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[[Image:Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Chennakesava Temple, Belur]]
 
[[Image:Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Chennakesava Temple, Belur]]
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'''The Chennakesava Temple''' ([[Kannada]]: ಶ್ರೀ ಚೆನ್ನಕೇಶವ ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ), originally called '''Vijayanarayana Temple''' (Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಾರಾಯಣ ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ), built on the banks of the Yagachi River in [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]], served as an early capital of the [[Hoysala Empire]]. Belur sits 40 km from [[Hassan]] city and 220 km from [[Bangalore]], in [[Hassan district]] of [[Karnataka]] state, [[India]]. Chennakesava means "handsome Kesava." The Hoysalas earned renown for their [[Hoysala architecture|temple architecture]], the Chennakesava Temple in the capital city of Belur representing of the foremost examples. [[UNESCO]] has proposed the [[temple]] site, along with the [[Hoysaleswara temple]] in [[Halebidu]], for designation as a [[World Heritage site]].
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The [[Hoysala Empire]] of southern India prevailed during the tenth to fourteenth centuries C.E., with its capital in [[Belur]] at first. The empire covered most of modern [[Karnataka]], parts of [[Tamil Nadu]] and parts of western [[Andhra Pradesh]] in [[Deccan]] [[India]]. Hoysala architecture, like displayed in Chennakesava Temple, developed from the [[Western Chalukya]] style with [[Dravidian]] influences. The style of architecture is known as [[Karnata Dravida]], a unique expression of [[Hindu temple architecture]] distinguished by exacting attention to detail and exceptionally skilled craftsmanship. Other outstanding examples of Hoysala temple architecture include the [[Chennakesava Temple]] at [[Somanathapura]] (1279 C.E.), the temples at [[Arasikere]] (1220 C.E.), [[Amrithapura]] (1196 C.E.), [[Belavadi]] (1200 C.E.) and [[Nuggehalli]] (1246 C.E.)
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The total effect of the Chennakesava Temple is to leave the visitor awe struck and the devotee inspired. As the central temple for the capital city of [[Belur]] in the early history, Chennakesava served to display the grandeur of the [[Hoysala empire]]. The enormous wealth, and vast pool of talented craftsmen, required to construct the matchless temple gave a message of the empire's tremendous power.
 
[[Image:Chennakeshava Temple at Belur (Rearview).jpg|right|thumb|200px|Chennakesava Temple, Belur, Rear view.]]
 
[[Image:Chennakeshava Temple at Belur (Rearview).jpg|right|thumb|200px|Chennakesava Temple, Belur, Rear view.]]
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'''The Chennakesava Temple''' ([[Kannada]]:ಶ್ರೀ ಚೆನ್ನಕೇಶವ ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ) originally called '''Vijayanarayana Temple'''([[Kannada]]: ವಿಜಯನಾರಾಯಣ ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ) was built on the banks of the Yagachi River in [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]], an early capital of the [[Hoysala Empire]].  Belur is 40 km from [[Hassan]] city and 220 km from [[Bangalore]], in [[Hassan district]] of [[Karnataka]] state, [[India]]. Chennakesava means "handsome Kesava".  Belur is well-known for its marvelous temples built during the rule of [[Hoysala]] dynasty.  Belur along with near by Halebidu is also one of the most favored tourist destinations in Karnataka.  Belur is an important [[Vaishnava]] pilgrim centre.  Visitors are often humbled by the beauty of the sculptures that are present here which are popular with Hoysala architecture and craftsmanship.
 
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== History ==
 
== History ==
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{{See also|Hoysala architecture|Hoysaleswara temple|Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura}}
 
 
[[Image:Outerwall design in Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Shrine with vertical sections]]
 
[[Image:Outerwall design in Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Shrine with vertical sections]]
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The temple was commissioned by [[Hoysala]] king [[Vishnuvardhana]] in 1117 CE. Scholars hold their own opinions regarding the reasons for the construction of the temple. The popular belief is the military success of Vishnuvardhana was the reason.<ref name="reason1">Gerard Foekema, ''A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples'', pp 47</ref> Some scholars opine that Vishnuvardhana commissioned the temple to surpass the Hoysala overlords, the [[Western Chalukyas]] who ruled from [[Basavakalyan]], after his victories against the [[Chalukyas]]<ref name="reason2">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Professor S. Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> while another theory is he was celebrating his famous victory against the [[Cholas]] of Tamil country in the battle of [[Talakad]] after which the Hoysalas took control of Gangavadi (southern regions of Karnataka).<ref name="reason3">According to Dr. S.U. Kamath, ''A Concise History of Karnataka'', pp 124</ref> Yet another explanation pertains to Vishnuvardhana's conversion from [[Jainism]] to [[Vaishnavism]], considering this is predominantly a Vaishnava temple.<ref name="reason4>However, according to Prof. Settar, records do not support this theory, {{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Professor S. Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> The Hoysalas had many brilliant architects who developed a new architectural idiom. A total of 118 inscriptions have been recovered from the temple complex covering a period of 1117 to 18th century which give details of the artists employed, grants made to the temple and renovations.
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[[Hoysala]] king [[Vishnuvardhana]] commissioned the temple in 1117 C.E. The reasons for the construction of the temple have been debated. The popular belief holds the military success of Vishnuvardhana as the reason.<ref name="reason1">Gerard Foekema. ''A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples.'' (New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1996), 47</ref> Another view holds that Vishnuvardhana commissioned the temple to surpass the Hoysala overlords, the [[Western Chalukyas]] who ruled from [[Basavakalyan]], after his victories against the [[Chalukyas]].<ref name="reason2">S. Settar, [http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm Hoysala Heritage]''Frontline'', 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003) accessdate=2008-06-15</ref>Another view holds that Vishnuvardhana celebrated his famous victory against the [[Cholas]] of Tamil country in the battle of [[Talakad]] leading to the Hoysalas taking control of Gangavadi (southern regions of Karnataka).<ref name="reason3">S.U. Kamath. ''A Concise History of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present.'' (Bangalore: Archana Prakashana, 1980), 124</ref> Yet another explanation pertains to Vishnuvardhana's conversion from [[Jainism]] to [[Vaishnavism]], considering that Chennakesava had been predominantly a Vaishnava temple.<ref name="reason4>According Settar, records do not support that theory, [http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm Hoysala Heritage] ''Frontline'' 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003) accessdate 2008-06-23</ref> The Hoysalas had many brilliant architects who developed a new architectural idiom. A total of 118 inscriptions have been recovered from the temple complex covering a period of 1117 to eighteenth century which give details of the artists employed, grants made to the temple and renovations.
  
 
== Temple complex ==
 
== Temple complex ==
 
[[Image:Belur shilabalika.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shilabalike, Chennakesava temple]]
 
[[Image:Belur shilabalika.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shilabalike, Chennakesava temple]]
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The main entrance to the complex is crowned by a [[gopura|Rayagopura]] built during the days of [[Vijayanagar empire]].<ref name="gopura">Dr. S.U. Kamath, ''A Concise History of Karnataka'', pp 183</ref> Within the temple complex, the Chennakesava temple is in the centre, facing east and flanked by Kappe Channigraya temple and a small [[Lakshmi]] temple on its right. On its left and to its back is an [[Andal]] temple. Of the two main ''Sthambha'' (pillar) that exist, the one facing the main temple was built in the [[Vijayanagar]] period and the one to the right was from the Hoysala time. While this is the first great Hoysala temple, the artistic idiom is still [[Western Chalukya]]n, hence the lack of over decoration unlike in other later Hoysala temples including the [[Hoysaleswara temple]] at [[Halebidu]] and the Keshava temple at [[Somanathapura]]. During later years, the Hoysala art took an inclination towards craftsmanship, with a weakness for minutia.<ref name="minute">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Professor S. Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> The temple has three entrances and the doorways have highly decorated sculptures of doorkeepers (''dvarapalaka''). While the Kappe Channigraya temple is smaller than the Chennakesava temple, it is architecturally equally significant but lacks any sculptural features. This became a ''dvikuta'' (two shrined) with the addition of a shrine to its original plan. The original shrine has a star shaped plan while the additional shrine is a simple square. The icon inside is also Kesava and was commissioned by Shantala Devi, queen of king [[Vishnuvardhana]].
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A [[gopura|Rayagopura]], built during the days of [[Vijayanagar empire]], crowns the main entrance to the complex.<ref name="gopura">Kamath, 183</ref> The Chennakesava temple stands in the center of the temple complex, facing east and flanked by Kappe Channigraya temple and a small [[Lakshmi]] temple on its right. On its left, and to its back, stands an [[Andal]] temple. Of the two main ''Sthambha'' (pillars) that exist, the one facing the main temple had been built in the [[Vijayanagar]] period. The one to the right comes from the Hoysala time. While that represents the first great Hoysala temple, the artistic idiom remains [[Western Chalukya]]n. Hence the lack of over decoration, unlike later Hoysala temples, including the [[Hoysaleswara temple]] at [[Halebidu]] and the Keshava temple at [[Somanathapura]].  
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Later, Hoysala art inclined towards craftsmanship, with a preference for minutia.<ref name="minute">Settar [http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm Hoysala Heritage]. ''Frontline'' 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003) accessdate 2008-06-23</ref> The temple has three entrances, the doorways have highly decorated sculptures of doorkeepers ''(dvarapalaka).'' While the Kappe Channigraya temple measures smaller than the Chennakesava temple, its architecture stands equal although lacking sculptural features. That became a ''dvikuta'' (two shrined) with the addition of a shrine to its original plan. The original shrine has a star shaped plan while the additional shrine forms a simple square. The icon inside, commissioned by Shantala Devi, queen of king [[Vishnuvardhana]] follows the Kesava tradition.
  
 
===Temple plan===
 
===Temple plan===
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[[Image:Bhumija towers on minor shrines in Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Miniature shrines with ''Bhumija'' towers]]
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[[Image:Bhumija towers on minor shrines in Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Bhumija Towers on minor shrines in Chennakeshava Temple, Belur]]
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The Chennakesava temple is built with Chloritic Schist ([[soapstone]])<ref name="schist"> Dr. S.U. Kamath ''A Concise History of Karnataka'', pp 136. The Western Chalukya carvings were done on green schist ([[soapstone]]).  This technique was adopted by the Hoysalas too, {{cite web|title=Architecture of the Indian subcontinent, 20 September 1996|url=http://www.indoarch.org/|author=Takeo Kamiya |publisher=Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India|work=|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> and is essentially a simple Hoysala plan built with extraordinary detail. What differentiates this temple from other Hoysala temples of the same plan is the unusually large size of the basic parts of the temple.<ref name="style"> While it is not very obvious from looking at the temple, its architectural plan is actually a new kind of ''nagara'' (north Indian) design popular in the imperial city of [[Basavakalyan]] in northern Karnataka at that time. {{cite web|title=The Templenet Encyclopedia - Temples of Karnataka-Chennakesava Temple at Belur |url=http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/chenbelu.html|author=Gerard Foekema,Jayashree Kannikeswaran|publisher=TempleNet|work=|accessdate=2006-11-12}}. However, According to art critic Percy Brown, The Hoysala architectural style is distinctively [[Indian architecture|Dravidian]] owing to its many unique features ''A Concise history of Karnataka'' pp 134, Dr. S.U. Kamath. Adam Hardy calls it ''Karnata Dravida'' style.{{cite web|title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation—The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries,1995|url=https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no10217.htm |author=Adam Hardy|publisher=Vedams Books from India, Vedams eBooks (P) Ltd|work=|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> The temple is a ''ekakuta'' ''[[Vimana (shrine)|vimana]]'' design (single shrine) of 10.5&nbsp;m by 10.5&nbsp;m size. A large vestibule connects the shrine to the ''[[mandapa]]'' (hall) which is one of the main attractions of the temple. The ''[[mandapa]]'' has 60 bays.<ref name="bay">A bay is a square or rectangular compartment in the hall, Gerard Foekema, ''A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples'' pp 93</ref> The superstructure (tower) on top of the ''[[Vimana (shrine)|vimana]]'' has been lost over time. The temple is built on a ''[[Jagati (temple)|jagati]]'' (platform).<ref name="platform">The ''jagati'' serves as a ''[[pradakshina]]patha'' or path for circumambulation, as the shrine has no such arrangements, Dr. S.U. Kamath, ''A Concise History of Karnataka'', pp 135. This platform is unique to the Hoysalas, {{cite web|title=Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=© 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc|work=|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> Hence there is one flight of steps leading to the ''jagati'' and another flight of steps to the ''mantapa''. The ''[[Jagati (temple)|jagati]]'' provides the devotee of an opportunity to do a ''[[pradakshina]]'' (circumambulation) around the temple before entering it. The ''jagati'' carefully follows the staggered square design of the ''mantapa''<ref name="stagger">The Hoysala plan for open ''mantapa'' is almost always staggered square. This results in many projections and recesses, Gerard Foekema, ''A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples'' pp 22</ref> and the star shape of the shrine. The mantapa was originally an open one. A visitor would be able to see the ornate pillars of the open ''mantapa'' from the platform. The ''mantapa'' is perhaps the most magnificent one in all of medieval India.<ref name="mag">Gerard Foekema, ''A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples'' pp 48</ref> The open mantapa was converted into a closed one after about 50 years during the Hoysala rule. This was done by erecting walls with pierced window screens. The window screens are on top of 2&nbsp;m high walls. There are 28 such windows, with star shaped piercing and bands of foliage, figures and mythological subjects. On one such screen, king [[Vishnuvardhana]] and his queen Shanatala Devi are depicted. An icon depicts the king in a standing posture.<ref name="pierced">These pierced windows are very commonly found in earlier Western Chalukya temples also, ''A Concise History of Karnataka'', pp 116 Dr. S.U. Kamath</ref></br>
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Craftsmen built the Chennakesava temple with Chloritic Schist ([[soapstone]])<ref name="schist">Kamath, 136. The Western Chalukya carvings on green schist (soapstone) technique had been adopted by the Hoysalas too, Takeo Kamiya, September 20, 1996, [http://www.indoarch.org/ Architecture of the Indian subcontinent] ''Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous'', (Bardez, Goa, India) accessdate 2008-06-15</ref> essentially a simple Hoysala plan built with extraordinary detail. The unusually large size of the basic parts of the temple differentiates that temple from other Hoysala temples of the same plan.<ref name="style"> Its architectural plan follows an innovation of ''nagara'' (north Indian) design popular in the imperial city of [[Basavakalyan]] in northern Karnataka at that time. Gerard Foekema, Jayashree Kannikeswaran, ''The Templenet Encyclopedia'' - [http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/chenbelu.html Temples of Karnataka-Chennakesava Temple at Belur] ''TempleNet''. accessdate 2008-06-23.</ref>  
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The temple follows a ''ekakuta'' ''[[Vimana (shrine)|vimana]]'' design (single shrine) of 10.5&nbsp;m by 10.5&nbsp;m size. A large vestibule connects the shrine to the ''[[mandapa]]'' (hall), one of the main attractions of the temple. The ''mandapa'' has 60 bays.<ref name="bay">"A bay forms a square or rectangular compartment in the hall," Foekema, 93</ref> The superstructure (tower) on top of the ''vimana'' has been lost over time. The temple sits on a ''[[Jagati (temple)|jagati]]'' (platform).<ref name="platform">The ''jagati'' serves as a ''[[pradakshina]] patha'' or path for circumambulation, as the [[shrine]] has no such arrangements, Kamath, 135. That platform follows a uniquely Hoysalas architectural design. Mangalore Arthikaje, [http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire]. © 1998-2000 ''OurKarnataka.Com, Inc''. accessdate 2008-06-15</ref>  
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One flight of steps leads to the ''jagati'' and another flight of steps to the ''mantapa.'' The ''jagati'' provides the devotee an opportunity for a ''pradakshina'' (circumambulation) around the temple before entering it. The ''jagati'' carefully follows the staggered square design of the ''mantapa''<ref name="stagger">The Hoysala plan for open ''mantapa'' almost always follows a staggered square design. That results in many projections and recesses, Foekema, 22</ref> and the star shape of the shrine. The mantapa originally had an open design. A visitor could see the ornate pillars of the open ''mantapa'' from the platform. The ''mantapa,'' perhaps the most magnificent one in all of medieval India,<ref name="mag">Foekema, 48</ref> the open mantapa converted into a closed one 50 years into the Hoysala rule by erecting walls with pierced window screens. The 28 window screens sit on top of 2&nbsp;m high walls with star shaped piercing and bands of foliage, figures and mythological subjects. On one such screen, king [[Vishnuvardhana]] and his queen Shanatala Devi have been depicted. An [[icon]] depicts the king in a standing posture.<ref name="pierced">The pierced windows commonly appear in earlier Western Chalukya temples also, Kamath, 116</ref><br/>
  
 
===Shrine===
 
===Shrine===
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The ''vimana'' (shrine) is at the back of the ''mantapa''. Each side of the ''vimana'' measures 10.5&nbsp;m and has five vertical sections: a large double storeyed niche in the centre and two heavy pillar like sections on both sides of that niche. The two pillar like sections adjoining the niche are rotated about their vertical axis to produce a star shaped plan for the shrine.<ref name="star">Gerard Foekema, ''A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples'', pp 49</ref> The pillar like section and the niche bear many ornate sculptures, belonging to an early style. There are some 60 large sculptures and are of deities from both [[Vaishnava]] and [[Shaiva]] faiths. From the shape of the ''vimana'' it has been inferred that the tower above would have been of the ''Bhumija'' style and not the regular star shaped tower that follows the shape of the ''vimana''. The ''Bhumija'' towers are present on the miniature shrines at the entrance of the hall and are actually a type of ''nagara'' design (being curvilinear in shape).<ref name="bhumija">Gerard Foekema, ''A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples'', pp 50</ref> This shape of tower is quite uncommon in pure [[Indian architecture#Hindu architecture|dravidian]] design. The shrine has a life size (about 6 ft) image of Kesava (a form of Vishnu) with four hands, each hand holding an attribute namely, the discus (''chakra''), mace (''gadha''), lotus-flower (''padma'') and conch (''Shanka'') in clockwise direction. The entrance to the shrine is flanked by life size sculptures of door guardians (''dvarapalaka'').
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[[Image:Shilabalika in Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Shilabalika in Chennakeshava Temple, Belur]]
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The ''vimana'' (shrine) stands at the back of the ''mantapa.'' Each side of the ''vimana'' measures 10.5&nbsp;m and has five vertical sections: a large double storied niche in the center and two heavy pillar like sections on both sides of that niche. The two pillar like sections adjoining the niche have been rotated about their vertical axis to produce a star shaped plan for the shrine.<ref name="star">Foekema, 49</ref> The pillar like section and the niche bear many ornate sculptures, belonging to an early style. Sixty large sculptures of deities, from both [[Vaishnava]] and [[Shaiva]] faiths, stand in place. The shape of the ''vimana'' infers that the tower above would have been of the ''Bhumija'' style and not the regular star shaped tower that follows the shape of the ''vimana.'' The ''Bhumija'' towers on the miniature shrines at the entrance of the hall actually classify as a type of ''nagara'' design (being curvilinear in shape),<ref name="bhumija">Foekema, 50</ref> an uncommon shape of tower in pure [[Indian architecture#Hindu architecture|dravidian]] design. The shrine has a life size (about 6 ft) image of Kesava (a form of Vishnu) with four hands holding the discus ''(chakra),'' mace ''(gadha),'' lotus-flower ''(padma)'' and conch ''(Shanka)'' in clockwise direction. Life size sculptures of door guardians ''(dvarapalaka)'' flank the entrance to the shrine.
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<!--[[Image:Decorated Pillars in Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Ornate pillars]]—>
  
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[[Image:Belur Chennakeshava pillars.JPG|left|thumb|200px|Ornate pillars]]
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===Pillars and Sculptures===
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The pillars inside the hall stand out as a major attraction, the [[Narasimha]] pillar, at one time thought to have revolved (on its ball bearings), the most popular.<ref name="ball">Shruti Nanavaty, [http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/beluarti.html Belur - A Temple Retreat]. ''TempleNet''. accessdate 2008-06-15</ref> A rich diversity exists in their style. While all the 48 pillars and the many ceilings have decorations, nothing surpasses the finish of the four central pillars and the central ceiling. Those pillars may have been hand churned while the others had been lathe turned.<ref name="lathe">Kamath, 117 </ref> All four pillars bear ''madanikas'' (celestial nymphs) 42 total, 4 inside the hall and the rest outside between the eaves on the outer walls of the hall.<ref name="eave">Foekema, 93</ref> Also called ''madanakai,'' ''salabanjika'' or ''shilabalika,'' they epitomize the ideal female form, depicted as [[dancers]], [[musician]]s, [[drum]]mers, and rarely erotic in nature. The ''Darpana Sundari'' (beauty with mirror), "The lady with the parrot," "The huntress" and ''Bhasma mohini'' number among the most popular ''madanika'' with tourists.<ref name="favourite">Nanavaty, [http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/beluarti.html Belur - A Temple Retreat].''TempleNet''. accessdate 2008-06-15</ref>
  
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===Pillars and Sculptures===
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Other interesting sculptures inside the ''mantapa'' include ''Sthamba buttalika'' (pillar images), more in the [[Chola]] idiom indicating that the Hoysalas may have employed Chola craftsman along with locals. Those images have less decor than regular Hoysala sculptures, the ''mohini'' pillar providing an example.<ref name="buttalika">Settar, [http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm Hoysala Heritage]. ''Frontline'' 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003). accessdate 2008-06-23}</ref>
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The pillars inside the hall are a major attraction and the most popular is the [[Narasimha]] pillar which at one time is said to have been a revolving one (on its ball bearings).<ref name="ball'>{{cite web|title=Belur - A Temple Retreat|url=http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/beluarti.html |author=Shruti Nanavaty|publisher=TempleNet|work=|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> There is a rich diversity about their style. While all the 48 pillars and the many ceilings are well decorated, nothing surpasses the finish of the four central pillars and the central ceiling. These pillars may have been hand churned while the others were lathe turned.<ref name="lathe">This is a common feature of Western Chalukya-Hoysala temples, ''A Concise History of Karnataka'', pp 117, Dr. S.U. Kamath</ref> All four pillars bear ''madanikas'' (celestial nymphs) and there are 42 of them, 4 inside the hall and the rest outside between the eaves on the outer walls of the hall.<ref name="eave">An eaves is a projecting roof, overhanging the wall, Gerard Foekema, ''A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples'' pp 93</ref> They are also called ''madanakai'', ''salabanjika'' or ''shilabalika'' and epitomise the ideal female form. They are depicted as dancers, musicians, drummers etc. and are rarely erotic in nature. Some ''madanika'' popular with tourists are the ''Darpana Sundari'' (beauty with mirror), "The lady with the parrot", "The huntress" and ''Bhasma mohini''.<ref name="favourite'>{{cite web|title=Belur - A Temple Retreat|url=http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/beluarti.html |author=Shruti Nanavaty|publisher=TempleNet|work=|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> Other interesting sculptures inside the ''mantapa'' are ''Sthamba buttalika'' (pillar images) which are more in the [[Chola]] idiom indicating that the Hoysalas may have employed Chola craftsman along with locals. These images have less decor than regular Hoysala sculptures. The ''mohini'' pillar is an example.<ref name="buttalika">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Professor S. Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref>
 
 
[[Image:Belur Chennakeshava pillars1.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Ornate pillars]]
 
[[Image:Belur Chennakeshava pillars1.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Ornate pillars]]
  
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At the base of the outer walls are friezes<ref name="band">a Frieze is a rectangular band decorated with sculptures, Gerard Foekema, ''A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples'' pp 93</ref> of charging elephants (650 of them) which symbolise stability and strength, above them are lions which symbolise courage and further up are horses which symbolise speed. There are panels with floral designs signifying beauty. Above these are panels depicting [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]]. This is called horizontal treatment with friezes.<ref name="frieze"> A main feature in Hoysala temples, ''A Concise History of Karnataka'', Dr. S.U. Kamath, pp 134</ref> Hoysala artistry preferred to be discreet about eroticism, mingling miniature erotic sculptures in not very conspicuous places like recesses and niches. Sculptures depict daily life in a broad sense.
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Friezes (rectangular band of sculptures) of charging elephants (650 of them) decorate the base of the outer walls,<ref name="band">Foekema, 93</ref>symbolizing stability and strength. In a style called horizontal treatment with friezes, above them lions, symbolizing courage and further up horses, symbolizing speed embellish the walls. Panels with floral designs signify beauty. Above them, panels depicting [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]]have been set.<ref name="frieze">Kamath, 134</ref> Hoysala artistry preferred discretion about sexuality, mingling miniature erotic sculptures in unconspicuous places like recesses and niches. [[Sculpture]]s depict daily life in a broad sense.
  
−
The doorways to the ''mantapa'' have on both sides the sculpture of Sala slaying a [[Tiger]]. These are unusually large images. While Sala is popularly known to be the founder of the empire, there is no support for this myth from scholars. Normally this image is placed on the ''sukanasi'' (nose of the main tower formed by a lower tower on top of the vestibule) next to the main tower. The story is that Sala killed the Tiger that was ready to pounce on the meditating ''muni'' (saint) who sought Sala's help in killing the Tiger. Some historians speculate that the legend may have gained importance after the victory of [[Vishnuvardhana]] over the [[Cholas]] at [[Talakad]], the tiger being the royal emblem of the Cholas.<ref name="sala">Historian C. Hayavadhana Rao, J. D. M. Derrett, B. R Joshi surmise that Sala was a mythical founder of the empire, ''A Concise history of Karnataka'' pp 123, Dr. S.U. Kamath, {{cite web|title=The Hoysalas and their contributions|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=© 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc|work|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref>  
+
The doorways to the ''mantapa'' have on both sides the sculpture of [[Sala]] slaying a [[Tiger]]. Popularly known as the founder of the empire, Sala's appears on ''sukanasi'' (nose of the main tower formed by a lower tower on top of the vestibule) next to the main tower. Legend relates that Sala killed a tiger ready to pounce on the meditating ''muni'' ([[saint]]) who sought Sala's help in killing the tiger. Some historians speculate that the legend may have gained importance after the victory of [[Vishnuvardhana]] over the [[Cholas]] at [[Talakad]], the tiger serving as the royal emblem of the Cholas.<ref name="sala">Kamath, 123; [http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm The Hoysalas and their contributions]. © 1998-2000 ''OurKarnataka.Com, Inc''. accessdate 2008-06-15</ref>  
  
−
Other important sculptures are the [[Narasimha]] image in the south western corner, Shiva-Gajasura (Shiva slaying demon in form of elephant) on the western side, the winged [[Garuda]], consort of Lord [[Vishnu]] standing facing the temple, dancing [[Kali]], a seated [[Ganesha]], a pair consisting of a boy with an umbrella and a king ([[Vamana]] ''[[avatar]]'' or incarnation of Vishnu), [[Ravana]] shaking [[Mount Kailash]], [[Durga]] slaying demon [[Mahishasura]], standing [[Brahma]], [[Varaha]] (''avatar'' of Vishnu), Shiva dancing on demon (Andhakasura), [[Bhairava]] (''avatar'' of Shiva) and [[Surya]]. The sculptural style of the wall images shows close similarity to wall images in contemporary temples in northern Karnataka and adjacent Maharashtra and hence a [[Western Chalukya]] idiom.</br>
+
The [[Narasimha]] image in the south western corner, Shiva-Gajasura ([[Shiva]] slaying demon in form of [[elephant]]) on the western side, the winged [[Garuda]], consort of Lord [[Vishnu]] standing facing the temple, dancing [[Kali]], a seated [[Ganesha]], a pair consisting of a boy with an umbrella and a king ([[Vamana]] ''[[avatar]]'' or incarnation of Vishnu), [[Ravana]] shaking [[Mount Kailash]], [[Durga]] slaying demon [[Mahishasura]], standing [[Brahma]], [[Varaha]] (''avatar'' of Vishnu), Shiva dancing on demon (Andhakasura), [[Bhairava]] (''avatar'' of Shiva) and [[Surya]] number among other important images. The sculptural style of the wall images shows close similarity to wall images in contemporary temples in northern Karnataka and adjacent Maharashtra and hence a [[Western Chalukya]] idiom.<br/>
  
 
===Artists===
 
===Artists===
−
The Hoysala artists were unlike many medieval artists and preferred to sign their work in the form of inscriptions. They sometimes revealed fascinating details about themselves, their families, guilds and place of origin.<ref name="artist">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Professor S. Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> Stone and [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper plate inscriptions]] provide more information about them. Ruvari Mallitamma was a prolific artist and there are more then 40 sculptures here that are attributed to him.<ref name="ma">He signed his work as ''Malli'' or just ''Ma'',  According to the Mysore archaeological reports, {{cite web|title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might - Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm|author=U.B. Githa, Research associate|publisher=Chitralakshana|work=Deccan Herald, Tuesday, May 11, 2004 |accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> Dasoja and his son Chavana were from [[Balligavi]] in [[Shimoga district]] and contributions are no less. Chavana is credited with the work on five ''madanika'' and Dasoja with four. Malliyanna and Nagoja created birds and animals in their sculptures. Artists Chikkahampa and Malloja are credited with some the sculptures in the ''mantapa''.<ref name="madanika'>{{cite web|title=Hoysala Temples of Belur |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/hoysala/belur.htm|author=Dr. Jyotsna Kamath, November 04,2006 |publisher=© 1996-2006 Kamat's Potpourri|work=|accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref>
+
The Hoysala artists, unlike many medieval artists, preferred to sign their work in the form of inscriptions. They sometimes revealed fascinating details about themselves, their families, guilds and place of origin.<ref name="artist">Settar, [http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm Hoysala Heritage]. ''Frontline'' 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003) accessdate 2008-06-15</ref> Stone and [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper plate inscriptions]] provide more information about them. Ruvari Mallitamma, a prolific artist, had more than 40 sculptures attributed to him in Chennakesava. Dasoja and his son Chavana, from [[Balligavi]] in [[Shimoga district]], also made many contributions. Chavana has been credited with the work on five ''madanika'' and Dasoja with four. Malliyanna and Nagoja created birds and animals in their sculptures. Artists Chikkahampa and Malloja have been credited with some the sculptures in the ''mantapa.''<ref name="madanika'>Jyotsna Kamath, ''Kamat's Potpourri'' November 04, 2006,  [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/hoysala/belur.htm Hoysala Temples of Belur]. © 1996-2006 accessdate 2008-06-15</ref>
 +
 
 +
==See Also==
 +
* [[Hoysala architecture]]
 +
* [[Hoysaleswara temple]]
 +
* [[Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura]]
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 42: Line 58:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
{{Refbegin|2}}
+
* Foekema, Gerard. 1996. ''A complete guide to Hoysaḷa temples.'' New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ISBN 9788170173458.
−
* Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001). A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041.
+
* Hardy, Adam. 1995. ''Indian temple architecture: form and transformation: the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa tradition, 7th to 13th centuries.'' New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. ISBN 9788170173120.
−
* Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples, Abhinav, 1996 ISBN 81-7017-345-0
+
* Kāmat, Sūryanātha. 1980. ''A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present.'' Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. OCLC 7796041.
−
* Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002), ISBN 0-19-560686-8
+
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. 1990. ''A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar.'' Oxford India paperbacks. Bombay: Oxford University Press. OCLC 35690171.
−
* {{cite web |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/hoysala/belur.htm |title=Hoysala art and architecture Dr. Jyotsna Kamat|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
 
−
* {{cite web |url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |title=Hoysala Heritage|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
 
−
* {{cite web |url=http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/chenbelu.html  |title=TempleNet, Chennakesava Temple at Belur|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
 
−
* {{cite web |url=http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/beluarti.html  |title=TempleNet, Belur - A Temple Retreat|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
 
−
* {{cite web |url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm |title=Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
 
−
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|title=History of Karnataka, Arthikaje|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
 
−
* {{cite web |url=http://www.indoarch.org/place.php?placelink=R%3D5%2BS%3D18%2BP%3D0%2BM%3D0|title=Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, Takeyo Kamiya|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
 
−
* {{cite web |url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm|title=An article by U.B.Githa, Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
 
−
* {{cite web |url=https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no10217.htm|title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation—The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries/Adam Hardy|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
 
−
{{Refend}}
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved December 5, 2023.
 +
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/hoysala/belur.htm Hoysala art and architecture Jyotsna Kamat]
 +
* [http://www.frontline.in/navigation/?type=static&page=flonnet&rdurl=fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm Hoysala heritage]
 +
* [http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/chenbelu.html TempleNet, Chennakesava Temple at Belur]
 +
* [http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/beluarti.html TempleNet, Belur - A Temple Retreat]
 
*[http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/belur/bel01.html Photo of Gopura - Chennakeshava Temple]
 
*[http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/belur/bel01.html Photo of Gopura - Chennakeshava Temple]
 
*[http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/belur/chennaplan.jpg Plan of temple]
 
*[http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/belur/chennaplan.jpg Plan of temple]
 +
 +
[[Category:Religion]]
 +
[[Category:Archaeological sites]]
 +
[[Category:Sites of religious pilgrimages]]
  
 
{{credits|175025480}}
 
{{credits|175025480}}

Latest revision as of 14:52, 5 December 2023


Chennakesava Temple, Belur

The Chennakesava Temple (Kannada: ಶ್ರೀ ಚೆನ್ನಕೇಶವ ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ), originally called Vijayanarayana Temple (Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಾರಾಯಣ ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ), built on the banks of the Yagachi River in Belur, served as an early capital of the Hoysala Empire. Belur sits 40 km from Hassan city and 220 km from Bangalore, in Hassan district of Karnataka state, India. Chennakesava means "handsome Kesava." The Hoysalas earned renown for their temple architecture, the Chennakesava Temple in the capital city of Belur representing of the foremost examples. UNESCO has proposed the temple site, along with the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu, for designation as a World Heritage site.

The Hoysala Empire of southern India prevailed during the tenth to fourteenth centuries C.E., with its capital in Belur at first. The empire covered most of modern Karnataka, parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh in Deccan India. Hoysala architecture, like displayed in Chennakesava Temple, developed from the Western Chalukya style with Dravidian influences. The style of architecture is known as Karnata Dravida, a unique expression of Hindu temple architecture distinguished by exacting attention to detail and exceptionally skilled craftsmanship. Other outstanding examples of Hoysala temple architecture include the Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura (1279 C.E.), the temples at Arasikere (1220 C.E.), Amrithapura (1196 C.E.), Belavadi (1200 C.E.) and Nuggehalli (1246 C.E.)

The total effect of the Chennakesava Temple is to leave the visitor awe struck and the devotee inspired. As the central temple for the capital city of Belur in the early history, Chennakesava served to display the grandeur of the Hoysala empire. The enormous wealth, and vast pool of talented craftsmen, required to construct the matchless temple gave a message of the empire's tremendous power.

Chennakesava Temple, Belur, Rear view.

History

Shrine with vertical sections

Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana commissioned the temple in 1117 C.E. The reasons for the construction of the temple have been debated. The popular belief holds the military success of Vishnuvardhana as the reason.[1] Another view holds that Vishnuvardhana commissioned the temple to surpass the Hoysala overlords, the Western Chalukyas who ruled from Basavakalyan, after his victories against the Chalukyas.[2]Another view holds that Vishnuvardhana celebrated his famous victory against the Cholas of Tamil country in the battle of Talakad leading to the Hoysalas taking control of Gangavadi (southern regions of Karnataka).[3] Yet another explanation pertains to Vishnuvardhana's conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism, considering that Chennakesava had been predominantly a Vaishnava temple.[4] The Hoysalas had many brilliant architects who developed a new architectural idiom. A total of 118 inscriptions have been recovered from the temple complex covering a period of 1117 to eighteenth century which give details of the artists employed, grants made to the temple and renovations.

Temple complex

Shilabalike, Chennakesava temple

A Rayagopura, built during the days of Vijayanagar empire, crowns the main entrance to the complex.[5] The Chennakesava temple stands in the center of the temple complex, facing east and flanked by Kappe Channigraya temple and a small Lakshmi temple on its right. On its left, and to its back, stands an Andal temple. Of the two main Sthambha (pillars) that exist, the one facing the main temple had been built in the Vijayanagar period. The one to the right comes from the Hoysala time. While that represents the first great Hoysala temple, the artistic idiom remains Western Chalukyan. Hence the lack of over decoration, unlike later Hoysala temples, including the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu and the Keshava temple at Somanathapura.

Later, Hoysala art inclined towards craftsmanship, with a preference for minutia.[6] The temple has three entrances, the doorways have highly decorated sculptures of doorkeepers (dvarapalaka). While the Kappe Channigraya temple measures smaller than the Chennakesava temple, its architecture stands equal although lacking sculptural features. That became a dvikuta (two shrined) with the addition of a shrine to its original plan. The original shrine has a star shaped plan while the additional shrine forms a simple square. The icon inside, commissioned by Shantala Devi, queen of king Vishnuvardhana follows the Kesava tradition.

Temple plan

Bhumija Towers on minor shrines in Chennakeshava Temple, Belur

Craftsmen built the Chennakesava temple with Chloritic Schist (soapstone)[7] essentially a simple Hoysala plan built with extraordinary detail. The unusually large size of the basic parts of the temple differentiates that temple from other Hoysala temples of the same plan.[8]

The temple follows a ekakuta vimana design (single shrine) of 10.5 m by 10.5 m size. A large vestibule connects the shrine to the mandapa (hall), one of the main attractions of the temple. The mandapa has 60 bays.[9] The superstructure (tower) on top of the vimana has been lost over time. The temple sits on a jagati (platform).[10]

One flight of steps leads to the jagati and another flight of steps to the mantapa. The jagati provides the devotee an opportunity for a pradakshina (circumambulation) around the temple before entering it. The jagati carefully follows the staggered square design of the mantapa[11] and the star shape of the shrine. The mantapa originally had an open design. A visitor could see the ornate pillars of the open mantapa from the platform. The mantapa, perhaps the most magnificent one in all of medieval India,[12] the open mantapa converted into a closed one 50 years into the Hoysala rule by erecting walls with pierced window screens. The 28 window screens sit on top of 2 m high walls with star shaped piercing and bands of foliage, figures and mythological subjects. On one such screen, king Vishnuvardhana and his queen Shanatala Devi have been depicted. An icon depicts the king in a standing posture.[13]

Shrine

Shilabalika in Chennakeshava Temple, Belur

The vimana (shrine) stands at the back of the mantapa. Each side of the vimana measures 10.5 m and has five vertical sections: a large double storied niche in the center and two heavy pillar like sections on both sides of that niche. The two pillar like sections adjoining the niche have been rotated about their vertical axis to produce a star shaped plan for the shrine.[14] The pillar like section and the niche bear many ornate sculptures, belonging to an early style. Sixty large sculptures of deities, from both Vaishnava and Shaiva faiths, stand in place. The shape of the vimana infers that the tower above would have been of the Bhumija style and not the regular star shaped tower that follows the shape of the vimana. The Bhumija towers on the miniature shrines at the entrance of the hall actually classify as a type of nagara design (being curvilinear in shape),[15] an uncommon shape of tower in pure dravidian design. The shrine has a life size (about 6 ft) image of Kesava (a form of Vishnu) with four hands holding the discus (chakra), mace (gadha), lotus-flower (padma) and conch (Shanka) in clockwise direction. Life size sculptures of door guardians (dvarapalaka) flank the entrance to the shrine.

Pillars and Sculptures

The pillars inside the hall stand out as a major attraction, the Narasimha pillar, at one time thought to have revolved (on its ball bearings), the most popular.[16] A rich diversity exists in their style. While all the 48 pillars and the many ceilings have decorations, nothing surpasses the finish of the four central pillars and the central ceiling. Those pillars may have been hand churned while the others had been lathe turned.[17] All four pillars bear madanikas (celestial nymphs) 42 total, 4 inside the hall and the rest outside between the eaves on the outer walls of the hall.[18] Also called madanakai, salabanjika or shilabalika, they epitomize the ideal female form, depicted as dancers, musicians, drummers, and rarely erotic in nature. The Darpana Sundari (beauty with mirror), "The lady with the parrot," "The huntress" and Bhasma mohini number among the most popular madanika with tourists.[19]

Other interesting sculptures inside the mantapa include Sthamba buttalika (pillar images), more in the Chola idiom indicating that the Hoysalas may have employed Chola craftsman along with locals. Those images have less decor than regular Hoysala sculptures, the mohini pillar providing an example.[20]

Ornate pillars

Friezes (rectangular band of sculptures) of charging elephants (650 of them) decorate the base of the outer walls,[21]symbolizing stability and strength. In a style called horizontal treatment with friezes, above them lions, symbolizing courage and further up horses, symbolizing speed embellish the walls. Panels with floral designs signify beauty. Above them, panels depicting Ramayana and Mahabharatahave been set.[22] Hoysala artistry preferred discretion about sexuality, mingling miniature erotic sculptures in unconspicuous places like recesses and niches. Sculptures depict daily life in a broad sense.

The doorways to the mantapa have on both sides the sculpture of Sala slaying a Tiger. Popularly known as the founder of the empire, Sala's appears on sukanasi (nose of the main tower formed by a lower tower on top of the vestibule) next to the main tower. Legend relates that Sala killed a tiger ready to pounce on the meditating muni (saint) who sought Sala's help in killing the tiger. Some historians speculate that the legend may have gained importance after the victory of Vishnuvardhana over the Cholas at Talakad, the tiger serving as the royal emblem of the Cholas.[23]

The Narasimha image in the south western corner, Shiva-Gajasura (Shiva slaying demon in form of elephant) on the western side, the winged Garuda, consort of Lord Vishnu standing facing the temple, dancing Kali, a seated Ganesha, a pair consisting of a boy with an umbrella and a king (Vamana avatar or incarnation of Vishnu), Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, Durga slaying demon Mahishasura, standing Brahma, Varaha (avatar of Vishnu), Shiva dancing on demon (Andhakasura), Bhairava (avatar of Shiva) and Surya number among other important images. The sculptural style of the wall images shows close similarity to wall images in contemporary temples in northern Karnataka and adjacent Maharashtra and hence a Western Chalukya idiom.

Artists

The Hoysala artists, unlike many medieval artists, preferred to sign their work in the form of inscriptions. They sometimes revealed fascinating details about themselves, their families, guilds and place of origin.[24] Stone and copper plate inscriptions provide more information about them. Ruvari Mallitamma, a prolific artist, had more than 40 sculptures attributed to him in Chennakesava. Dasoja and his son Chavana, from Balligavi in Shimoga district, also made many contributions. Chavana has been credited with the work on five madanika and Dasoja with four. Malliyanna and Nagoja created birds and animals in their sculptures. Artists Chikkahampa and Malloja have been credited with some the sculptures in the mantapa.[25]

See Also

Notes

  1. ↑ Gerard Foekema. A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples. (New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1996), 47
  2. ↑ S. Settar, Hoysala HeritageFrontline, 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003) accessdate=2008-06-15
  3. ↑ S.U. Kamath. A Concise History of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present. (Bangalore: Archana Prakashana, 1980), 124
  4. ↑ According Settar, records do not support that theory, Hoysala Heritage Frontline 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003) accessdate 2008-06-23
  5. ↑ Kamath, 183
  6. ↑ Settar Hoysala Heritage. Frontline 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003) accessdate 2008-06-23
  7. ↑ Kamath, 136. The Western Chalukya carvings on green schist (soapstone) technique had been adopted by the Hoysalas too, Takeo Kamiya, September 20, 1996, Architecture of the Indian subcontinent Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, (Bardez, Goa, India) accessdate 2008-06-15
  8. ↑ Its architectural plan follows an innovation of nagara (north Indian) design popular in the imperial city of Basavakalyan in northern Karnataka at that time. Gerard Foekema, Jayashree Kannikeswaran, The Templenet Encyclopedia - Temples of Karnataka-Chennakesava Temple at Belur TempleNet. accessdate 2008-06-23.
  9. ↑ "A bay forms a square or rectangular compartment in the hall," Foekema, 93
  10. ↑ The jagati serves as a pradakshina patha or path for circumambulation, as the shrine has no such arrangements, Kamath, 135. That platform follows a uniquely Hoysalas architectural design. Mangalore Arthikaje, Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire. © 1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. accessdate 2008-06-15
  11. ↑ The Hoysala plan for open mantapa almost always follows a staggered square design. That results in many projections and recesses, Foekema, 22
  12. ↑ Foekema, 48
  13. ↑ The pierced windows commonly appear in earlier Western Chalukya temples also, Kamath, 116
  14. ↑ Foekema, 49
  15. ↑ Foekema, 50
  16. ↑ Shruti Nanavaty, Belur - A Temple Retreat. TempleNet. accessdate 2008-06-15
  17. ↑ Kamath, 117
  18. ↑ Foekema, 93
  19. ↑ Nanavaty, Belur - A Temple Retreat.TempleNet. accessdate 2008-06-15
  20. ↑ Settar, Hoysala Heritage. Frontline 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003). accessdate 2008-06-23}
  21. ↑ Foekema, 93
  22. ↑ Kamath, 134
  23. ↑ Kamath, 123; The Hoysalas and their contributions. © 1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. accessdate 2008-06-15
  24. ↑ Settar, Hoysala Heritage. Frontline 20 (08) (April 12 - 25, 2003) accessdate 2008-06-15
  25. ↑ Jyotsna Kamath, Kamat's Potpourri November 04, 2006, Hoysala Temples of Belur. © 1996-2006 accessdate 2008-06-15

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Foekema, Gerard. 1996. A complete guide to Hoysaḷa temples. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ISBN 9788170173458.
  • Hardy, Adam. 1995. Indian temple architecture: form and transformation: the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa tradition, 7th to 13th centuries. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. ISBN 9788170173120.
  • Kāmat, Sūryanātha. 1980. A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. OCLC 7796041.
  • Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. 1990. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford India paperbacks. Bombay: Oxford University Press. OCLC 35690171.

External links

All links retrieved December 5, 2023.

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