Difference between revisions of "Beet" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Taxobox
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| color = lightgreen
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| name = Beet
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| image = Koeh-167.jpg
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| image_width = 240px
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| image_caption = ''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''vulgaris''
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| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
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| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
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| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
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| ordo = [[Caryophyllales]]
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| familia = [[Chenopodiaceae]]
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| genus = ''[[Beta (plant)|Beta]]''
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| species = '''''B. vulgaris'''''
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| binomial = ''Beta vulgaris''
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| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus]]
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}}
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'''''Beta vulgaris''''', commonly known as the '''beet''', is a [[flowering plant]] species in the family [[Chenopodiaceae]]. Several [[cultivar]]s are valued around the world as edible [[root vegetable]]s, [[fodder]](mangel) and [[sugar]]-producing [[sugar beet]].<ref name="usdaDB">{{cite web
 +
|url=http://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=display&classid=BETA
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|title=The PLANTS Database
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|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, National Plant Data Center, [[Baton Rouge]], [[Louisiana]]
 +
|format=Database
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|date=2006 }}</ref>
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==Description==
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''Beta vulgaris'' is a [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] [[biennial plant|biennial]] or rarely[[perennial plant]] with leafy stems growing to 1-2 m tall. The [[leaf|leaves]] are heart-shaped, 5-20 cm long on wild plants (often much larger in cultivated plants). The [[flower]]s are produced in dense spikes, each flower very small, 3-5 mm diameter, green or tinged reddish, with five petals; they are wind-pollinated. The [[fruit]] is a cluster of hard [[nut (fruit)|nutlets]].
 +
 +
==Taxonomy==
 +
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Three [[subspecies]] are recognised:
 +
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*''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''maritima''. [[Sea beet]]. [[North-West Europe]]. Plant smaller, to 80 cm tall; root not swollen.
 +
*''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''vulgaris''. [[Southern Europe]]. Plant larger, to 2 m tall; with a rounded fleshy [[taproot]]. The ancestor of the cultivated beets (''not'' subsp. ''maritima'', as sometimes stated){{dubious}}.
 +
*''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''cicla'' - see [[Chard]]
 +
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==Uses==
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===Food===
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Spinach beet leaves are eaten as pot herb. Young leaves of the garden beet are sometimes used similarly. The midribs of Swiss chard are eaten boiled while the whole leaf blades are eaten as spinach beet.
 +
 +
In Africa the whole leaf blades are usually prepared with the midribs as one dish.<ref name="prota">Grubben, G.J.H. & Denton, O.A. (2004) Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2. Vegetables. PROTA Foundation, Wageningen; Backhuys, Leiden; CTA, Wageningen.</ref>
 +
 +
The leaves and stems of young plants are steamed briefly and eaten as a vegetable; older leaves and stems are [[stir frying|stir-fried]] and have a flavour resembling [[taro]] leaves.
 +
 +
The usually deep-red roots of garden beet are eaten boiled either as a cooked vegetable, or cold as a [[salad]] after cooking and adding oil and [[vinegar]]. A large proportion of the commercial production is processed into boiled and sterilised beets or into [[Pickling|pickles]]. In [[eastern Europe]] beet soup, such as [[Cold borscht]], is a popular dish. Yellow-coloured garden beets are grown on a very small scale for home consumption. <ref name="prota"/>
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Beetroot can be peeled, steamed, and then eaten warm with butter as a [[List of delicacies|delicacy]]; cooked, pickled, and then eaten cold as a [[condiment]]; or peeled, shredded raw, and then eaten as a salad. It is also common in Australia for pickled beetroot to be consumed on a burger,<ref>http://www.weird-food.com/weird-food-vegetable.html</ref>,
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Garden beet juice is a popular [[Healthy diet|health food]]. [[Betanin]]s, obtained from the roots, are used industrially as red [[Food coloring|food colourants]], e.g. to improve the colour of [[tomato paste]], sauces, desserts, [[jam]]s and jellies, [[ice cream]], sweets and [[breakfast cereal]]s.<ref name="prota"/>
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===Medicine===
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The roots and leaves have medicinal uses.<ref name="prota"/>
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 +
The Romans used beetroot as a treatment for fevers and [[constipation]], amongst other ailments. [[Apicius]] in ''[[De re coquinaria]]'' gives five [[recipe]]s for soups to be given as a [[laxative]], three of which feature the root of beet.<ref>Apicius ''De Re Coquinaria'' 3.2.1, 3, 4</ref> [[Hippocrates]] advocated the use of beet leaves as binding for wounds.
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Since Roman times, beetroot juice has been considered an [[aphrodisiac]]. It is a rich source of the mineral [[boron]], which plays an important role in the production of human sex hormones. [[Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Field Marshall Montgomery]] is reputed to have exhorted his troops to 'take favours in the beetroot fields', a euphemism for visiting [[Prostitution|prostitutes]]. From the [[Middle Ages]], beetroot was used as a treatment for a variety of conditions, especially illnesses relating to digestion and the blood. [[Bartolomeo Platina|Platina]] recommended taking beetroot with [[garlic]] to nullify the effects of 'garlic-breath'.<ref>[[Bartolomeo Platina|Platina]] ''De Honesta Voluptate et Valetudine'', 3.14</ref>
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Today the beetroot is still championed as a universal [[Panacea (medicine)|panacea]]. One of the most controversial examples is the official position of the [[South Africa|South African]] Health Minister on the treatment of [[AIDS]]. Dr [[Manto Tshabalala-Msimang]], Health Minister under [[Thabo Mbeki]], has been nicknamed 'Dr Beetroot' for promoting beets and other vegetables over antiretroviral [[Antiretroviral drug|AIDS medicines]], which she considers toxic.<ref name=drbeetroot>{{cite news
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|first=Fran
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|last=Blandy
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|title='Dr Beetroot' hits back at media over Aids exhibition
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|publisher=Mail & Guardian Online
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|url=http://www.mg.co.za/articlepage.aspx?area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__national/&articleid=280903
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|date=2006-08-16
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}}</ref>
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===Other uses===
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Forms with strikingly coloured, large leaves are grown as [[Ornamental plant|ornamentals]].<ref name="prota"/><ref name="protabase"/>
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Beets are used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of a number of [[Lepidoptera]] species — see [[List of Lepidoptera which feed on Beet]].
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==Cultivation==
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{{Main|List of beet diseases}}
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[[Image:Beets produce-1.jpg|thumb|right|A selection of ''Beta vulgaris'', known as beet, at a grocery store.]]
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Numerous [[cultivar]]s have been selected and bred for several different characteristics. For example, the "earthy" taste of some beet cultivars comes from the presence of the chemical compound [[geosmin]]. Researchers have not yet answered whether beets produce geosmin themselves, or whether it is produced by symbiotic soil [[Microorganism|microbe]]s living in the plant.<ref name=geosmin>{{cite journal | coauthors=Lu G, Edwards CG, Fellman JK, Mattinson DS, Navazio J. | title=Biosynthetic origin of geosmin in red beets (Beta vulgaris L.). | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (abstract) |volume=12 |issue=51(4) |pages=1026-9 |publisher=American Chemical Society |date=2003 Feb |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12568567&dopt=Abstract
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}}</ref> Nevertheless, breeding programs can produce cultivars with low geosmin levels yielding flavours more acceptable to shoppers.<ref name=nottingham>{{cite book |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Stephen_Nottingham/beetroot.htm |title=Beetroot |author=Stephen Nottingham |format=E-book |date=2004}}</ref>
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Major [[Cultivar group]]s include:
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*'''Fodder beet [[Mangelwurzel|wurzel]]''' or '''mangold''' used as animal [[fodder]].
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*'''[[Sugar beet]]''' grown for [[sugar]].
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*'''[[Chard]]''', a beet which has been bred for leaves instead of roots and is used as a [[leaf vegetable]].
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*'''Beetroot''' or '''table beet''' (or, in the 19th century, "blood turnip") used as a [[root vegetable]]. Notable cultivars in this group include:
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**'''Albina Vereduna''', a white variety.
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**'''Bull's Blood''', an open-pollinated variety originally from [[United Kingdom|Britain]], known for its dark red foliage. It is grown principally for its leaves, which add color to [[salad]]s.
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**'''Burpee's Golden''', a beet with orange-red skin and yellow flesh.
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**'''Chioggia''', an open-pollinated variety originally grown in [[Italy]]. The concentric rings of its red and white roots are visually striking when sliced. As a heritage variety, Chioggia is largely unimproved and has relatively high concentrations of geosmin.
 +
**'''Detroit Dark Red''' has relatively low concentrations of geosmin, and is therefore a popular commercial cultivar in the [[United States|US]].
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**'''India Beet''' is not that sweet compared to Western beet.
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**'''Lutz Greenleaf''', a variety with a red root and green leaves, and a reputation for maintaining its quality well in storage.
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**'''Red Ace''', the principal variety of beet found in U.S. [[supermarket]]s, typical for its bright red root and red-veined green foliage.
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==Properties==
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[[Image:BeetrootTuna.JPG|thumb|right|Salad of baby beet, sun-dried tomato and tuna]]
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''Beta vulagris'' roots contain significant amounts of [[vitamin C]], whilst the leaves are an excellent source of [[vitamin A]]. They are also high in [[Folic acid|folate]], soluble and insoluble [[dietary fiber|dietary fibre]] and [[antioxidant]]s. It is among the [[sweetness|sweet]]est of vegetables, containing more sugar even than [[carrot]]s or [[sweet corn]]. The content of sugar in beetroot is no more than 10%, in the sugar beet it is typically 15 to 20%.
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An average sized cup (225.8 grams) of sliced beets will contain:
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* [[Food energy]] 31 [[Calorie|Cal]] (130 kJ)
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* [[Carbohydrate]] 8.5 g
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* [[Dietary fiber]] 1.5 g
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* Folate 53.2 µg
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* [[Phosphorus]] 32 mg
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* [[Potassium]] 259 mg
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* [[Protein]] 1.5 g
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Beets, like [[kale]], [[spinach]], carrots and [[turnip]]s, can be a source of [[nitrate]]s and should not be fed to infants under 6 months of age.
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Beetroots are rich in the nutrient [[Betaines|Betaine]]. Betaine supplements, manufactured as a byproduct of sugar beet processing, are prescribed to lower potentially toxic levels of [[homocysteine]] (Hcy), a naturally occurring [[amino acid]] that can be harmful to blood vessels thereby contributing to the development of [[heart disease]], [[stroke]], and [[Peripheral artery occlusive disease|peripheral vascular disease]].<ref name=umaryland>{{cite web |url=http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/Betainecs.html |date=April 2002 |publisher=University of Maryland Medical Center |title=Betaine }}</ref>
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===Red colouring===
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The colour of red beetroot is due to a purple pigment [[betacyanin]] and a yellow pigment [[betaxanthin]] known collectively as [[betalin]]s, unlike [[Red Cabbage]] which contains the pigment [[anthocyanin]]. Breeds of beetroot which are not the typical deep red, such as 'Burpee's Golden' and 'Albina Vereduna', have a greater or lesser distribution of the two betalin pigments.<ref name=hamilton>{{cite web |first=Dave |last=Hamilton |date=2005 |url=http://www.selfsufficientish.com/beetroot.htm |title=Beetroot Beta vulgaris }}</ref>
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Betacyanin in beetroot may cause red [[urine]] and [[feces]] in some people who are unable to break it down. This is called [[beeturia]]. <ref name=EASTWOOD>{{cite web |work=QJM: An International Journal of Medicine |date=1995 |author=M.A. Eastwood|coauthors= H. Nyhlin|url=http://qjmed.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/88/10/711 |title=Beeturia and colonic oxalic acid}}</ref>
 +
 +
The pigments are contained in cell [[vacuole]]s. Beetroot cells are quite unstable and will 'leak' when cut, heated, or when in contact with air or sunlight. This is why red beetroots leave a purple stain. Leaving the skin on when cooking, however, will maintain the integrity of the cells and therefore minimise leakage.
 +
 +
==History==
 +
 +
Although beet remains have been excavated in the [[Third dynasty of Egypt|Third dynasty]] [[Saqqara]] pyramid at [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], [[Egypt]], and four charred beet fruits were found in the [[Neolithic]] site of [[Aartswoud]] in the [[Netherlands]], it is difficult to determine whether these are domesticated or wild forms of ''B. vulgaris''. However Zohary and Hopf note that beet is "linguistically well identified." They state the earliest written mention of the beet comes from [[8th century B.C.E.]] Mesopotamia; the [[Greeks|Greek]] [[Peripatetic school|Peripatetic]] [[Theophrastus]] later describes the beet as similar to the [[radish]]. "[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Jew]]ish literary sources indicate that already in the [[1st century B.C.E.]] domestic beet was represented in the Mediterranean basin by leafy forms (chard) and very probably also by beetroot cultivars."<ref>Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, ''Domestication of plants in the Old World'', third edition (Oxford: University Press, 2000), pp. 200f</ref>With the imposition of the blockade of the continent during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] there was an impetus to develop beet for their sugar content.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}
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==References==
 +
<references/>
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==External links==
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{{commons|Beta vulgaris|Beet}}
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* [http://database.prota.org/dbtw-wpd/exec/dbtwpub.dll?AC=QBE_QUERY&BU=http%3A%2F%2Fdatabase.prota.org%2Fsearch.htm&TN=PROTAB~1&QB0=AND&QF0=Species+Code&QI0=Beta+vulgaris&RF=Webdisplay PROTAbase on ''Beta vulgaris'']
 +
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Beta+vulgaris+craca ''Beta vulgaris craca''] - Plants For a Future Database entry
 +
* {{cite book |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Stephen_Nottingham/beetroot.htm |title=Beetroot |author=Stephen Nottingham |format=e-book |date=2004}}
 +
* [http://www.news.wisc.edu/8104.html "Professor upbeat about unappreciated root crop"] - general information about beets (UW article)
 +
* [http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Beta.html Sorting Beta names] - multilingual listing of the Beta species
 +
* [http://recipes.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Category:Beet_Recipes Beet recipes] - 66 recipes exhibiting the range of beet uses
 +
* [http://www.foodsdatabase.com/LinkedLabel.aspx?FoodId=20387 Nutrition facts] 
 +
 +
[[Category:Life sciences]]{{credit|149585979}}

Revision as of 23:25, 16 August 2007


Beet
Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris
Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Chenopodiaceae
Genus: Beta
Species: B. vulgaris
Binomial name
Beta vulgaris
Carolus Linnaeus

Beta vulgaris, commonly known as the beet, is a flowering plant species in the family Chenopodiaceae. Several cultivars are valued around the world as edible root vegetables, fodder(mangel) and sugar-producing sugar beet.[1]

Description

Beta vulgaris is a herbaceous biennial or rarelyperennial plant with leafy stems growing to 1-2 m tall. The leaves are heart-shaped, 5-20 cm long on wild plants (often much larger in cultivated plants). The flowers are produced in dense spikes, each flower very small, 3-5 mm diameter, green or tinged reddish, with five petals; they are wind-pollinated. The fruit is a cluster of hard nutlets.

Taxonomy

Three subspecies are recognised:

  • Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima. Sea beet. North-West Europe. Plant smaller, to 80 cm tall; root not swollen.
  • Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris. Southern Europe. Plant larger, to 2 m tall; with a rounded fleshy taproot. The ancestor of the cultivated beets (not subsp. maritima, as sometimes stated)[dubious — see talk page].
  • Beta vulgaris subsp. cicla - see Chard

Uses

Food

Spinach beet leaves are eaten as pot herb. Young leaves of the garden beet are sometimes used similarly. The midribs of Swiss chard are eaten boiled while the whole leaf blades are eaten as spinach beet.

In Africa the whole leaf blades are usually prepared with the midribs as one dish.[2]

The leaves and stems of young plants are steamed briefly and eaten as a vegetable; older leaves and stems are stir-fried and have a flavour resembling taro leaves.

The usually deep-red roots of garden beet are eaten boiled either as a cooked vegetable, or cold as a salad after cooking and adding oil and vinegar. A large proportion of the commercial production is processed into boiled and sterilised beets or into pickles. In eastern Europe beet soup, such as Cold borscht, is a popular dish. Yellow-coloured garden beets are grown on a very small scale for home consumption. [2]

Beetroot can be peeled, steamed, and then eaten warm with butter as a delicacy; cooked, pickled, and then eaten cold as a condiment; or peeled, shredded raw, and then eaten as a salad. It is also common in Australia for pickled beetroot to be consumed on a burger,[3],


Garden beet juice is a popular health food. Betanins, obtained from the roots, are used industrially as red food colourants, e.g. to improve the colour of tomato paste, sauces, desserts, jams and jellies, ice cream, sweets and breakfast cereals.[2]

Medicine

The roots and leaves have medicinal uses.[2]

The Romans used beetroot as a treatment for fevers and constipation, amongst other ailments. Apicius in De re coquinaria gives five recipes for soups to be given as a laxative, three of which feature the root of beet.[4] Hippocrates advocated the use of beet leaves as binding for wounds.

Since Roman times, beetroot juice has been considered an aphrodisiac. It is a rich source of the mineral boron, which plays an important role in the production of human sex hormones. Field Marshall Montgomery is reputed to have exhorted his troops to 'take favours in the beetroot fields', a euphemism for visiting prostitutes. From the Middle Ages, beetroot was used as a treatment for a variety of conditions, especially illnesses relating to digestion and the blood. Platina recommended taking beetroot with garlic to nullify the effects of 'garlic-breath'.[5]

Today the beetroot is still championed as a universal panacea. One of the most controversial examples is the official position of the South African Health Minister on the treatment of AIDS. Dr Manto Tshabalala-Msimang, Health Minister under Thabo Mbeki, has been nicknamed 'Dr Beetroot' for promoting beets and other vegetables over antiretroviral AIDS medicines, which she considers toxic.[6]

Other uses

Forms with strikingly coloured, large leaves are grown as ornamentals.[2][7]

Beets are used as a food plant by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species — see List of Lepidoptera which feed on Beet.

Cultivation

A selection of Beta vulgaris, known as beet, at a grocery store.

Numerous cultivars have been selected and bred for several different characteristics. For example, the "earthy" taste of some beet cultivars comes from the presence of the chemical compound geosmin. Researchers have not yet answered whether beets produce geosmin themselves, or whether it is produced by symbiotic soil microbes living in the plant.[8] Nevertheless, breeding programs can produce cultivars with low geosmin levels yielding flavours more acceptable to shoppers.[9]

Major Cultivar groups include:

  • Fodder beet wurzel or mangold used as animal fodder.
  • Sugar beet grown for sugar.
  • Chard, a beet which has been bred for leaves instead of roots and is used as a leaf vegetable.
  • Beetroot or table beet (or, in the 19th century, "blood turnip") used as a root vegetable. Notable cultivars in this group include:
    • Albina Vereduna, a white variety.
    • Bull's Blood, an open-pollinated variety originally from Britain, known for its dark red foliage. It is grown principally for its leaves, which add color to salads.
    • Burpee's Golden, a beet with orange-red skin and yellow flesh.
    • Chioggia, an open-pollinated variety originally grown in Italy. The concentric rings of its red and white roots are visually striking when sliced. As a heritage variety, Chioggia is largely unimproved and has relatively high concentrations of geosmin.
    • Detroit Dark Red has relatively low concentrations of geosmin, and is therefore a popular commercial cultivar in the US.
    • India Beet is not that sweet compared to Western beet.
    • Lutz Greenleaf, a variety with a red root and green leaves, and a reputation for maintaining its quality well in storage.
    • Red Ace, the principal variety of beet found in U.S. supermarkets, typical for its bright red root and red-veined green foliage.

Properties

Salad of baby beet, sun-dried tomato and tuna

Beta vulagris roots contain significant amounts of vitamin C, whilst the leaves are an excellent source of vitamin A. They are also high in folate, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre and antioxidants. It is among the sweetest of vegetables, containing more sugar even than carrots or sweet corn. The content of sugar in beetroot is no more than 10%, in the sugar beet it is typically 15 to 20%.

An average sized cup (225.8 grams) of sliced beets will contain:

Beets, like kale, spinach, carrots and turnips, can be a source of nitrates and should not be fed to infants under 6 months of age.

Beetroots are rich in the nutrient Betaine. Betaine supplements, manufactured as a byproduct of sugar beet processing, are prescribed to lower potentially toxic levels of homocysteine (Hcy), a naturally occurring amino acid that can be harmful to blood vessels thereby contributing to the development of heart disease, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease.[10]

Red colouring

The colour of red beetroot is due to a purple pigment betacyanin and a yellow pigment betaxanthin known collectively as betalins, unlike Red Cabbage which contains the pigment anthocyanin. Breeds of beetroot which are not the typical deep red, such as 'Burpee's Golden' and 'Albina Vereduna', have a greater or lesser distribution of the two betalin pigments.[11]

Betacyanin in beetroot may cause red urine and feces in some people who are unable to break it down. This is called beeturia. [12]

The pigments are contained in cell vacuoles. Beetroot cells are quite unstable and will 'leak' when cut, heated, or when in contact with air or sunlight. This is why red beetroots leave a purple stain. Leaving the skin on when cooking, however, will maintain the integrity of the cells and therefore minimise leakage.

History

Although beet remains have been excavated in the Third dynasty Saqqara pyramid at Thebes, Egypt, and four charred beet fruits were found in the Neolithic site of Aartswoud in the Netherlands, it is difficult to determine whether these are domesticated or wild forms of B. vulgaris. However Zohary and Hopf note that beet is "linguistically well identified." They state the earliest written mention of the beet comes from 8th century B.C.E. Mesopotamia; the Greek Peripatetic Theophrastus later describes the beet as similar to the radish. "Roman and Jewish literary sources indicate that already in the 1st century B.C.E. domestic beet was represented in the Mediterranean basin by leafy forms (chard) and very probably also by beetroot cultivars."[13]With the imposition of the blockade of the continent during the Napoleonic Wars there was an impetus to develop beet for their sugar content.[citation needed]

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  1. ↑ The PLANTS Database (Database). United States Department of Agriculture, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (2006).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Grubben, G.J.H. & Denton, O.A. (2004) Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2. Vegetables. PROTA Foundation, Wageningen; Backhuys, Leiden; CTA, Wageningen.
  3. ↑ http://www.weird-food.com/weird-food-vegetable.html
  4. ↑ Apicius De Re Coquinaria 3.2.1, 3, 4
  5. ↑ Platina De Honesta Voluptate et Valetudine, 3.14
  6. ↑ Blandy, Fran, "'Dr Beetroot' hits back at media over Aids exhibition", Mail & Guardian Online, 2006-08-16.
  7. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named protabase
  8. ↑ and Lu G, Edwards CG, Fellman JK, Mattinson DS, Navazio J. (2003 Feb)Biosynthetic origin of geosmin in red beets (Beta vulgaris L.).. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (abstract) 12 (51(4)): 1026-9.
  9. ↑ Stephen Nottingham (2004). Beetroot (E-book). 
  10. ↑ Betaine. University of Maryland Medical Center (April 2002).
  11. ↑ Hamilton, Dave (2005). Beetroot Beta vulgaris.
  12. ↑ M.A. Eastwood; H. Nyhlin (1995). Beeturia and colonic oxalic acid. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine.
  13. ↑ Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford: University Press, 2000), pp. 200f

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