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Carolus Linnaeus

Carl Linnaeus (May 23, 1707–January 10, 1778), also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, and in English usually under the Latinized name Carolus Linnaeus, the name with which his publications were signed, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of nomenclature. He is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy."

Name

Linnaeus' name comes in different variants: "Carl Linnaeus," "Carolus Linnaeus," and :Carl von Linné," and sometimes just "Carl Linné." There is often confusion about his real (Swedish) name, as opposed to the Latinized form 'Carolus Linnaeus' that he used most when he published his scientific works (in Latin).

In Linnaeus' time, most Swedes had no surnames. Linnaeus' grandfather was named Ingemar Bengtsson (son of Bengt), according to Scandinavian tradition. Linnaeus' father was known as Nils Ingemarsson (son of Ingemar). Only for registration purposes, for example when matriculating at a university, one needed a surname. In the academic world, Latin was the language of choice, so when Linnaeus' father went to the University of Lund, he coined himself a Latin surname: Linnaeus, referring to a large linden (lime) tree on the family property Linnagård (linn being a now obsolete variant of Swedish lind, the linden). Nils Ingemarsson Linnaeus gave his son the name Carl. So the Swedish name of the boy was Carl Linnaeus (Stearn 1992).

When Carl Linnaeus enrolled as a student at the University of Lund, he was registered as "Carolus Linnaeus." This Latinized form was the name he used when he published his works in Latin. After he was ennobled in 1761 (Stearn 1957), he took the name Carl von Linné. 'Linné' is a shortened version of 'Linnaeus' and 'von' is added to signify his ennoblement.

When referring to or citing the author Linnaeus, it is appropriate to use "Carl Linnaeus," "Carolus Linnaeus," or just "Linnaeus." "Carl von Linné" seems to be less suitable, especially for the works he published before 1762. On the title page of the second edition of Species plantarum (1762), the author's name is still printed as 'Carolus Linnaeus' (or rather the genitive form 'Caroli Linnaei'), but from then on, his name is quite consistently printed as 'Carolus a Linne' or 'Carl von Linné'. Stafleu uses 'Carl Linnaeus' as the author's name for all his works.

The adjective of his name is usually "Linnaean," but the prestigious Linnean Society of London has a journal The Linnean, and awards the Linnean Medal.

Biography

Linnaeus was born on a farm on May 23 1707. The farm was called Råshult and was located in Älmhult Municipality in the province of Småland in southern Sweden. Like his father and maternal grandfather, Linnaeus was groomed as a youth to be a churchman, but he showed little enthusiasm for it. His interest in botany impressed a physician from his town and he was sent to study at Lund University, transferring to Uppsala University after one year.

Linnaeus had been impressed by what he read about the stamens and pistils of flowers as sexual organs. At Uppsala, he wrote a short work on the subject himself that earned him a position at the Botanical Gardens.

Carl Linnaeus dressed in native Lapp costume.

In 1732, the Academy of Sciences at Uppsala financed his expedition to explore Lapland, then virtually unknown. The result of this was firstly The Florula Lapponica (the first work to use the Sexual System) and later the Flora Lapponica, published in 1737.

In 1735, Linnaeus moved to the continent. In the Netherlands he earned his one and only academic degree. He also met Jan Frederik Gronovius and showed him a draft of his work on taxonomy, the Systema Naturae. This was published in the Netherlands the same year, as an eleven page work.

By the time it reached its 10th edition (1758), the Systema Naturae included classifications of 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. In it, the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as "Physalis amno ramosissime ramis angulosis glabris foliis dentoserratis", were supplemented with concise and now familiar "binomials," composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet, such as Physalis angulata. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was developed by the Bauhin brothers (Gaspard Bauhin and Johann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier, Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently, and may be said to have popularized it within the scientific community.

Linnaeus named taxa in ways that personally struck him as common-sensical; for example, human beings are Homo sapiens (wise man). He also briefly described a second human species, Homo troglodytes ("cave-dwelling man"). This was, however, likely a confusion originating from exaggerated second- or third-hand accounts of the chimpanzee (currently most often placed in a different genus, as Pan troglodytes). The group "mammalia" are named for their mammary glands. Not only is this a defining characteristics of mammals, but it has been said to originate from Linnaeus's own advocacy of mothers' breastfeeding their own children; Linnaeus himself authored a book on the issue (Marks 1997).

In 1739, at the age of 32, Linnaeus married Sara Morea, daughter of a physician. He ascended to the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany. He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals. The last may seem somewhat odd, but the theory of evolution was still a long time away. Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the elements of the natural world. Still, Linnaeus' research had begun to take science on a path that diverged from what had been taught by religious authorities; the local Lutheran Archbishop had accused him of "impiety." In a letter [1] to Johann Georg Gmelin dated February 25, 1747, Linnaeus wrote:

Original Latin

Non placet, quod Hominem inter ant[h]ropomorpha collocaverim, sed homo noscit se ipsum. Removeamus vocabula. Mihi perinde erit, quo nomine utamur. Sed quaero a Te et Toto orbe differentiam genericam inter hominem et Simiam, quae ex principiis Historiae naturalis. Ego certissime nullam novi. Utinam aliquis mihi unicam diceret! Si vocassem hominem simiam vel vice versa omnes in me conjecissem theologos. Debuissem forte ex lege artis.

An English translation

It is not pleasing that I placed humans among the primates, but man knows himself. Let us get the words out of the way. It will be equal to me by whatever name they are treated. But I ask you and the whole world a generic difference between men and simians in accordance with the principles of Natural History. I certainly know none. If only someone would tell me one! If I called man an ape or vice versa I would bring together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to scientifically,

The Swedish king Adolf Fredrik ennobled Linnaeus in 1757, and after the privy council had confirmed the confiring of nobility Linnaeus took the surname von Linné, later often signing just Carl Linné.

Declining in his later years, Linnaeus suffered from a series of strokes in 1774. He died four years later, in 1778.

Linnaean taxonomy

Title page of the 1760 edition of Systema Naturae.

Taxonomists, in almost any biological field, have heard of Carolus Linnaeus. His prime contribution was to establish conventions for the naming of living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world (binomial names, scientific names): the work of Linnaeus represents the starting point of binomial nomenclature. In addition Linnaeus developed, during the great 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, what became known as the Linnaean taxonomy; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into Classes and they, in turn, into Orders, which were divided into Genera (singular: genus), which were divided into Species (singular: species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank (for plants these are now called "varieties").

Though the Linnaean system has proven robust, expansion of knowledge has led to an expansion of the number of hierarchical levels within the system, increasing the administrative requirements of the system (see, for example, ICZN), though it remains the only extant working classification system at present that enjoys universal scientific acceptance. Among the later subdivisions that have arisen are such entities as Phyla (singular: phylum), Superclasses, Superorders, Infarorders, Families, Superfamilies and Tribes. Many of these extra hierarchical levels tend to arise in disciplines such as entomology, whose subject matter is replete with species requiring classification. Any biological field that is species rich, or which is subject to a revision of the state of extant knowledge concerning those species and their relationships to each other, will inevitably make use of the additional hierarchical levels, particularly if integration of living organisms with fossils is performed, and the application of newer classification tools such as cladistics to facilitate this takes place.

Groups of organisms at any rank are now called taxa (singular: taxon) or taxonomic groups.

The task of identifying and describing all living species is called the Linnaean enterprise by modern ecologists.

His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics. Although only his groupings for animals remain to this day, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since Linnaeus' conception, as well as the principles behind them, he is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics. While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid 'observable characteristics' has changed with expanding knowledge (for example, DNA sequencing, unavailable in Linnaeus' time, has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing their relationships to each other), the fundamental principle remains sound.

Linnaeus was also a pioneer in defining the concept of "race". Within Homo sapiens he proposed four taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank. These categories are, Americanus, Asiaticus, Africanus, and Europeanus. They were based on place of origin at first, and later skin color. Each race had certain characteristics that members supposedly had. Native Americans were reddish, stubborn, and angered easily. Africans were black, relaxed and negligent. Asians were sallow, avaricious, and easily distracted. Europeans were white, gentle, and inventive. Linnaeus's races were clearly skewed in favour of Europeans. Over time, this classification led to a racial hierarchy, in which Europeans were at the top.

In addition, in Amoenitates academicae (1763), he defined Homo anthropomorpha as a catch-all race for a variety of human-like mythological creatures, including the troglodyte, satyr, hydra, and phoenix. He claimed that not only did these creatures actually exist, but were in reality inaccurate descriptions of real-world ape-like creatures.

He also, in Systema Naturæ, defined Homo ferus as "four-footed, mute, hairy." It included the subraces Juvenis lupinus hessensis (wolf-boys), whom he thought were raised by animals, and Juvenis hannoveranus (Peter of Hanover) and Puella campanica (Wild-girl of Champaigne). He likewise defined Homo monstrosous as agile and fainthearted, and included in this race the Patagonian giant, the dwarf of the Alps, and the monorchid Hottentot. Template:Anthropology-stub Template:Carolus Linnaeus Racial Definitions

Students

His students include such renowned botanists as Pehr Kalm (from Finland) and Daniel Solander (from Sweden). See also Wikipedia's category: students of Linnaeus.

Other accomplishments

Signature of Carolus Linnaeus (Carl v. Linné).

File:100 kronor swedish.jpg

Carolus Linnaeus pictured on the Swedish 100 kronor bank note.

Linnaeus is considered one of the finest writers of Swedish prose. His travel journals contain pithy notes on everything of interest he encountered, not just plants. He didn't just write from personal interest, but as a reporter to the enlightened scientific and political public. His journey to sub-Arctic Lapland is notable for exotic and adventurous episodes. He also composed some down-to-earth sex-instruction lectures published as "Om sättet att tillhopa gå" [How to go together].
Linnaeus' original botanical garden may still be seen in Uppsala.
He originated the practice of using the ♂ - (shield and arrow) Mars and ♀ - (hand mirror) Venus glyphs as the symbol for male and female.
His picture can be found on the current Swedish 100 kronor bank notes [2].
Linnaeus was one of the founders of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Linnaeus is the only botanist currently referred to by a single initial: L. (Previously, the abbreviation assigned was Linn.) In botany, the scientific authority for a botanical name is listed immediately after the name. For example, Cocos nucifera L. is the complete scientific name for the coconut, with the "L." referring to Carolus Linnaeus.
Linnaeus was said to be a man of great social skills. Erik Axel Karlfeldt's words "han talte med bönder på bönders vis, och med lärde män på latin" [he talked to peasants as peasants do, and to learned men in Latin] give a good characterization of his manner.
He was one of the pioneers in the field of chronobiology, and created the "Petal Time Clock". His findings found that different species of flowers open at different times everyday. For example, he discovered that the hawksbeard plant, opened its flowers at 6:30 am, whereas another species, the hawkbit, did not open its flowers until 7 am. After much research into this, he soon concluded that one could tell the time of day simply by watching the flowers in their garden.

Notes and references

Marks, J. 1997. Scientific and folk ideas about heredity. For: The Human Genome Project: Reaching Minority Communities in Maryland. http://personal.uncc.edu/jmarks/interests/Baltimore.html

^[1], ^[2].

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to::

Carolus Linnaeus

Carl von Linne Carl von Linne (1707 - 1778)
Linnaeus Botanical Garden
Biography at the Department of Systematic Botany, University of Uppsala
Biography at The Linnean Society of London
Biography at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
Exhibition: "Order from Chaos: Linnaeus Disposes"
The Linnaean Correspondence
Carl Linnaeus - The World's First Round Cultured Pearls

Template:Botanist

Persondata
NAME	Linnaeus, Carolus
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Linné, Carl von
SHORT DESCRIPTION	botanist and physician
DATE OF BIRTH	1707-05-23
PLACE OF BIRTH	Älmhult, Sweden
DATE OF DEATH	1778-01-10
PLACE OF DEATH

Credits

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Carolus Linnaeus ^history

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History of "Carolus Linnaeus"

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↑ W.T. Stearn, (1957), An introduction to the Species Plantarum and cognate botanical works of Carl Linnaeus, Principal events in the life of Linnaeus; in: Carl Linnaeus, Species Plantarum, A Facsimile of the first edition 1753, Volume I: 14, Ray Society, London.
↑ Stearn, W.T. (1992), Botanical Latin, fourth edition: p. 283-284, Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. ISBN 0-88192-321-4.

[1] W.T. Stearn, (1957), An introduction to the Species Plantarum and cognate botanical works of Carl Linnaeus, Principal events in the life of Linnaeus; in: Carl Linnaeus, Species Plantarum, A Facsimile of the first edition 1753, Volume I: 14, Ray Society, London.

[2] Stearn, W.T. (1992), Botanical Latin, fourth edition: p. 283-284, Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. ISBN 0-88192-321-4.

[1]

[2]

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{epname}}
 [[Image:Carl von Linné.jpg|right|thumb|Carolus Linnaeus]]
-'''Carl Linnaeus''', also known after his [[nobility|ennoblement]] as {{Audio|sv-Carl_von_Linné.ogg|'''Carl von Linné'''}}, and in [[English language|English]] usually under the [[Latin]]ized name '''Carolus Linnaeus''' ([[May 23]], [[1707]] &ndash; [[January 10]], [[1778]]), the name with which his publications were signed, was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[botanist]] and [[physician]] who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of [[taxonomy]]. He is also considered one of the fathers of modern [[ecology]] (see [[Ecology (history)|History of ecology]]).
+'''Carl Linnaeus''' (May 23, 1707&ndash;January 10, 1778), also known after his [[nobility|ennoblement]] as '''Carl von Linné''', and in English usually under the [[Latin]]ized name '''Carolus Linnaeus''', the name with which his publications were signed,  was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[botanist]], [[physician]], and [[zoologist]] who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of [[taxonomy|nomenclature]]. He is also considered one of the fathers of modern [[ecology]]. He is known as the "father of modern [[taxonomy]]."
+== Name ==
+Linnaeus' name comes in different variants: "Carl Linnaeus," "Carolus Linnaeus," and :Carl von Linné," and sometimes just "Carl Linné." There is often confusion about his real (Swedish) name, as opposed to the Latinized form 'Carolus Linnaeus' that he used most when he published his scientific works (in Latin).
+In Linnaeus' time, most Swedes had no surnames. Linnaeus' grandfather was named Ingemar Bengtsson (son of Bengt), according to Scandinavian tradition. Linnaeus' father was known as Nils Ingemarsson (son of Ingemar). Only for registration purposes, for example when matriculating at a university, one needed a surname. In the academic world, Latin was the language of choice, so when Linnaeus' father went to the University of Lund, he coined himself a Latin surname: Linnaeus, referring to a large linden (lime) tree on the family property Linnagård (''linn'' being a now obsolete variant of Swedish ''lind'', the linden). Nils Ingemarsson Linnaeus gave his son the name Carl. So the Swedish name of the boy was Carl Linnaeus (Stearn 1992).
+When Carl Linnaeus enrolled as a student at the University of Lund, he was registered as "Carolus Linnaeus." This Latinized form was the name he used when he published his works in Latin. After he was ennobled in 1761 (Stearn 1957), he took the name Carl von Linné. 'Linné' is a shortened version of 'Linnaeus' and 'von' is added to signify his ennoblement.
+When referring to or citing the author Linnaeus, it is appropriate to use "Carl Linnaeus," "Carolus Linnaeus," or just "Linnaeus." "Carl von Linné" seems to be less suitable, especially for the works he published before 1762. On the title page of the second edition of ''Species plantarum'' (1762), the author's name is still printed as 'Carolus Linnaeus' (or rather the genitive form 'Caroli Linnaei'), but from then on, his name is quite consistently printed as 'Carolus '''a''' Linne' or 'Carl von Linné'. Stafleu uses 'Carl Linnaeus' as the author's name for all his works.
+The adjective of his name is usually "Linnaean," but the prestigious Linnean Society of London has a journal ''The Linnean'', and awards the Linnean Medal.
 == Biography ==
-Carl Linnaeus was born at a farm called [[Råshult]] in [[Älmhult Municipality]], the province of [[Småland]] in southern [[Sweden]]. Like his father and maternal grandfather, Linnaeus was groomed as a youth to be a churchman, but he showed little enthusiasm for it.  His interest in [[botany]] impressed a physician from his town and he was sent to study at [[Lund University]], transferring to [[Uppsala University]] after one year.
+Linnaeus was born on a farm on May 23 1707. The farm was called Råshult and was located in Älmhult Municipality in the province of Småland in southern [[Sweden]]. Like his father and maternal grandfather, Linnaeus was groomed as a youth to be a churchman, but he showed little enthusiasm for it. His interest in [[botany]] impressed a physician from his town and he was sent to study at Lund University, transferring to Uppsala University after one year.
-During this time Linnaeus became convinced that in the [[stamen]]s and [[Carpel|pistils]] of [[flower]]s lay the basis for the classification of [[plant]]s, and he wrote a short work on the subject that earned him the position of adjunct professor.
+Linnaeus had been impressed by what he read about the [[stamen]]s and [[Carpel|pistils]] of [[flower]]s as sexual organs. At Uppsala, he wrote a short work on the subject himself that earned him a position at the Botanical Gardens.
 [[Image:Carl Linnaeus dressed as a Laplander.jpg|thumb|left|Carl Linnaeus dressed in native Lapp costume.]]
-In [[1732]] the Academy of Sciences at [[Uppsala]] financed his expedition to explore [[Laponia|Lapland]], then virtually unknown. The result of this was the ''Flora Laponica'' published in [[1737]].
+In 1732, the Academy of Sciences at Uppsala financed his expedition to explore Lapland, then virtually unknown. The result of this was firstly ''The Florula Lapponica'' (the first work to use the Sexual System) and later the ''Flora Lapponica'', published in 1737.
-Thereafter Linnaeus moved to the continent. While in The [[Netherlands]] he met [[Jan Frederik Gronovius]] and showed him a draft of his work on taxonomy, the ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' which in its 10th edition, published in 1758, classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants.
-In it, the unwieldy descriptions mostly used at the time, such as "''physalis amno ramosissime ramis angulosis glabris foliis dentoserratis''", were replaced by the concise and now familiar genus-species names in the form ''[[Physalis angulata]]''. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system now known as  [[binomial nomenclature]] was developed by the Bauhin brothers (see [[Gaspard Bauhin]] and [[Johann Bauhin]]) almost 200 years earlier, Linnaeus may be said to have popularized it within the scientific community.
+In 1735, Linnaeus moved to the continent. In the [[Netherlands]] he earned his one and only academic degree. He also met Jan Frederik Gronovius and showed him a draft of his work on taxonomy, the ''Systema Naturae''. This was published in the Netherlands the same year, as an eleven page work.
-Linnaeus named taxa in ways that personally struck him as common-sensical; for example, human beings are ''Homo sapiens'' (see [[sapience]]).  He also briefly described a ''second'' human species, ''Homo [[troglodyte|troglodytes]]'' ("cave-dwelling man").  This was however likely a confusion originating from exaggerated second- or third-hand accounts of the [[Common Chimpanzee|chimpanzee]] (currently most often placed in a different genus, as ''[[Pan troglodytes]]'').
+By the time it reached its 10th edition (1758), the ''Systema Naturae'' included classifications of 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. In it, the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as "''Physalis amno ramosissime ramis angulosis glabris foliis dentoserratis''", were supplemented with concise and now familiar "binomials," composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet, such as ''Physalis angulata''. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was developed by the Bauhin brothers (Gaspard Bauhin and Johann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier, Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently, and may be said to have popularized it within the scientific community.
-The group "[[mammal|mammalia]]" are named for their mammary glands because one of the defining characteristics of mammals is that they nurse their young. Of all the features distinguishing the mammals from other animals, Linnaeus may have picked this one because of his views on the importance of natural motherhood. He campaigned against the practice of [[wet nurse|wet nursing]], declaring that even aristocratic women should be proud to nurse their own children.
+Linnaeus named taxa in ways that personally struck him as common-sensical; for example, human beings are ''Homo sapiens'' (wise man).  He also briefly described a ''second'' human species, ''Homo troglodytes'' ("cave-dwelling man").  This was, however, likely a confusion originating from exaggerated second- or third-hand accounts of the chimpanzee (currently most often placed in a different genus, as ''Pan troglodytes''). The group "[[mammal]]ia" are named for their mammary glands. Not only is this a defining characteristics of mammals, but it has been said to originate from Linnaeus's own advocacy of mothers' breastfeeding their own children; Linnaeus himself authored a book on the issue (Marks 1997).
-In [[1739]] Linnaeus married Sara Morea, daughter of a physician. He ascended to the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany. He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals. The last may seem somewhat odd, but the theory of [[evolution]] was still a long time away. Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the elements of the natural world.  Still, Linnaeus' research had begun to take science on a path that diverged from what had been taught by religious authorities; the local Lutheran [[Archbishop]] had accused him of "impiety."  In a letter [http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_txt.php?id_letter=L0783] to [[Johann Georg Gmelin]] dated [[February 25]], [[1747]], Linnaeus wrote:
+In 1739, at the age of 32, Linnaeus married Sara Morea, daughter of a physician. He ascended to the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany. He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals. The last may seem somewhat odd, but the theory of [[evolution]] was still a long time away. Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the elements of the natural world.  Still, Linnaeus' research had begun to take science on a path that diverged from what had been taught by religious authorities; the local Lutheran Archbishop had accused him of "impiety."  In a letter [http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_txt.php?id_letter=L0783] to [[Johann Georg Gmelin]] dated [[February 25]], [[1747]], Linnaeus wrote:
 {|
-| width="43%" valign="top" |
+| width="50%" valign="top" |
 * Original Latin
@@ Line 30: / Line 39: @@
 | width="3%" |
 | valign="top" |
-* English Translation
+* An English translation
-''It is not pleasing to me that I must place [[humans]] among the [[primates]], but man is intimately familiar with himself.  Let's not quibble over words.  It will be the same to me whatever name is applied. But I desperately seek from you and from the whole world a general differerence between men and [[simians]] from the principles of [[Natural History]]. I certainly know of none. If only someone might tell me one! If I called man a [[Simia|simian]] or vice versa I would bring together all the [[theologians]] against me.  Perhaps I ought to, in accordance with the law of the discipline [of Natural History].''
+''It is not pleasing that I placed [[humans]] among the [[primates]], but man knows himself. Let us get the words out of the way. It will be equal to me by whatever name they are treated. But I ask you and the whole world a generic difference between men and simians in accordance with the principles of Natural History. I certainly know none. If only someone would tell me one! If I called man an ape or vice versa I would bring together all the [[theologians]] against me. Perhaps I ought to scientifically,''
 |}
-The Swedish king, [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden|Adolf Fredrik]], ennobled Linnaeus in [[1757]], and after the privy council had confirmed the ennoblement Linnaeus took the surname '''von Linné''', later often signing just '''Carl Linné'''. His father, born Nils Ingemarsson, had adopted the Latin surname Linnaeus as more appropriate for a [[clergy]]man on his matriculation at [[Lund University]]; the name deriving from the [[Small-leaved Lime|lime]] [http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/di/tilia/tilia/tilicor.html] tree after which the family farm, Linnagård, took its name.
+The Swedish king Adolf Fredrik ennobled Linnaeus in 1757, and after the privy council had confirmed the confiring of nobility Linnaeus took the surname '''von Linné''', later often signing just '''Carl Linné'''.
-Declining in his later years, Linnaeus suffered from a series of strokes in 1774.  He died four years later, in 1778.
+Declining in his later years, Linnaeus suffered from a series of strokes in 1774. He died four years later, in 1778.
 == Linnaean taxonomy ==
-[[image:Systema Naturae cover.jpg|thumb|right|Title page of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''.]]
+[[Image:Systema Naturae cover.jpg|thumb|right|Title page of the 1760 edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''.]]
-Although taxonomists, in almost any biological field, are familiar with the work of Carolus Linnaeus, his contribution to taxonomy goes far beyond contributing so-called scientific names to many of the world's plants and animals. Linnaeus developed, during the great [[18th century]] expansion of natural history knowledge, what became known as the '''[[Linnaean taxonomy]]'''; the system of [[scientific classification]] now widely used in the [[biology|biological sciences]].
+Taxonomists, in almost any biological field, have heard of Carolus Linnaeus. His prime contribution was to establish conventions for the naming of living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world (binomial names, scientific names): the work of Linnaeus represents the starting point of [[binomial nomenclature]].  In addition Linnaeus developed, during the great [[18th century]] expansion of natural history knowledge, what became known as the '''[[Linnaean taxonomy]]'''; the system of [[scientific classification]] now widely used in the [[biology|biological sciences]].
+The Linnaean system classified nature within a [[hierarchy]], starting with three [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdoms]]. Kingdoms were divided into Classes and they, in turn, into Orders, which were divided into Genera (singular: genus), which were divided into Species (singular: species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank (for plants these are now called "varieties").
-The Linnaean system classified living things within a [[hierarchy]], starting with two [[Kingdom_(biology)|kingdoms]]. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, families, genera (singular: genus), and species (singular: species). Since then a few other ranks have been added, most notably phyla (singular: phylum) or divisions between kingdoms and classes. Groups of organisms at any rank are now called ''taxa'' (singular: taxon) or ''taxonomic groups''.
+Though the Linnaean system has proven robust, expansion of knowledge has led to an expansion of the number of hierarchical levels within the system, increasing the administrative requirements of the system (see, for example, [[ICZN]]), though it remains the only extant working classification system at present that enjoys universal scientific acceptance. Among the later subdivisions that have arisen are such entities as Phyla (singular: phylum), Superclasses, Superorders, Infarorders, Families, Superfamilies and Tribes. Many of these extra hierarchical levels tend to arise in disciplines such as [[entomology]], whose subject matter is replete with species requiring classification. Any biological field that is species rich, or which is subject to a revision of the state of extant knowledge concerning those species and their relationships to each other, will inevitably make use of the additional hierarchical levels, particularly if integration of living organisms with fossils is performed, and the application of newer classification tools such as [[cladistics]] to facilitate this takes place.
-His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics. Although the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since Linnaeus' conception, as well as the principles behind them, he is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics.
+Groups of organisms at any rank are now called ''taxa'' (singular: taxon) or ''taxonomic groups''.
-Linnaeus was also a pioneer in defining the concept of "[[race]]". He proposed that inside of ''Homo sapiens'', there were four subcategories. These categories are, ''Americanus'', ''Asiaticus'', ''Africanus'', and ''Europeanus'' were based on place of origin at first, and later skin color. Each race had certain  characteristics that members supposedly had. Native Americans were reddish, stubborn, and angered easily. Africans were black, relaxed and negligent. Asians were sallow, avaricious, and easily distracted. Europeans were white, gentle, and inventive. Linnaeus's races were clearly skewed in favour of Europeans. Over time, this classification led to a racial hierarchy, in which Europeans were at the top.
+The task of identifying and describing all living species is called the [[Linnaean enterprise]] by modern ecologists.
+His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics. Although only his groupings for animals remain to this day, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since Linnaeus' conception, as well as the principles behind them, he is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics. While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid 'observable characteristics' has changed with expanding knowledge (for example, [[DNA]] sequencing, unavailable in Linnaeus' time, has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing their relationships to each other), the fundamental principle remains sound.
+Linnaeus was also a pioneer in defining the concept of "[[race]]". Within ''Homo sapiens'' he proposed four taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank. These categories are, ''Americanus'', ''Asiaticus'', ''Africanus'', and ''Europeanus''. They were based on place of origin at first, and later skin color. Each race had certain  characteristics that members supposedly had. Native Americans were reddish, stubborn, and angered easily. Africans were black, relaxed and negligent. Asians were sallow, avaricious, and easily distracted. Europeans were white, gentle, and inventive. Linnaeus's races were clearly skewed in favour of Europeans. Over time, this classification led to a racial hierarchy, in which Europeans were at the top.
+In addition, in ''Amoenitates academicae'' (1763), he defined ''Homo anthropomorpha'' as a catch-all race for a variety of human-like mythological creatures, including the troglodyte, satyr, hydra, and phoenix. He claimed that not only did these creatures actually exist, but were in reality inaccurate descriptions of real-world ape-like creatures.
+He also, in ''Systema Naturæ'', defined ''Homo ferus'' as "four-footed, mute, hairy." It included the subraces ''Juvenis lupinus hessensis'' (wolf-boys), whom he thought were raised by animals, and ''Juvenis hannoveranus'' (Peter of Hanover) and ''Puella campanica'' (Wild-girl of Champaigne). He likewise defined ''Homo monstrosous'' as agile and fainthearted, and included in this race the Patagonian giant, the dwarf of the Alps, and the monorchid Hottentot.
+{{anthropology-stub}}
+[[Category:Race (historical definitions)]]
+{{Template:Carolus Linnaeus Racial Definitions}}
 == Students==
 His students include such renowned botanists as [[Pehr Kalm]] (from [[Finland]]) and [[Daniel Solander]] (from [[Sweden]]).
+See also Wikipedia's [[:category: students of Linnaeus]].
 == Other accomplishments ==
-[[Image:Autograph of Carolus Linnaeus.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Signature]] of Carl v. Linné (Carolus Linnaeus).]]
+[[Image:Linne_autograph.png|thumb|250px|[[Signature]] of Carolus Linnaeus (Carl v. Linné).]]
+[[Image:100_kronor_swedish.jpg|thumb|250px|Carolus Linnaeus pictured on the Swedish 100 [[Swedish krona|kronor]] bank note.]]
-*Linnaeus is considered one of the finest prose writers in Swedish. His travel journals contain pithy notes on everything of interest he encountered, not just plants. He didn't just write from personal interest, but as a reporter to the enlightened scientific and political public. His journey to sub-Arctic Lapland is notable for exotic and adventurous episodes. He also composed some down-to-earth sex-instruction lectures published as "Om sättet att tillhopa gå" [How to go together].
+*Linnaeus is considered one of the finest writers of Swedish prose. His travel journals contain pithy notes on everything of interest he encountered, not just plants. He didn't just write from personal interest, but as a reporter to the enlightened scientific and political public. His journey to sub-Arctic Lapland is notable for exotic and adventurous episodes. He also composed some down-to-earth sex-instruction lectures published as "Om sättet att tillhopa gå" [How to go together].
 *Linnaeus' original botanical garden may still be seen in [[Uppsala]].
 *He originated the practice of using the &#9794; - (shield and arrow) [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and &#9792; - (hand mirror) [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] glyphs as the symbol for [[male]] and [[female]].
-*Linnaeus was instrumental in the development of the [[Celsius]] (then called ''Centigrade'') temperature scale.  [[Anders Celsius]] had proposed using 0 as the boiling point of water, and 100 as the freezing point; Linneaus inverted it to the form we are familiar with today [http://www.astro.uu.se/history/Celsius_eng.html].
 *His picture can be found on the current Swedish 100 [[swedish krona|kronor]] bank notes [http://www.riksbank.com/templates/Page.aspx?id=10571].
 *Linnaeus was one of the founders of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]].
-*Linnaeus is the only botanist currently referred to by a single initial: L. (Previously, the abbreviation assigned was Linn.) In [[botany]], the names, abbreviated, of the botanists who first describe and codify a species follow immediately after the scientific name. For example, ''Cocos nucifera'' L. is the complete scientific name for the [[coconut]], with the "L." referring to Carolus Linnaeus.
+*Linnaeus is the only botanist currently referred to by a single initial: L. (Previously, the abbreviation assigned was Linn.) In [[botany]], the scientific authority for a [[Botanical name|botanical name]] is listed immediately after the name. For example, ''Cocos nucifera'' L. is the complete scientific name for the [[coconut]], with the "L." referring to Carolus Linnaeus.
 *Linnaeus was said to be a man of great social skills. [[Erik Axel Karlfeldt]]'s words "han talte med bönder på bönders vis, och med lärde män på latin" [he talked to [[peasant]]s as peasants do, and to learned men in [[Latin]]] give a good characterization of his manner.
-*He created the "[[Petal Time Clock]]". His findings found that different species of flowers open at different times everyday. For example, he discovered that the [[hawksbeard]] plant, opened its flowers at 6:30 am, whereas another species, the [[hawkbit]], did not open its flowers until 7 am. After much research into this, he soon concluded that one could tell the time of day simply by watching the flowers in their garden. This method of keeping time did not catch on with everyone.
+*He was one of the pioneers in the field of [[chronobiology]], and created the "[[Petal Time Clock]]". His findings found that different species of flowers open at different times everyday. For example, he discovered that the [[hawksbeard]] plant, opened its flowers at 6:30 am, whereas another species, the [[hawkbit]], did not open its flowers until 7 am. After much research into this, he soon concluded that one could tell the time of day simply by watching the flowers in their garden.
 == See also ==
@@ Line 73: / Line 96: @@
 *[[Frederik Hasselquist]]
 *[[Peter Artedi]]
+== Notes and references ==
+<references/>
+Marks, J. 1997. Scientific and folk ideas about heredity. For: The Human Genome Project: Reaching Minority Communities in Maryland. http://personal.uncc.edu/jmarks/interests/Baltimore.html
+<ref>W.T. Stearn, (1957), ''An introduction to the Species Plantarum and cognate botanical works of Carl Linnaeus'', Principal events in the life of Linnaeus; in: Carl Linnaeus, ''Species Plantarum'', A Facsimile of the first edition 1753, Volume I: 14, Ray Society, London.</ref>,
+<ref>Stearn, W.T. (1992), ''Botanical Latin'', fourth edition: p. 283-284, Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. ISBN 0-88192-321-4.</ref>.
 == External links ==
 {{Commons|Carolus Linnaeus}}
+*[http://www.orchids.co.in/orchidologists/carl-von-linne.shtm Carl von Linne] Carl von Linne (1707 - 1778)
 *[http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/LTeng.html Linnaeus Botanical Garden]
-*[http://www.systbot.uu.se/history/linnaeus.html Biography] at the Department of Systematic Botany, [[Uppsala University|University of Uppsala]]
+*[http://www.systbot.uu.se/information/history/linnaeus.htm Biography] at the Department of Systematic Botany, [[Uppsala University|University of Uppsala]]
 *[http://linnean.org/index.php?id=47 Biography] at The Linnean Society of London
 *[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html Biography] at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
+* [http://huntbot.andrew.cmu.edu/HIBD/Exhibitions/OrderFromChaos/pages/intro.shtml Exhibition: "Order from Chaos: Linnaeus Disposes"]
 *[http://linnaeus.c18.net/ The Linnaean Correspondence]
+*[http://www.pearl-guide.com/forum/showthread.php?p=1625#post1625/ Carl Linnaeus - The World's First Round Cultured Pearls]
+{{botanist|L.|Linnaeus, Carolus Linnaeus}}
 {{Persondata
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+{{credit|54016537}}
-{{credit|34442138}}
 [[Category:Life sciences]]