,27).  Since most of the cotton was grown and harvested by slave labor, [[slavery]] expanded and became a much more important factor in American society.  In 1784, when the first bale of American cotton was shipped to England, there were half a million slaves in the United States.  In 1861, the start of the [[American Civil War]], there were almost four million (Hobhouse 1985 p177).
+[[Image:Boll weevil.jpg|thumb|Boll Weevil, ''Anthonomus grandis'']]
+The war, which was caused mainly by the conflict between northern and southern states over the issue of slavery, disrupted cotton cultivation and cut off its export to the mills in the northern states, France and England.  During the war British and French traders invested heavily in Egyptian cotton plantations and the Egyptian government of Viceroy Isma'il took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the war ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton in favour of cheap exports from the United States, sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring bankruptcy in 1876.  Other problems arose for American cotton growers, including the depeletion of the soil and the invasion of the boll weevil, a beetle which preys on the cotton bolls, which entered the United States from Mexico in 1892.
-The war, which was caused mainly by the conflict between northern and southern states over the issue of slavery, disrupted cotton cultivation and cut off its export to the mills in the northern states and in England.  After the war ended in 1865 other problems arose for American cotton growers, including the depeletion of the soil and the invasion of the boll weevil, a beetle which preys on the cotton bolls.
+During this time cotton cultivation in English colonies, especially India, greatly increased to replace the lost production of the American South which had been the main supplier to the English mills.  Through tariffs and other restrictions the English government discouraged the production of cotton cloth in India; rather the raw fiber was sent to England for processing.  The Indian patriot [[Gandhi, Mohandas K.|Gandhi]] described the process:
-During this time cotton cultivation in English colonies, especially India, greatly increased to replace the lost production of the American South which had been the main supplier to the English mills.  Through tariffs and other restrictions the English government discouraged the production of cotton cloth in India; rather the raw fiber was sent to England for processing.  The Indian patriot [[Gandhi]] described the process:
 :1. You English buy Indian cotton in the field, picked by Indian labor at seven cents a day, through an optional monopoly.
@@ Line 53: / Line 61: @@
 ==Present status==
+[[Image:Cotton_pollination_5892.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Gossypium hirsutum: Cotton blossom with bumblebee pollinator, Hemingway, South Carolina]]
-==Cultivation==
+Today cotton is produced in many parts of the world. In 2006 the largest growers were in order of production:  China, India, the United States, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Brazil, and Turkey (USDA 2006).
-Successful cultivation of cotton requires a long growing season, plenty of sunshine and water during the period of growth, and dry weather for harvest. In general, these conditions are met within tropical and warm subtropical latitudes in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Production of the crop for a given year usually starts soon after harvesting the preceding autumn. Planting time in spring varies from the beginning of February to the beginning of June.
-==Cotton plant==
+The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals such as fertilizers and insecticides, although a very small number of farmers are moving towards an organic model of production and organic cotton products are now available for purchase at limited locations. Historically, in North America, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the boll weevil. Due to the US Department of Agriculture's highly successful Boll Weevil Eradication Program (BWEP), this pest has been eliminated from cotton in most of the United States. This program, along with the introduction of genetically engineered cotton containing a gene that codes for a plant-produced protein that is toxic to a number of pests such as tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm and pink bollworm, has allowed a reduction in the use of synthetic insecticides.
+[[Image:Cotton harvest.jpg|thumb|280px|Offloading freshly harvested cotton into a module builder in Texas.  Previously built modules may be seen in the background.]]
-'''''Gossypium''''' is a [[genus]] of 39-40 species of [[shrub]]s in the family [[Malvaceae]], native to the tropical and subtropical regions of both the [[Old World]] and the [[New World]]. The '''cotton''' plants, sources of commercial cotton fabric, are included in this genus.
+Most cotton in the United States, Europe and Australia is harvested mechanically, either by a cotton picker, a machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a cotton stripper which strips the entire boll off the plant.  Cotton strippers are generally used in regions where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton and generally used after application of a defoliant or natural defoliation occurring after a freeze.  Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow.
-Cotton shrubs can grow up to 3 m (10 ft) high. The leaves are broad and lobed, with three to five (or rarely seven) lobes. The seeds are contained in a [[fruit|capsule]] called a '''boll''', each seed surrounded by downy fibers called '''lint'''. Commercial species of cotton plant are ''G. hirsutum'' ([[United States|U.S.]] and [[Australia]]), ''G. arboreum'' and ''G. herbaceum'' (Asia), and ''G. barbadense'' ([[Egypt]]). While the lint naturally occurs in colors of white, brown, and green, fears of contaminating the genetics of white cotton has led many cotton-growing locations to ban growing of colored cotton varieties.
-===Species of ''Gossypium''===
-;Commercial cotton species
-Commercial cotton fibers, used to manufacture [[cloth]], are derived from the fruit of the cotton plant. The following species are grown commercially:
-;Non-commercial species
-* ''[[Gossypium sturtianum]]'' [[Jim Willis|J.H. Willis]] – Sturt's Desert Rose, native to [[Australia]].
-* ''[[Gossypium thurberi]]'' Tod. – Arizona wild cotton, native to [[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]] and northern [[Mexico]].
-* ''[[Gossypium tomentosum]]'' [[Thomas Nuttall|Nutt.]] ex Seem – ''Ma‘o'' or Hawaiian cotton, is a species endemic to the [[Hawaiian Islands]]. The seed hairs (lint) are short and reddish brown,  unsuitable for spinning or twisting into thread.
-[[Image:Prokudin-Gorskii-47.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cotton field in Sukhum Botanical Garden, photo ''ca.'' 1912]]
-<br clear=all />
-===Cotton pests and diseases===
-====Pests====
-*[[Boll weevil]], ''Anthonomus grandis''
-*[[Cotton aphid]], ''Aphis gossypii''
-*[[Cotton bollworm]], ''Helicoverpa armigera'', and [[native budworm]] ''Helicoverpa punctigera'' are caterpillars that damage cotton crops.
-:*Some other [[Lepidoptera]] [[larva]]e also feed on cotton - see [[list of Lepidoptera which feed on Cotton plants]].
-*[[Green mirid]] (''Creontiades dilutus''), a sucking insect
-*[[Spider mite]]s, ''Tetranychus urticae'', ''T. ludeni'' and ''T. lambi''
-*[[Thrips]], ''Thrips tabaci'' and ''Frankliniella schultzei''
-====Diseases====
+The logistics of cotton harvesting and processing have been improved by the development of the cotton module builder, a machine that compresses harvested cotton into a large block, which is then covered with a tarp and temporarily stored at the edge of the field.
-*[[Alternaria leaf spot]], caused by ''Alternaria macrospora'' and ''Alternaria alternata''
-*[[Anthracnose boll rot]],  caused by ''Colletotrichum gossypii''
-*[[Black root rot]], caused by the fungus ''Thielaviopsis basicola''
-*Blight cuased by ''Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum''
-*[[Fusarium boll rot]] caused by ''Fusarium'' spp.
-*[[Phytophthora boll rot]], caused by ''Phytophthora nicotianae'' var ''parasitica''
-*[[Sclerotinia boll rot]], caused by fungus ''Sclerotinia sclerotiorum''
 ===Genetically modified cotton===
-GM cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. GM cotton is widely used throughout the world with claims of requiring up to 80% less [[pesticide]] than ordinary cotton. The [[International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications]] (ISAAA) said that worldwide GM cotton was planted on an area of 67,000 km² in 2002. This is 20% of the worldwide total area planted in cotton. The US cotton crop was 73% GM in 2003.
+Genetically modified (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. GM cotton is widely used throughout the world with claims of requiring up to 80 percent less pesticide than ordinary cotton. The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA) said that worldwide GM cotton was planted on an area of 67,000 km² in 2002. This is 20% of the worldwide total area planted in cotton. The US cotton crop was 73 percent GM in 2003.
-The initial introduction of GM cotton proved to be a commercial disaster in [[Australia]] - the yields were far lower than predicted, and the cotton plants were cross-pollinated with other varieties of cotton. However the introduction of a second variety of GM cotton led to 15% of Australian cotton being GM in 2003 with 80% of the crop being GM in 2004 when the original variety was banned.
 ===Organic cotton===
 Organic cotton is cotton grown without pesticides or chemical additives to fertilizer, relying instead on [http://www.sustainablecotton.org/BASIC/index.html methods with less ecological impact]. Organic cotton is used to manufacture everything from handkerchiefs to kimono robes. Different levels of [http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/indexIE.htm certification] exist, but at a minimum, a crop must be grown in soil that has been chemical-free for at least three years.
-==History==
+===Fair trade===
-[[Image:Mandeville cotton.jpg|thumb|Cotton plant as imagined and drawn by [[John Mandeville]] in the [[14th century]]]]
+Cotton is an enormously important commodity throughout the world. However, many farmers in developing countries receive a low price for their produce, or find it difficult to compete with developed countries. This has led to 'fair trade' cotton clothing or footwear being available in some countries. The fair trade system was initiated in 2005 with producers from [[Cameroon]], [[Mali]] and [[Senegal]].[http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/cotton/market.htm#fair]
-Cotton has been used to make very fine lightweight [[cloth]] in areas with tropical climates for millennia. Some authorities claim that it was likely that the [[Egypt]]ians had cotton as early as 12,000 B.C.E., and evidence has been found of cotton in [[Mexico|Mexican]] caves (cotton cloth and fragments of bloody fibre interwoven with [[feather]]s and [[fur]]) which dated back to approximately 7,000 years ago. There is clear archaeological evidence that people in South America and India domesticated different species of cotton independently thousands of years ago.
-The earliest reference to cotton is in [[History of India|India]]. Cotton has been grown in India/[[Pakistan]] for more than 6,000 years since the [[Indus Valley civilization#Predecessors|pre-Harappan period]], and it is later referred to in the [[Rig-Veda]], composed in [[3000 B.C.E.]]. Two thousand years later, the famous [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]] wrote about Indian cotton: "There are trees which grow wild there, the fruit of which is a [[wool]] exceeding in beauty and goodness that of [[sheep]]. The Indians make their clothes of this tree wool". (Book iii. 106)
-In [[Peru]], cotton was the backbone of the development of coastal cultures such as the [[Moche]] and [[Nazca]]. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets and traded with fishing villages along the coast for large supplies of fish.  The Spanish who came to Mexico in the early 1500s found the peoples there wearing cotton clothing and growing it.
-During the late [[mediaeval]] period, cotton became known as an [[International trade|import]]ed fibre in northern [[Europe]], without any knowledge of what it came from other than that it was a [[plant]]; people in the region, familiar only with [[animal]] fibres ([[wool]] from [[sheep]]), could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. [[John Mandeville]], writing in [[1350]], stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew there India a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie.". This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in many European languages, such as [[German language|German]] ''Baumwolle'', which translates as "tree wool".
-By the end of the 16th century AD, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in [[Africa]], [[Eurasia]] and the [[Americas]].
-[[Image:Cotton_field.jpg|left|thumb|290px|Picking cotton in Oklahoma in the 1890s]]
-The Indian cotton processing industry was eclipsed during the [[Britain|British]] colonial rule, as part of the British mercantile policy of deliberate and systematic de-industrialization of India, which forced the closing of Indian factories and processing facilities. The intent of this British policy was to ensure that colonized lands supplied raw materials and that Britain should retain a monopoly on manufacturing. In addition, the invention of the [[spinning jenny]] ([[1764]]) and Arkwright's [[spinning frame]] ([[1769]]) enabled cheap mass-production of cotton cloth in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. Production capacity was further improved by the invention of the [[cotton gin]] by [[Eli Whitney]] in [[1793]].  As a result of these policies and developments, British traders developed a commercial chain in which raw cotton fibres were sourced initially from their colonies, processed into cotton [[cloth]] in the mills of [[Lancashire]], and then re-exported back on British ships to their captive colonial markets in [[West Africa]], [[India]], and [[China]] (via colonized Shanghai and Hong Kong). Later, when the superiority of the American varieties of cotton was established, owing primarily to the length of the fibers, the British started purchasing cotton from slave plantations in the [[United States]] and the [[Caribbean]]. Due to the enormous quantities of raw cotton required to make cheap bulk exports, British [[industrialist]]s quickly abandoned expensive raw cotton produced in [[India]] in favour of mass-produced cotton from the southern [[United States]], which was much cheaper as it was produced by unpaid [[slavery in the United States|slaves]]. By the mid nineteenth century, "[[King Cotton]]" had become the backbone of the southern American economy, and today, roughly 90% of the world's cotton crop is of the long-staple American variety.
-In the [[United States]], growing the three crops, cotton, [[indigo dye|indigo]] and [[tobacco]], historically was the leading occupation of [[slavery|slaves]]. After [[emancipation]], the [[share cropping]] system evolved, which in many cases differed little from the systems of slavery. During the [[American Civil War]], American cotton exports slumped due to a [[United States of America|Union]] [[blockade]] on [[Confederate States of America|Southern]] ports, prompting the main purchasers of cotton, [[Britain]] and [[France]], to turn to [[Egypt|Egyptian]] cotton. British and French traders invested heavily in [[Egyptian cotton]] plantations and the Egyptian government of [[Isma'il Pasha|Viceroy Isma'il]] took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton in favour of cheap exports from the [[United States]], sending Egypt into a [[deficit]] spiral that led to the country declaring [[bankruptcy]] in [[1876]].
-==Production and processing==
-[[Image:Cotton_pollination_5892.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Gossypium hirsutum: Cotton blossom with bumblebee pollinator, Hemingway, South Carolina]]
-Today cotton is produced in many parts of the world, including every continent.  Cotton plants have been selectively bred so that each plant grows more fiber. In 2002, cotton was grown on 330,000 km² of farmland. 47 billion pounds (21 million t) of raw cotton worth 20 billion USD was grown that year.
-[[Image:Greene Co Ga1941 Delano.jpg|thumb|320px|Hoeing a cotton field to remove weeds, Greene County, Georgia, USA, 1941]]
-The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals such as fertilizers and insecticides, although a very small number of farmers are moving towards an organic model of production and organic cotton products are now available for purchase at limited locations. Historically, in North America, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the [[boll weevil]]. Due to the US Department of Agriculture's highly successful Boll Weevil Eradication Program (BWEP), this pest has been eliminated from cotton in most of the United States. This program, along with the introduction of genetically engineered cotton containing a gene that codes for a plant-produced protein that is toxic to a number of pests such as tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm and pink bollworm, has allowed a reduction in the use of synthetic insecticides.
-[[Image:Cotton harvest.jpg|thumb|280px|Offloading freshly harvested cotton into a module builder in Texas.  Previously built modules may be seen in the background.]]
-Most cotton in the United States, Europe and Australia is harvested mechanically, either by a [[cotton picker]], a machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a [[cotton stripper]] which strips the entire boll off the plant.  Cotton strippers are generally used in regions where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton and generally used after application of a [[defoliant]] or natural defoliation occurring after a freeze.  Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow.
-The logistics of cotton harvesting and processing have been improved by the development of the [[cotton module builder]], a machine that compresses harvested cotton into a large block, which is then covered with a tarp and temporarily stored at the edge of the field.
-==Research and promotion==
-Beginning as a self-help program in the mid-1960s, the Cotton Research & Promotion Program was organized by U.S. Upland cotton producers in response to cotton's steady decline in market share. At that time, producers voted to set up a per-bale assessment system to fund the Program with built-in safeguards to protect their investments. With the passage of the Cotton Research & Promotion Act of 1966, the Program joined forces and began battling synthetic competitors and re-establishing markets for cotton. Today, the success of this Program has made cotton the best selling fiber in the U.S. and one of the best selling fibers in the world.
-Administered by the Cotton Board and conducted by Cotton Incorporated, the Cotton Research & Promotion Program is the program that is continuously working to increase the demand for and profitability of cotton through various research and promotion activities. The Program is funded by U.S. cotton producers and importers.
-==Egyptian cotton==
-[[Egyptian cotton]] is considered to be one of the best types of cotton, and is produced in various quality levels in long-staple (LS) and extra long-staple (ELS).
-<br>
-==Uses==
-[[Image:Cotton towels.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Cotton bath towels]]
-Cotton is used to make a number of textile products.  These include [[terrycloth]], used to make highly absorbent bath towels and robes, [[denim]], used to make blue jeans, [[chambray]], popularly used in the manufacture of blue work shirts (from which we get the term "[[blue-collar]]"), along with [[corduroy]], [[seersucker]], and cotton [[twill]].  Socks, underwear, and most [[T-shirt]]s are made from cotton.  Bed sheets are also often made from cotton.  Cotton is also used to make yarn used in [[crochet]] and [[knitting]].  While many fabrics are made completely of cotton, some materials blend cotton with [[synthetic fiber]]s such as [[polyester]] or [[rayon]].
-In addition to the textile industry, cotton is used in fishnets, coffee filters, tents and in bookbinding. The first Chinese paper was made of cotton fibre, as is the modern US [[dollar bill]] and federal stationery. Fire hoses were once made of cotton.
-The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce [[cottonseed oil]], which after refining can be consumed by humans like any other [[vegetable oil]].  The [[cottonseed meal]] that is left is generally fed to livestock. In the past, cotton seeds were used by women as an [[abortifacient]].
-<br>
-<br>
-==Pests==
-The greatest [[ecology|ecological]] threat to cotton plants is the [[boll weevil]]. During the late [[nineteenth century]] and early [[twentieth century]], boll weevil infestations caused significant damage to annual cotton crops in the southern [[United States]], resulting in frequent [[economic depression]]s in rural areas.
-==Fair trade==
-Cotton is an enormously important commodity throughout the world. However, many farmers in developing countries receive a low price for their produce, or find it difficult to compete with developed countries. This has led to '[[fair trade]]' cotton clothing or footwear ([[Veja Sneakers]]) being available in some countries. The fair trade system was initiated in 2005 with producers from [[Cameroon]], [[Mali]] and [[Senegal]].[http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/cotton/market.htm#fair]
-==Old British cotton yarn measures==
-*1 thread = 54 inches (about 137 cm)
-*1 skein or rap = 80 threads (120 yards or about 109 m)
-*1 hank = 7 skeins (840 yards or about 768 m)
-*1 spindle = 18 hanks (15,120 yards or about 13,826 m)
-==See also==
-*[[Cotton gin]]
-*[[New Orleans Cotton Exchange]]
-*[[New York Cotton Exchange]]
-{{Commons}}
 ==References==
@@ Line 183: / Line 91: @@
 * National Cotton Council of America (NCC), 2006[http://www.cotton.org/]
 * Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 2006, "Cotton"[http://www.plantcultures.org/plants/cotton_landing.html]
-* Wolpert, S., 1991, ''India'', Berkeley & Los Angeles, California, USA : University of California Press ISBN 0520072170
+* United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2006, ''Cotton World Markets and Trade'' [http://www.fas.usda.gov/currwmt.asp]
+* Wolpert, S., 1991, ''India'', Berkeley & Los Angeles, California : University of California Press ISBN 0520072170
-==External links==
-===History and uses===
-*[http://www.cottonsjourney.com/ Cotton's journey - Educational website]
-*[http://www.agrocel-cotton.com/english/en_glossary_of_terms.html Glossary of cotton terms]
-*[http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerpieces/ilives/lecture12.html Naturally colored cotton]
-*[http://www.plantcultures.org.uk/plants/cotton_landing.html Plant Cultures - History and botany of cotton]
-*[http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/ Spinning the web - Cotton in the UK's Industrial Revolution]
-*[http://www.veja.fr Sneakers in organic and fair trade cotton]
-*[http://www.angelfire.com/stars5/shant/cotton-paper-india.htm "Cotton paper made in India factory"]
-===Research===
-*[http://www.meeman.rhodes.edu/institutes/cotton/default.html ACSA International Cotton Institute]
-*[http://www.usda.gov/ U.S. Department of Agriculture]
-*[http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/cotton/sitemap.htm UNCTAD Information on Cotton]
-===Markets===
-*[http://www.ams.usda.gov/cotton Agricultural Marketing Service]
-*[http://www.cotton-net.com/default.htm Cotton on the Net: The Cotton Market Directory]
-*[http://www.ams.usda.gov/cotton/mncs/index.htm USDA AMS - Market News Reports - Cotton Reports]
-===Trade associations===
-*[http://www.CottonBoard.org/ Cotton Board - U.S. Cotton Research and Promotion Program]
-*[http://www.acsa-cotton.org/ American Cotton Shippers Association]
-*[http://www.cottoninc.com/ Cotton Incorporated] - a cotton industry trade group
-*[http://www.cottonusa.org/index.htm Cotton Council International]
-*[http://www.cotton.org/cf/index.htm Cotton Foundation]
-*[http://www.cotton-net.com/ Cotton on the Net Home Page]
-*[http://www.ecotton.com eCotton]
-*[http://www.icac.org/ International Cotton Advisory Committee]
-*[http://www.accpl.in/ accpl Homepage]
-*[http://www.lca.org.uk International Cotton Association]
-*[http://www.cotton.org/news National Cotton Council News and Current Events]
-*[http://www.landofcotton.com/ The Land of Cotton News Magazine]
-*[http://www.ncto.org National Council of Textile Organizations]
-*[http://www.pcca.com Plains Cotton Cooperative Association]
-*[http://www.theseam.com The Seam]
-*[http://www.supimacotton.org/ The Supima Association]
 {{credit2|Cotton|61946420|Gossypium|70822225}}
 [[Category:Life sciences]]