Benedictine
A Benedictine is an adherent of the teachings of Saint Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-c. 547), who is renowned as the author of the Rule of St Benedict - the most important and influential set of monastic regulations in the western Christian world. Many monasteries observe the Rule of St Benedict, including Roman Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox groups, although the Benedictine monastaries within Roman Catholicism are the most numerous. In the sixth century C.E., St Benedict founded the "Order of Saint Benedict" (in Latin name: Ordo Sancti Benedicti , initials: OSB), sometimes called the "Black Monks" after the color of their habit (monastic dress); however, a Benedictine may technicaly be a monk, nun) or oblate. Most monasteries of the Middle Ages belonged to the Benedictine Order.
Outside a monastic context, the adjective "Benedictine" may also refer to a follower of another Benedict, especially a Saint Benedict or a Pope Benedict. Additionally, the papacy of a particular Pope Benedict may be called the "Benedictine era." Also, a student of a Benedictine school, may also be considered as "Benedictine" as in the case of Benedictine College, Saint Anselm College, San Beda College and Bede College.
Antecedents and Early History
Christian monasticism first appeared in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire a few generations before Benedict, in the Egyptian desert. Under the spiritual inspiration of Saint Anthony (251-356), ascetic monks led by Saint Pachomius (286-346) formed the first Christian monastic communities under what became known as an Abba (Aramaic for "Father," from which the term Abbot originates). Within a generation, both solitary and communal monasticism became very popular and spread outside of Egypt, first to Palestine and the Judean Desert and thence to Syria and North Africa. Saint Basil of Caesarea codified the precepts for these eastern monasteries in his Ascetic Rule, or Ascetica, which is still used today in the Eastern Orthodox Church.
In the West in about the year 500 C.E., Benedict left the comfort of a student's life in Rome and chose the life of an ascetic monk in the pursuit of personal holiness, living as a hermit in a cave near Subiaco, Italy. In time, setting a shining example with his zeal, he began to attract disciples. After considerable initial struggles with his first community at Subiaco, he eventually founded the monastery of Monte Cassino, where he wrote his Rule in about 530.
In Chapter 73, St Benedict commends the Rule of St Basil and alludes to further authorities. He was probably aware of the Rule written by (or attributed to) Pachomius; and his Rule also shows influence by the Rules of St Augustine and Saint John Cassian. Benedict's greatest debt, however, may be to the anonymous Rule of the Master, which he seems to have radically excised, expanded, revised and corrected in the light of his own considerable experience and insight. [1]
The first official Benedictine monastery was established by Saint Benedict of Nursia in Monte Cassino, Italy ca 529. Most monasteries of the Middle Ages were of the Benedictine Order, even though it has been said that Benedict himself did not intend for his Rule to become the standard for Western Monasticism. However, it has also been argued that he made this inevitable because he provided so efficient an institution. In fact, the Benedictine Monasteries made so great contributions to religion, econcomics, education, and government in their day that the years from 550 to 1150 can be called the Benedictine centuries. The original purpose of the monasteries, though, was not to contribute to culture, or even save it perhaps, but to ensure salvation for its members. Therefore, the Black Monks, as well as the Benedictine nuns (monastic women) had to take extremely strict religious vows of Stability (to remain in the monastery), of Conversation Morum, a Latin phrase still debated, and of Obedience (to the superior, because (s) he holds the place of Christ in their community) in accordance with Ch. 58.17 of the Rule of Saint Benedict of Nursia. The abbots of the monasteries had absolute authority over the other monks; to assign them duties, punish them, and take charge of their comings and goings.
During the English Reformation all monasteries were dissolved and their lands confiscated by the throne. However, since the Oxford Movement there has been a revival of Benedictine monasticism in the Anglican Church and other Christian Churches.
During the more than 1500 years of their existence, the Benedictines have not been immune to periods of laxity and decline, often following periods of greater prosperity and an attendant relaxing of discipline. In such times, dynamic Benedictines have often led reform movements to return to a stricter observance of both the letter and spirit of the Rule of St Benedict, at least as they understood it. Examples include the Camaldolese, the Cistercians, the Trappists (a reform of the Cistercians), and the Sylvestrines. At the heart of reform movements, past and present, lie hermeneutical questions about what fidelity to tradition means. For example are sixth-century objectives, like blending in with contemporary dress or providing service to visitors, better served or compromised by retaining sixth-century clothing or by insisting that service excludes formal educational enterprises?
Organization
The "Order of St Benedict" is fundamentally different from other Western religious orders: there is no legal entity called the "Order of St Benedict," run on similar lines with other Roman Catholic religious orders with their Generalates and Superiors General. Rather, the various autonomous Houses (that is, communities) have formed themselves loosely into Congregations (for example, Cassinese, English, Solesmes, Subiaco, Camaldolese, Sylvestrines) that in turn are represented in the Benedictine Confederation.
In the modern confederation of the Benedictine Order, all the Black Monks of St. Benedict were united under the presidency of an Abbot Primate (Leo XIII, Summum semper, 12 July, 1893); but the unification, fraternal in its nature, brought no modification to the abbatial dignity, and the various congregations preserved their autonomy intact. The loose structure of the Benedictine Confederation is claimed to have made Pope Leo XIII exclaim that the Benedictines were ordo sine ordinis ("an order without order"). The powers of the Abbot Primate are specified, and his position defined, in a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars dated 16 September, 1893. The primacy is attached to the Abbey and International Benedictine College of St. Anselm in Rome and the Primate, who takes precedence of all other abbots, is empowered to pronounce on all doubtful matters of discipline, to settle difficulties arising between monasteries, to hold a canonical visitation, if necessary, in any congregation of the order, and to exercise a general supervision for the regular observance of monastic discipline. The Primatial powers are only vested in the Abbot Primate to act by virtue of the proper law of its autonomous Benedictine congregation, which at the present is minimal to none. However, certain branches of the Benedictine Order seem to have lost their original autonomy to some extent.
Benedictines are usually Roman Catholics or members of one of the churches of the Anglican Communion, although they are occasionally found in other Christian denominations as well. Some Anglican Abbots are welcomed guests of the Roman Catholic Abbot Primate at Abbatial gatherings.
Vows and Practice
Benedictine monks (monastic men) and Benedictine nuns (monastic women) publicly profess the three Benedictine Vows of Stability (to remain in the monastery), of Conversion of Manners, and of Obedience in accordance with ch. 58.17 of the Rule of Saint Benedict of Nursia. According to the Code of Canon Law a Benedictine abbey is a "Religious Institute," and its professed members are therefore members of the "Consecrated Life," commonly referred to as "Religious." All Benedictine monks and nuns are members of the Laity among the Christian Faithful.
Benedictines who are not members of the Consecrated Life (i.e., Oblates) nevertheless endeavour to embrace the spirit of the Benedictine Vows in their own life in the world.
Within the Order of Saint Benedict, other groups that use the Rule of Saint Benedict and are generally considered to be of the Benedictine tradition are the Cistercians, Bernardines, and Benedictine Sisters of Grace and Compassion, although these are not part of the Benedictine Confederation.
The Benedictine motto is: pax (Latin: "peace"), traditionally also ora et labora (Latin: "pray and work").
St Benedict's model for the monastic life was the family, with the abbot as father and all the monks as brothers. Priesthood was not initially an important part of Benedictine monasticism – monks used the services of their local priest. Because of this, almost all the Rule is applicable to communities of women under the authority of an abbess.
St Benedict's Rule organises the monastic day into regular periods of communal and private prayer, sleep, spiritual reading, and manual labour – ut in omnibus glorificetur Deus, "that in all [things] God may be glorified" (cf. Rule ch. 57.9). In later centuries, intellectual work and teaching took the place of farming, crafts, or other forms of manual labour for many – if not most – Benedictines.
Traditionally, the daily life of the Benedictine revolved around the eight canonical hours. The monastic timetable or Horarium would begin at midnight with the service, or "office," of Matins (today also called the Office of Readings), followed by the morning office of Lauds at 3am. Before the advent of wax candles in the 14th century, this office was said in the dark or with minimal lighting; and monks were expected to memorize everything. These services could be very long, sometimes lasting till dawn, but usually consisted of a chant, three antiphons, three psalms, and three lessons, along with celebrations of any local saints' days. Afterwards the monks would retire for a few hours of sleep and then rise at 6am to wash and attend the office of Prime. They then gathered in Chapter to receive instructions for the day and to attend to any judicial business. Then came private Mass or spiritual reading or work until 9am when the office of Terce was said, and then High Mass. At noon came the office of Sext and the midday meal. After a brief period of communal recreation, the monk could retire to rest until the office of None at 3pm. This was followed by farming and housekeeping work until after twilight, the evening prayer of Vespers at 6pm, then the night prayer of Compline at 9pm, and off to blessed bed before beginning the cycle again. In modern times, this timetable is often changed to accommodate any apostolate outside the monastic enclosure (e.g. the running of a school or parish).
Many Benedictine Houses have a number of Oblates (secular) who are affiliated with them in prayer, having made a formal private promise (usually renewed annually) to follow the Rule of St Benedict in their private life as closely as their individual circumstances and prior commitments permit.
In recent years discussions have occasionally been held concerning the applicability of the principles and spirit of the Rule of St Benedict to the secular working environment.
The Oblature
The word Oblate derives from the Latin oblatus, which means "one offered." Oblates of Saint Benedict offer themselves to God in much the same way that monks and nuns do, except that they do not take monastic vows or necessarily live within the monastic enclosure. Rather, they make a commitment to God, in the presence of the monastic community (or the parish community, depending on circumstances) to strive to live according to the Rule of St Benedict as adapted to suit their own life situations. Usually, the Rule is adapted according to the individual spiritual and practical needs of each oblate by the Abbot or Oblate-Master of the monastery to which he is to retain a bond of practical support and spiritual obedience.
Oblates may be male or female, celibate or married. They are not tonsured as monastics, and, unlike monastic vows, their oblation may be revoked at any time. Out of necessity, Antiochian oblates are not usually attached to a monastery, (except for those who are under the direction of Christminster), as there are currently no Benedictine monasteries in that jurisdiction. However, the oblature operates on the parish level.
Habit
Benedictine Monks were nicknamed "Black Monks" because of the color of their habits. The Holy Rule does not stipulate a particular colour for the monastic habit, and the habit of unbleached, undyed, wool has not been unknown among Benedictines. However, the colour most associated with the Benedictine tradition is black, (hence the name "black monk" used to refer to a Benedictine monk), and that is the colour currently worn by Orthodox Benedictines.
The first layer of the habit is the tunic, which is secured in place by a belt. This is the form of habit worn by Oblates during their period of Novitiate. The next layer is the monastic scapular, which is a tabard-like garment worn over the tunic. The tunic, belt, and scapular, (with a head-veil for women), form the complete habit worn by Oblates while in the monastic enclosure and by monastics during the Novitiate. Outside of the monastery, the Oblate simply wears a reduced scapular and the Saint Benedict Medal under civilian clothing. When the monastic makes his solemn profession, he is tonsured and invested with the cowl.
Monastics and Oblates alike, upon their repose, are buried in the habit proper to their order.
Rule of St. Benedict
The Rule of St Benedict by Benedict of Nursia (fl. 6th century) is a book of precepts written for monks living in community under the authority of an abbot. Since about the 7th century it has been adopted with equal success by communities of women. During the 1500 years of its existence, it has become the leading guide in Western Christianity for monastic living in community, in Orthodoxy, Catholicism and (since the time of the Reformation) in the Anglican and Protestant traditions.
The spirit of St Benedict's Rule is summed up in the motto of the Benedictine Confederation: pax ("peace") and the traditional ora et labora ("pray and work"). Compared to other precepts, the Rule provides a moderate path between individual zeal and formulaic institutionalism; because of this middle ground it has been widely popular. Benedict's concerns were the needs of monks in a community environment: namely, to establish due order, to foster an understanding of the relational nature of human beings, and to provide a spiritual father to support and strengthen the individual's ascetic effort and the spiritual growth that is required for the fulfillment of the human vocation, theosis.
The Rule of St Benedict has been used by Benedictines for fifteen centuries, and thus St. Benedict is sometimes regarded as the founder of Western monasticism. There is, however, no evidence to suggest that Benedict intended to found a religious order. Not until the later Middle Ages is there mention of an "Order of St Benedict." His Rule is written as a guide for individual, autonomous communities; and to this day all Benedictine Houses (and the Congregations in which they have associated themselves) remain self-governing. Advantages seen in retaining this unique Benedictine emphasis on autonomy include cultivating models of tightly bonded communities and contemplative life-styles. Disadvantages are said to comprise geographical isolation from important projects in adjacent communities in the name of a literalist interpretation of autonomy. Other losses are said to include inefficiency and lack of mobility in the service of others, and insufficient appeal to potential members feeling called to such service. St Benedict aimed with his Rule "to establish a school for the Lord's service" (cf. Prologue 45) where "we progress in this way of life [that, in his love, the Lord shows us] and in faith," and so "run along the way of God's commandments, our hearts overflowing with the inexpressible delight of love," in the hope that "never swerving from his instructions, but faithfully observing his teaching in the monastery until death, we shall through patience share in the passion of Christ that we may deserve also to share in his Kingdom" (cf. Prol. 21; 49-50).
The Prologue of St Benedict's Rule opens with the words: "Listen [carefully], o son" (Obsculta/Ausculta, o fili), an allusion to an important Old Testament wisdom tradition (e.g. Prov 1:8, 4:10, 19:20, 23:19). The exclusive use of the masculine form continues throughout the entire Rule. Nevertheless, from earliest days, well before some modern editions of the Rule came to render these opening words with "Listen, my child," communities of women have no less lovingly and obediently than their Benedictine brethren "inclined the ear of their hearts" and "welcomed and faithfully put into practice this advice from the father who loves them" (cf. Prol. 1). Indeed, throughout the centuries, communities of women following the Rule of St Benedict have flourished just as much as their Benedictine brethren, if not more so. For a while there were also "Double Monasteries" — adjoining communities of Benedictine monks and nuns under the authority of one joint superior, usually an abbess — but they have not survived into modern times. The Rule opens with a prologue or hortatory preface, in which St Benedict sets forth the main principles of the religious life, viz.: the renunciation of one's own will and arming oneself "with the strong and noble weapons of obedience" under the banner of "the true King, Christ the Lord" (Prol. 3). He proposes to establish a "school for the Lord's service" (Prol. 45) in which the way to salvation (Prol. 48) shall be taught, so that by persevering in the monastery till death his disciples may "through patience share in the passion of Christ that [they] may deserve also to share in his Kingdom" (Prol. 50, passionibus Christi per patientiam participemur, ut et regno eius mereamur esse consortes; note: Latin passionibus and patientiam have the same root, cf. Fry, RB 1980, p. 167).
The Orthodox Order of Saint Benedict
The Order of Saint Benedict is a loose affiliation of monastics of the Orthodox Church who strive to live according to the Holy Rule of St Benedict. While there is no actual incorporated body known as the "Order of Saint Benedict," Orthodox Benedictines enjoy good relations with each other, which frequently cross jurisdictional boundaries.
The Benedictine monastic tradition began with St Benedict of Nursia himself, who was a monk of the Orthodox Church in the 6th century. Influenced by the writings of Ss Basil the Great and John Cassian, he composed a rule for the ordering of the life of monastic communities in the West, rather than adopting rules that had been composed for monks in a very different climate, with a different cultural and dietary background.
Most of the Benedictine communities existed in the West under what was geographically the canonical jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Rome. After some centuries of increasing distance between Rome and the other four ancient Patriarchates that formed the Pentarchy, (due to doctrinal, linguistic, and cultural differences, and the development of different schools of theology), the Patriarchate of Rome separated from the remainder of the Orthodox Church, taking with it most of the Benedictine communities that had come to flourish in the West since the time of St Benedict.
However, there were some Benedictines outside of the jurisdiction of Rome who remained Orthodox, not the least of whom were the monks of the Amalfion Monastery, which was a community of Benedictine monks from Italy who had come to reside on Mount Athos in the late 10th century, where they remained until near the end of the 13th century.
There are currently at least three Benedictine monastic houses within the Orthodox Church, namely, Our Lady of Mount Royal, under Abbot Augustine (Whitfield); the Monastery of Christ the Saviour, under Abbot James (Deschene); and the interesting case of the St Petroc Monastery, which, while not actually a Benedictine foundation, does have and welcome Benedictine monks, and runs a Benedictine Oblate programme. In addition, an Oblate programme exists at Saint Benedict Russian Orthodox Church in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA [2]. All three of these houses and the parish in Oklahoma City are under the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. Within the United States of America, the autocephalous Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North America, while having no monastic houses, does have a number of parishes that run an Oblate programme.
The Benedictine tradition was largely lost to the Orthodox Church until the 20th century, where a revival was seen, encouraged by the efforts to restore the Western rite to Orthodoxy, which began in the 19th century.
In 1962, under the leadership of its Abbot, Dom Augustine (Whitfield), the Monastery of Our Lady of Mount Royal, which had been an Old Catholic monastic community since its foundation in 1910, was received into the Moscow Patriarchal Russian Orthodox Church by Bishop Dositheus (Ivanchenko) of New York. It was received into the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia in 1975 by Archbishop Nikon (Rkitzsky). Mount Royal continues to this day under Abbot Augustine.
In 1993, Bishop Hilarion (Kapral) of Manhattan (now Archbishop Hilarion of Sydney) of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia blessed the founding of a new Benedictine monastery under its Abbot, Dom James (Deschene). Christ the Saviour Monastery (Christminster) today runs a successful Oblate programme and seeks to make modest provision for the formation of clergy within the Western rite of the Orthodox Church, a provision that is lacking in many Orthodox seminaries. It also publishes music and liturgical books to enhance the offering of the Western Rite Orthodox Liturgy.
In 1997, Archbishop Hilarion of Sydney (since transferred from Manhattan) received into the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia the monastery of Saint Petroc, in Tasmania. This monastic community had been formed as a Continuing Anglican monastery in 1992 under its Superior, Hieromonk Michael (Mansbridge-Wood). While it is not a Benedictine foundation, it does have a Benedictine presence attached to it, and cares for a number of Orthodox missions.
There are currently no female Benedictine monastic houses in the Orthodox Church.
Significance
Beyond its religious influences, the Rule of St Benedict is one of the most important written works in the shaping of Western society, embodying, as it does, the idea of a written constitution, authority limited by law and under the law, and the right of the ruled to review the legality of the actions of their rulers.
It also incorporated a degree of democracy in a non-democratic society.
Notes
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Dom Columba Marmion OSB, Christ the Ideal of the Monk – Spiritual Conferences on the Monastic and Religious Life (Engl. edition London 1926, trsl. from the French by a nun of Tyburn Convent).
- Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages by Richard W. Southern]. Pelican, 1970.
External links
This article incorporates text from the public-domain Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913.
- The Holy Rule of St. Benedict, translated by Rev. Boniface Verheyen, OSB.
Online edition provided by St. Benedict's Abbey, Atchison, Kansas. - A brief introduction on the history and spirit of the Benedictine life, as well as the English text of RB 1980 – The Rule of St Benedict in Latin and English with Notes, Timothy Fry OSB (ed.), Collegeville 1981 (Prologue and cch. 1-7 only, with a commentary by Abbot Philip Lawrence OSB)
- Discussion Paper by Dermot Tredget OSB, Can the Rule of St Benedict Provide an Ethical Framework for a Contemporary Theology of Work?, Belmont 2002.
- Resource books on the Rule of St Benedict (# 3), Monastic Life (# 4), History of Monasticism (# 5).
- Example of the letter and spirit of the Rule applied in a Benedictine community.
- An Introduction to the Rule by Jerome Theisen, former Abbot Primate of the Benedictine Confederation
- Benedictine College - Dynamically Catholic, Benedictine, Liberal Arts, and Residential
- The Division of Psalms according to the Rule of St. Benedict
- The Benedictine Confederation of congregations. *Anglican Benedictines.
- Oblates (secular) affiliated with individual Benedictine Houses.
- J. Klassen, E. Renner, M. Reuter, Catholic Benedictine Values in an Educational Environment.
- Follow up to the BBC Two programme "The Monastery".
- Orthodox Benedictines & Oblates
- The Order of Saint Benedict - Official website of the order as it exists in the Catholic church
- St Benedict's Blessing; A Website on Benedictinism
- Catholic Encyclopedia entry for The Benedictine Order
- Confoederatio Benedictina Ordinis Sancti Benedicti, the Benedictine Confederation of Congregations
- Links of the Congregations
- Monastic Oblates: A Brief Overview - an article by Dom James (Deschene) on the Benedictine Oblature
- Amalfion (.pdf) - An essay on the Benedictine monastery of Mount Athos
- Offices and Prayers of the Oblates of St Benedict (.pdf) - A collection of services and prayers used by Benedictine Oblates under the Antiochian Archdiocese of North America
- Monastic Topic: Work
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