Cesare Lombroso

Cesare Lombroso (November 6, 1835 - October 19, 1909) was a historical figure in modern criminology, and the founder of the Italian School of Positivist Criminology. Lombroso rejected the established Classical School, which held that crime was a characteristic trait of human nature. Instead, using concepts drawn from Physiognomy, early Eugenics, Psychiatry, and Social Darwinism, Lombroso's theory was that criminality was inherited, and that the born criminal could be identified by physical defects, which confirmed a criminal as "savage," or "atavistic."

Biography

Cesare Lombroso was born Ezechia Marco Lombroso in Verona, Italy on November 6, 1835. The son of a long line of rabbis, he studied literature, linguistics, and archaeology at the universities of Padua, Vienna, and Paris. He finally graduated with a degree in medicine from the University of Turin and became a neuro-psychiatrist.

During the Austro-Italian war of 1859, also known as the Second War for Italian Independence (the first war being the Austro-Sardinian War of 1849), Lombroso served as an army physician.

In 1862, he was appointed professor of diseases of the mind at Pavia and later took charge of the insane asylum at Pesaro. He eventually became professor of medical law and psychiatry at Turin.

Here he conducted detailed anthropomorphic studies using cadavers, to focus on the shape of the skull as an indicator of abnormality. These studies originated with the German physician Franz Joseph Gall, who had dealt in cranology, characterology, and innate sociopathology.

Early in his career Lombroso was a staunch materialist, and admitted in his work "After Death - What?":

If ever there was an individual in the world opposed to spiritism by virtue of scientific education, and I may say, by instinct, I was that person. I had made it the indefatigable pursuit of a lifetime to defend the thesis that every force is a property of matter and the soul an emanation of the brain. (Lombroso 1909)

He was later forced to considerably alter his views after extensive study of the phenomenon of Eusapia Palladino, the famous spiritualist. He later wrote, "I am ashamed and grieved at having opposed with so much tenacity the possibility of the so-called spiritistic facts."

Lombroso died in Turin in 1909, survived by his wife Nina and five sons.

Main works

Cesare Lombroso was a famous man in the nineteenth century because he claimed to have discovered the cause of crime. His principal work, L’Uomo delinquente or The Criminal Man, was published in 1876. He wrote a good deal more including, in French, Le Crime, Causes et Remèdes.

Lombroso claimed in these books that in anatomical investigations the post mortem bodies of criminals revealed that criminals were physically different from normal people. He maintained that criminals have stigmata (Gr. Sign) and that these stigmata consist of abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw. Lombroso even claimed that different criminals have different physical characteristics which he could discern. His book, The Criminal Man, achieved six editions.

In time, and under the influence of his son-in-law Enrico Ferrero, Lombroso included the view that social factors cause a good deal of crime and that all criminality is not inborn.

The concept of atavism

The concept of Atavism: If one term is associated with Lombroso it is atavism. This was a term he used for persons who were not fully evolved. He considered these people throwbacks to earlier forms of man or primates. He found that in the skulls and brains and other parts of the skeletons, muscles, and viscera of criminals anatomical peculiarities.

He felt these were similar to forms found in remnants of earlier prehistoric man, more primitive peoples, and monkeys. The principle cause of criminal tendencies was organic in nature. Heredity was the key cause of deviance.

Criminology

Lombroso popularized the notion of a born criminal through biological determinism. Criminals have particular physiognomic attributes or deformities. Physiognomy attempts to estimate character and personality traits from physical features of the face or the body. Whereas most individuals evolve, the violent criminal had devolved, and therefore were societal, or evolutionary regressions.

If criminality was inherited, then the born criminal could be distinguished by physical atavistic stigmata, such as:

• large jaws , forward projection of jaw, Low sloping forehead,
• high cheekbones , flattened or upturned nose,
• handle-shaped ears,
• hawk-like noses or fleshy lips,
• hard Shifty eyes, scanty beard or baldness,
• insensitivity to pain, long arms.

He concentrated on a purported scientific methodology in order to identify criminal behavior and isolate individuals capable of the most violent types of criminal activity.

Lombroso advocated the study of individuals using measurements and statistical methods in compiling anthropological, social, and economic data. Along with the natural origin of the crime and its social consequences, various remedies can then be provided to the criminal, which would offer the greatest effects.

With successive research, he modified his theories with more thorough statistical analysis. Lombroso continued to define additional atavistic stigmata, as well as the degeneracy of effectiveness in the treatment of born criminals. He was an advocate for humane treatment of criminals by arguing for rehabilitation and against capital punishment.

Female criminality

Lombroso studies of female criminality began with measurments of females skulls and photographs in his search for atavism. Lombroso concluded female criminals were rare and showed few signs of degeneration because they had “...evolved less than men due to the inactive nature of their lives...”.

Lombroso argued it was the females natural passivity that withheld them from breaking the law, as they lacked the intelligence and initiative to become criminal ( Lombroso 1980 ).

Cortical dysplasia, and epilepsy

Cesare Lombroso supported a common origin of criminality, genius, and epilepsy as caused by factors impairing the embryonic development of the CNS ( central nervous system ), mainly affecting the hierarchically superior neural centers. He, with his coworkers, was the first to describe the observations of cortical dysplasia in patients with epilepsy in 1896.

To confirm his theories, Lombroso emphasized the need for the direct observation of the patient, using anthropologic, social, neurophysiologic, economic, and pathologic data. With the collaboration of his pupil Luigi Roncoroni, Lombroso described a prevalence of large, giant pyramidal neurons and polymorphous cells through the gray matter of the frontal cortex in 13 patients with epilepsy. Most of the large pyramidal neurons were haphazardly arranged, presenting also an abnormal orientation of their apical dendrites. The number of nervous cells was noticeably reduced, with the presence of abundant gliosis. Moreover, the granular layers were dramatically reduced or absent in most patients, and numerous nervous cells were present in the subcortical white matter. This particular finding was never observed in specimens from criminal and healthy control subjects. Lombroso and Roncoroni explained their finding as evidence of an arrest of CNS development.

Thus, more than one century ago, Cesare Lombroso and collaborators described developmental lesions in the frontal cortex of patients with epilepsy, which correspond to what currently is called Taylor's dysplasia.

Psychiatric art and problem of geniuses

Lombroso published The Man of Genius ( Lombroso 1889 ) in which he argued that artistic genius was a form of hereditary insanity. In order to support this assertion, he began assembling a large collection of psychiatric art. He published an article on the subject in 1880 in which he isolated thirteen typical features of the "...art of the insane...."

Although his criteria are generally regarded as outdated today, his work inspired later writers on the subject, particularly Hans Prinzhorn.

On the other hand, his quotes do reveal his true beliefs vis-a-vis the problem of geniuses and ordinary men :

“…..The appearance of a single great genius is more than equivalent to the birth of a hundred mediocrities….”( Lombroso 1889 ).

“…….Good sense travels on the well-worn paths; genius, never. And that is why the crowd, not altogether without reason, is so ready to treat great men as lunatics…….”( Lombroso 1889 ).

“……Genius is one of the many forms of insanity…….”( Lombroso 1889 ).

Problems with some of his tenets

Lombroso's work, however, was always hampered by his Social Darwinist assumptions, and especially by his pre-genetic conception of evolution as "progress" from "lower life forms" to "higher life forms," and his assumption that the more "advanced" human traits would dispose their owners to living peacefully within a hierarchical, urbanized society far different from the conditions under which human beings evolved.

In attempting to predict criminality by the shapes of the skulls and other physical features of criminals, he had in effect created a new pseudoscience of forensic phrenology.

Example: He, and his collaborators, were the first ever to describe and explain the form of epilepsy known now as Taylor’s dysplasia. However, they used their observations to support their scientific misconception on the relationship between criminality, epilepsy, and genius.

While Lombroso was a pioneer of scientific criminology, and his work was one of the bases of the eugenics movement in the early twentieth century, his work is no longer considered one of the foundations of contemporary criminology, however psychiatry and abnormal psychology have retained his idea of locating crime completely within the individual and utterly divorced from the surrounding social conditions and structures ( Lombroso 1876, 1911).

Legacy

Cesare Lombroso was a historical figure in modern criminology and the founder of the Italian School of Positivist Criminology. They rejected the concept of free will and replaced it with an assumption of determinism .They rejected the notion of equality expressed by the classicists in which any individual through free choice makes rational decisions to behave as a criminal. This new scientific criminology valued the experimental method based on empirically discovered facts and their examination. The knowledge gained was to be achieved carefully, over time, through systematic observation and scientific analysis.

Instead, using concepts drawn from Physiognomy, early Eugenics, Psychiatry and Social Darwinism, Lombroso's theory was that criminality was inherited, and that the born criminal could be identified by physical defects , which confirmed a criminal as savage, or atavistic.

Lombroso compared anthropological measurements and developed the concept of the atavistic, or born, criminal. In his later works, less importance was given to that concept. Although the scientific validity of the concept has been questioned by other criminologists, Lombroso is still credited with turning attention from the legalistic study of crime to the scientific study of the criminal. Lombroso advocated humane treatment of criminals and limitations on the use of the death penalty.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Gould, Stephen J., The Mismeasure of Man, W. W. Norton, ISBN 0393314251,rev. ed. 1996
• Kurella Hans, Cesare lombroso: a Modern Man of Science, translated from German by M. E. Paul, London, 1911
• Lombroso, C., L'uomo delinquente, Horpli, Milan 1876, 5th ed., 3 vol., 1896-97; partial tr. as Criminal Man, 1911
• Lombroso, Cesare, L'uomo di genio in rapporto alla psichiatria, 1889, English translation, Man of Genius, London, 1891
• Lombroso, Cesare L'Homme Criminel, Felix, Alcan (two volumes), 1895
• Lombroso, Cesare, Sulla medicina legale del cadavere, (second edition ) 1890
• Lombroso, Cesare, Le crime; causes et remédes, 1899 ( English tr.: Crime, its Causes and Remedies ), Boston 1911
• Lombroso, Cesare, L'opera di Cesare Lombroso nella scienza e nelle sue applicazion', collection of papers on Lombroso published inTurin, 1906
• Lombroso, Cesare, After Death-What?, English Translation, Boston, 1909
• Lombroso, Cesare, & Gina Lombroso-Ferrero, Criminal Man, 1911; according to the “Classification of Cesare Lombroso, Putnam, New York & Patterson Smith, Montclair, N.J, 1972
• Lombroso, Cesare, The Female Offender, Fred Rothman, Littleton, Colorado 1980

External links

• York University Classics in Psychiatry
• Lombroso: Sociological Theories of Deviance
• Anthropological Criminology North Carolina Wesleyan College
• History of profiling North Carolina Wesleyan College
• Overview of the Positivist School
• Sabbatini, R.M.E. - Cesare Lombroso. A Brief Biography. Brain and Mind Magazine, 1997.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

• Cesare_Lombroso  ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

• History of "Cesare Lombroso"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.