Difference between revisions of "Atacama Desert" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Atacama1.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Atacama Desert]]
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[[Image:Atacama1.jpg|350px|right|thumb|Atacama Desert]]
  
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The '''Atacama Desert''' of Chile covers the northern third of the country stretching 1,000km (600 miles) and straddles the southern border of Peru. Bound on the west by barren hills and mountains on the Pacific coast it extends east into the Andes mountains. At an average elevation of about 4 kilometers (13,000 feet) it is not only the highest desert in the world but also the driest. In some parts rainfall has never been recorded. Vegitation is almost non-existent with 0.6mm to 2.1mm rain falling across parts of the area. Average daily temperatures range between 0°C-25°C making the Atacama relatively cool compared with the Sahara or the Great Sandy desert's.  
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The '''Atacama Desert''' of [[Chile]] covers the northern third of the country stretching more than 600 miles (1,000km), and straddles the southern border of [[Peru]]. Bound on the west by barren hills and mountains on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast, it extends east into the [[Andes Mountains]]. At an average elevation of about 13,000 feet (4 kilometers) it is not only the highest desert in the world, but also one of the coldest, with temperatures averaging between 0°C-25°C.
  
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Despite extremes and desolation there is stunning beauty. With the Andes as a backdrop the desert contains five snow topped volcanoes which are the highest volcanoes in the world and the highest elevations in South America.
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The center of the Atacama, a place [[Climatology|climatologists]] refer to as "absolute desert," is known as the driest place on [[Earth]]. For as long as people have been recording rainfall, none has ever been measured in this area. There are some sections of the desert with an annual average rainfall of 0.6 mm to 2.1 mm, allowing for only sparse vegetation. Though limited, the existence of plant and animal life in such a harsh environment testifies to adaptability and determination to survive.
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==Geography of the Atacama==
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[[Image:Valle de la luna san pedro chile.jpg|thumb|300px|Scene from Valle de la Luna (Moon Valley) near San Pedro de Atacama.]]
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Despite extremes and desolation there is stunning beauty. With the [[Andes Mountains|Andes]] as a backdrop the desert contains five snow topped [[volcano]]es, which are the highest volcanoes in the world and the highest elevations in [[South America]].
  
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The Atacama Desert has one of the most unique and seemingly hostile environments on the planet. Immediate surroundings are major contributing factors influencing its formation and physical characteristics. Just east and immediatley below is the meeting point of the oceanic Nazca Plate and the continental South American Plate. The resultant tectonic action is constantly pushing the Andes ever higher and creates powerfull volcanic and seismic activity. At the edge of the Nazca Plate 100km off the coast the ocean floor subsides leaving the Peru-Chile (Attacama) Trench. It reaches a maximum depth of 26,460 feet (8,065 m) below sea level and is approximately 3,666 miles (5,900 km) long; it covers an expanse of some 228,000 square miles (590,000 square km). <ref> http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-453259/Peru-Chile-Trench </ref> The proximity to this very large cold body of water has a substantial effect. Due mainly to the westerlies; prevailing winds which drive cool ocean Humboldt or Peru Current through these already cool waters. Marine air is cooled by the current and thus is not conducive to generating precipitation (although clouds and fog are produced). Upwelling occurs off Peru year-round but off Chile only during the spring and summer, because of the displacement of the subtropical center of high pressure. Co-incidently cold, nutrient-rich water brought to the surface by upwelling brings about extraordinary productivity and the Humboldt Current supports the world’s largest fisheries.
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== Geography ==
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[[Image:Valle de la luna san pedro chile.jpg|thumb|350px|Scene from Valle de la Luna (Moon Valley) near San Pedro de Atacama.]]
  
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The on shore result of these overall effects is that the Atacama Desert is the driest place on Earth, and is virtually sterile because it is blocked from moisture on both sides by the Andes mountains and by coastal mountains. The landscape and soil more closely resemble those on Mars.  
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Sparsely populated and virtually rainless, the Atacama Desert forms a narrow strip on the coast of [[Chile]], between 600—700 miles long. The average width, from the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west, to the [[Andes Mountains]] on the east, is less than 60 miles (100 km). The north end of the desert lies at Chile's border with [[Peru]], while the south stretches to the bend of the Loa River and the mountains separating the Salado-Copiapó drainage basins.
  
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The average rainfall in [[Antofagasta (region)|Antofagasta]] &mdash; a region in Jesus land which is part of the Atacama &mdash; is just 1 mm per year, and there was a period of time where no rain fell there for 400 years. It is so arid, in fact, that mountains that reach as high as 6,885 metres (22,590 feet) are completely free of [[glacier]]s and, in the southern part from 25°S to  27°S, have possibly been glacier-free throughout the [[Quaternary]] - though [[permafrost]] extends down to an altitude of 4,400 metres and is continuous above 5,600 metres. Some weather stations in the Atacama have never received rain. Evidence suggests that the Atacama may not have had any significant rainfall from 1570 to 1971. <ref> Vesilind, Priit J., [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0308/feature3/ Parts of Chile's Atacama Desert haven't seen a drop of rain since record keeping began. Somehow, more than a million people squeeze life from this parched land], ''National Geographic''. Retrieved April 27, 2007. </ref>
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The average rainfall in the desert ranges from 0.6 mm (in Arica) to 2.1 (in Iquique). However, there are some areas which have never recorded rainfall. Dr. Tibor Dunai, who spoke before the American Geophysical Union, told the BBC in a news article: "We found loose sediment surfaces that would be washed away by any desert rainfall and these are older than 20 million years," he said. This is much older than other hyper-arid regions, such as the Dry Valleys of [[Antarctica]] (10-11 million years) and the [[Namib Desert]] in [[Africa]] (5 million years). "The origin of the aridity in the Atacama dates back to the opening of ocean pathways—the opening between South America and Antarctica, and between Australia and the Antarctic.<ref>Jonathan Amos, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4437153.stm  Chile desert's super-dry history.] Retrieved April 29, 2007 </ref>
  
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Some locations in the Atacama do receive marine fog, providing sufficient moisture for hypolithic algae, lichens and even some cacti. But in the region that is in the "[[rain shadow|fog shadow]]" of the high coastal crest-line - the crest-line of the coastal range averages 3,000 m for about 100 km south of Antofagasta - the soil has been compared to that of Mars.
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What are known as "fog-zone plant communities" have developed due to the entrapment of clouds by mountains or steep coastal slopes. These communities lie near the coast and in lower portions of numerous gorges between sea level and 1,100 m. Short-lived [[perennial]] and woody scrub vegetation grow there.  
  
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In 2003, a team of researchers published a report in ''[[Science magazine|Science]]'' magazine titled "Mars-like Soils in the Atacama Desert, Chile, and the Dry Limit of Microbial Life" in which they duplicated the tests used by the [[Viking 1]] and [[Viking 2]] [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] landers to detect life, and were unable to detect any signs in Atacama Desert soil. The region may be unique on Earth in this regard and is being used by NASA to test instruments for future Mars missions. Alonso de Ercilla characterized it in ''La Araucana'', published in 1569: "Towards Atacama, near the deserted coast, you see a land without men, where there is not a bird, not a beast, nor a tree, nor any vegetation" (quoted Braudel 1984 p 388).
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Other areas receive marine fog, providing sufficient moisture for hypolithic [[algae]], [[lichen]]s, and even some [[cacti]]. In these areas, even decomposition does not occur. Dead vegetation may be thousands of years old. A recent innovation has made it possible to catch water from the air. With the use of mesh nets, water is trapped and trickled off via piping into storage tanks.  
  
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==Human occupation==
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In the southern desert, fog-zone vegetation supports approximately 230 species of vascular [[plant]]s. Included are the dominant species of ''[[Euphorbia lactiflua]]'' and ''[[Eulychnia iquiquensis]].'' Other shrubby species in the zone include ''[[Echinopsis coquimbana]], [[Oxalis gigantea]], [[Lycium stenophyllum]], [[Proustia cuneifolia]], [[Croton chilensis]], [[Balbisia penduncularis]],'' and ''[[Tillandsia geissei]].'' [[Bromeliads]] are also present along the coastal flats in this southern part, and include ''Deuterocohni chrysantha'' and ''Puya boliviensis.''
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[[Image:Chile-Atacama.jpg|thumb|left|Atacama road.|300px]]
 
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[[Archeology|Archeological]] evidence indicates that the San Pedro area was the center of a [[Paleolithic]] civilization that built rock fortresses on the steep mountains encircling the valley.  
 
  
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The original inhabitants of the region were the Atacameños, an extinct Indian culture different from that of the Aymaras to the north and the Diaguitas to the south. <ref> Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9010024 Atacama Desert], ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''. Retrieved April 27, 2007. </ref>
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Astrobiologists are studying the Atacama to discover clues which may unlock secrets of life on other planets and the possibility of survival there. They are also studying the growth of plants in extreme places in order to develop plants that could be grown off—world.
  
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The Atacama is presently inhabited, though sparsely populated.  In an [[oasis]], in the middle of the desert, at an elevation of some 2000 meters, is the village of [[San Pedro de Atacama]]. Its church was built by the [[Spain|Spanish]] in 1577.  
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=== Biodiversity ===
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The [[plant]] and [[animal]] life in the Atacama survive under perhaps the earth's most demanding conditions. There is a high incidence of endemic flora. Local populations have relied on some of the species for medicinal purposes for generations.  
  
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Approximately 550 species of vascular plants have been discovered in the Atacama, the most diverse being the families of Asteraceae, Nolanaceae, Cataceae, Boraginaceae, and Apiaceae. Three [[cacti]] are endemic to the northern part of the Atacama Desert; they are Eulychnia iquiquensis, Neoporteria sensu, and Copiapoa. There are also numerous endemic shrubs.  
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The [[Escondida Mine]] and [[Chuquicamata]] are also located within the Atacama.
 
  
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The [[Pan-American Highway]] runs through the Atacama in a north-south trajectory.
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Animal life is very rare in this desert, though there are a few insects and lizards to be found. Mice and fox are also present, but in small number.
  
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The [[European Southern Observatory]] operates two major [[observatory|observatories]] in the Atacama Desert:
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The fog-zone plant communities, or ''lomas,'' provide a friendlier environment. [[Bird]]s such as the Peruvian song-sparrow, Pacific blue-black grassquit, and hummingbirds live there, for at least a portion of the year. Six restricted species can be found in the north region: Thick-billed miner, white-throated earthcreeper, cactus canastero, Chilean woodstar, slender-billed finch, and the tamarugo conebill, the latter three of which are considered threatened species.
  
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* The [[La Silla Observatory]]
 
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* The [[Paranal Observatory]], which includes the [[Very Large Telescope]].
 
  
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A new [[radio astronomy]] observatory, called [[ALMA]], is being built in the Atacama Desert by astronomers from Europe, Japan, and North America.
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=== Resources ===
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The Atacama was one of [[Chile]]'s chief sources of wealth until [[World War I]]. Prior to that time, that nation had a monopoly on the [[nitrate]] trade worldwide. Three million tons were extracted in some years. The taxes alone on these exports amounted to 50 percent of the government's revenues. Since that time, [[sulfur]] has been mined, as well as [[copper]], which is the region's chief source of revenue, providing over 30 percent of the world's copper supply. The Atacama border dispute between Chile and [[Bolivia]] began in the 1800s over these resources.
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The coastal cities of Iquique, Caldera, Antofagasta, Taltal, Tocopilla, Mejillones, and Pisagua have ports, while railroads cut through the mountain barriers to the interior.  
  
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Another radio astronomy observatory, [[Atacama Cosmology Telescope|ACT]], is being built on Cerro Toco in the Atacama Desert.
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The environment offers little support to [[agriculture]], but some farming is done near the river oases. [[Lemon]]s are grown on the shores of the salt marshes, while [[potato]]s and [[alfalfa]] are grown near the Loa River.
  
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== Abandoned nitrate mining towns ==
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==== Abandoned mines ====
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[[Image:Chile-Tatio-Geyser.jpg|thumb|right|300px| Geyser of Tatio in Atacama desert, Chile]]
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Currently, the Atacama Desert is littered with approximately 170 abandoned nitrate (or "saltpeter") mining towns, almost all of which were shut down decades after the invention of synthetic nitrate in [[Germany]] at the turn of the twentieth century. Some of these abandoned towns include Chacabuco, Humberstone, Santa Laura, Pedro de Valdivia, Puelma, Maria Elena and Oficina Anita. [[Chacabuco]] is a special case, since it was later converted into a concentration camp during [[Pinochet]]'s regime. To this day it is surrounded by 98 lost landmines and is guarded by one man, who lives there alone.
  
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The Atacama has rich deposits of [[copper]] and other [[mineral]]s, and the world's largest natural supply of [[sodium nitrate]], which was mined on a large scale until the early 1940s.  The [[Atacama border dispute]] between Chile and Bolivia began in the 1800s over these resources.
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=== Concerns ===
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Of [[Archaeology|archaeological]] importance are the lomas formations. These beautiful and rare sites draw both tourists as well as scientists wishing to study the area. Environmentalists are concerned that the public has not been educated sufficiently enough to understand the delicate balance that is needed in this environment.   
  
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Currently, the Atacama Desert is littered with approximately 170 abandoned nitrate (or "saltpeter") mining towns, almost all of which were shut down decades after the invention of synthetic nitrate in Germany at the turn of the 20th century. Some of these abandoned towns include [[Chacabuco]], Humberstone, Santa Laura, Pedro de Valdivia, Puelma, Maria Elena and Oficina Anita. Chacabuco is a special case since it was later converted into a concentration camp during [[Pinochet]]'s regime. To this day it is surrounded by 98 lost landmines and is guarded by one man who lives there alone.
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Roads and mining operations have caused some damage. Overgrazing of domestic livestock has occurred in the north, as has commercial gathering of rare plants, including cacti and bulbs. The area of Quebrada El León has been overused, but with an opportunity for recuperation, could become a valuable nature reserve, providing for further study and pleasure.
  
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The desert has three protected areas;
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*'''Pan de Azúcar National Park''' was established in 1986 and covers 438 km². It has been recommended that this area be expanded to allow for further protection.
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*'''Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve''' is one of the key areas for the conservation of the threatened [[tamarugo conebill]].
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*'''La Chimba National Reserve''' was most recently established.
  
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The '''Atacama border dispute''' was border dispute between [[Chile]] and [[Bolivia]] in the [[1800s]] that ended in Chilean annexation of all of the [[Antofagasta Region|Bolivian Coast]] and the [[Tarapaca Region|southern tip]] of Bolivias ally [[Peru]], during the [[War of the Pacific]] ([[1879]]-[[1883]]). Later Peru and Argentina got also involved in the dispute. Some consider the dispute is still ongoing as Bolivia still claims an sovereign acces to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The conflic takes name from the [[Atacama Desert]] on wich lies the disputed territory.  
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Most threats to this ecoregion are closely associated increased urbanization, pollution, road construction, livestock grazing, fuelwood gathering, commercial plant collecting, and erosion.
  
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== Border dispute ==  
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== History ==
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[[Image:Tarapaca.jpg|thumb|left|Borders between Peru, Bolivia and Chile before the 1879 [[War of the Pacific]] (note: map does not faithfully represent some of the border, particularly the Bolivia-Argentina one.)]]
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[[Image:Chile-Atacama.jpg|right|350px|thumb| Atacama road.]]
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The origins of the Atacama Border dispute cames from the borders established in the [[Spanish empire]] that just defined the Atacama desert as the northern border of the [[Kingdom of Chile]]. Bolivian and Chilean historians disagree on whether the territory of [[Charcas]], originally part of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], later of the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] and ultimately of Bolivia, included access to the sea. Supporting their claims with different documents, Bolivians claim that it did while Chileans disagree. When [[Simón Bolívar]] established Bolivia as a nation, he claimed access to the sea, although most economic exploitation of the coastal region was being conducted by Chilean companies and British interests, under the aegis of Chile's more robust economy and more stable institutions.
 
  
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The border dispute beetwen [[Bolivia]] and [[Chile]] grew slowly during most of the [[1800s]] over the Atacama corridor, a part of the [[Atacama|Atacama Desert]] which now forms northern Chile.  The Atacama Desert is bordered by [[Chilean Coast Range|the Coast Range]] on the west and the [[Andes]] on the east. The geography of the area was a very large factor in determining how the border dispute began. Because of the mountains, the area has rains only 2 to 4 times a century, making it one of the driest places on Earth.
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=== Human habitation ===
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[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence indicates that the San Pedro area was the center of a [[Paleolithic]] [[civilization]] that built rock fortresses on the steep mountains encircling the valley. The [[Atacameños]], an extinct Native culture different from that of the Aymaras to the north and the Diaguitas to the south, were the original inhabitants of the Atacama.  
  
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After the independence of Chile (1818) and Bolivia (1825) none of the following governments of both countries cared about defining its borders.  
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The Atacama is sparsely populated today, with less than one million inhabitants in its 40,600 square miles (105,200 square kilometers). The populations are centered in the coastal cities, fishing villages, oasis communities and scattered mining camps. In the altiplano, the descendants of the region's pre-Columbian natives (mostly Aymara and Atacama Indians) herd [[llama]]s and [[alpaca]]s and grow crops with water from snowmelt streams.
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National boundaries in the Atacama region had still not been definitely determined when [[nitrate]], [[silver]] and [[copper]] deposits were discovered in the area. Both Bolivia and Chile established competing claims for the territory. Chilean Other countries' interest was drawn due to the importance of nitrates in the production of [[fertilizer]] and [[high explosives]]; [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Spain]] and the [[United States]] had a strategic and economic stake in controlling the resource. Chiles influence grew in the disputed zone as miners, some of them backed by Chilean and forgein companies, started to advance northwards establishing mines and port facilities.
 
  
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National borders in the region had not been clearly agreed until 1866; the two countries had negotiated a treaty<ref name="limites_1866"> [http://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Tratados_firmados_entre_Bolivia_y_Chile#Tratado_de_l.C3.ADmites_de_1866_entre_Bolivia_y_Chile ''Tratado de límites de 1866 entre Bolivia y Chile''] {{es icon}}</ref> that established the 24th parallel as their boundary, and entitled Bolivia and Chile to share in tax revenue on mineral exports out of the territory between the 23rd and 25th parallels. A second treaty in 1874 superseded this, entitling Bolivia to collect full tax revenue between the 23rd and 24th parallels, but fixed tax rates on Chilean companies for 25 years.<ref name="limites_1866"/> Bolivia subsequently became dissatisfied at the arrangement, as Chilean interests backed by British capital quickly expanded and controlled the mining industry, and feared Chilean encroachment on its coastal region.
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=== International disputes ===
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Border disputes filled much of the nineteenth century, between the nations of [[Chile]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Peru]]. This was due to the abundance of mineral resources, particularly sodium nitrate. The mining industry was controlled by Chile and [[Great Britain]], though the area itself was owned by [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]].
  
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==The War of the Pacific==
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The disputes eventually erupted into the [[War of the Pacific]], which raged from 1879 to 1883. The Treaty of Ancón of 1883, gave Chile permanent ownership of areas previously controlled by Peru and Bolivia. Bolivia lost its entire [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coastline, becoming a landlocked nation.
  
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A treaty made in [[1874]] allowed Chile to exploit the area without exploitation fees for a period of 25 years. Four years later, another Bolivian government rejected the treaty and attempted to raise taxes on a Chilean nitrate company. As an answer to this action, the Chilean army occupied [[Antofagasta]], by that time a Bolivian city. Chile declared war on Bolivia in March [[1879]], and on Bolivia's secret ally, Peru in May 1879, starting the [[War of the Pacific]]. Within four years Chile defeated the joint war efforts of Bolivia and Peru. While Bolivian troops retired from the dispted region early in the war, the [[Chilean Army]] had to occupy Peru's capital [[Lima]] to finally get a peace treaty. 
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==Notes ==
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<references/>
  
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Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Ancón]],[http://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Tratado_de_Anc%C3%B3n] Chile was to occupy the provinces of [[Tacna]] and [[Arica]] for 10 years, after which a [[plebiscite]] was to be held to determine their nationality. The two countries failed for decades to agree on the terms of the plebiscite. Finally in 1929, through the mediation of the United States under President [[Herbert Hoover]], an accord was reached by which Chile kept Arica; Peru reacquired Tacna and received $6 million indemnity and other concessions.  
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==References==
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At the end of the war, Chile had acquired the Atacama corridor (now [[Atacama Region]]) as well as the province of Antofagasta ([[Antofagasta Region]]) and the Peruvian Tarapacá ([[Tarapacá Region]]), turning Bolivia into a [[Landlocked country|landlocked state]]. In 1884, Bolivia signed a truce that gave control to Chile of the entire Bolivian coast, the province of Antofagasta, and its valuable nitrate, copper and other mineral deposits. A treaty in 1904 made this arrangement permanent. In return Chile agreed to build a railroad connecting the Bolivian capital of [[La Paz]] with the port of [[Arica]] and guaranteed freedom of transit for Bolivian commerce through Chilean ports and territory.
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* Aarons, John and  Claudio Vita-Finzi. ''The Useless Land: A Winter in the Atacama Desert.'' London: R. Hale, 1960.
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* Armstrong, Sean. [http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt1303_full.html Atacama desert], ''World Wildlife Fund''. Retrieved June 25, 2007.
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* Braudel, Fernand. ''The Perspective of the World.'' New York: Harper & Row, 1984. ISBN 0060153172
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* Dillon, M.O., and A.E. Hoffmann-J. "Lomas Formations of the Atacama Desert Northern Chile." ''Centres of Plant Diversity: A guide and Strategy for their Conservation''. World Wildlife Fund. Oxford: IUCN, 1997.
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* Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Atacama Desert, ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''.
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* Lustig, L. K.  "Appraisal of research on geomorphology and surface hydrology of desert environments."  ''Deserts of the World: An Appraisal of Research into Their Physical and Biological Environments''. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1970.  
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* Roig, V. ''Atacama Desert.'' Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
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* Sagaris, Lake. ''Bone and Dream: Into the World's Driest Desert.'' Toronto: A.A. Knopf Canada, 2000. ISBN 0676972233 
  
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==Chilean proposal of 1978==
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==External links==
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In [[1978]] the Chilean government of [[Augusto Pinochet]] made a proposal to Bolivia that included the ceding of some Chilean ports as [[Tocopilla]] to Bolivia, but not a corridor that would split Chile into two pieces. One of the main suspected reasons of this strange proposal by the right-wing nationalistic military regime of Chile was the ongoing [[Beagle conflict]] with [[Argentina]] over [[Picton, Lennox and Nueva|Picton, Lennox and Nueva Islands]] near [[Cape Horn]]. Chile wanted to secure Bolivia's neutrality  if war started.
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All links retrieved August 19, 2023.  
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The proposal involved former Peruvian land and according to the [[treaty of Ancon]], Chile could not give former Peruvian territories to other nations without Peru's agreement. The leftist dictator of Peru [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez]] opposed to these changes but proposed to make [[Arica]] a territory governed by the tree states. Chile responded it could not accept this complicated shared sovereignty. Some argued that the Chilean proposal was made only to rise friendship with Bolivia as they knew it would not result. The same year Chilean relations with Bolivia severed and diplomatic relations were broken. Today Chile and Bolivia still only maintains consular relations.
 
  
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==Recent history==
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* [http://science.slashdot.org/science/05/03/19/1943236.shtml?tid=216&tid=191&tid=14 Autonomous Robot Finds Life in Atacama Desert], ''Slash Dot''.
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* Amos, Jonathan. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4437153.stm Chile desert's super-dry history], ''British Broadcasting Corporation''. December 8, 2005.
  
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Bolivia still holds claims on the Atacama corridor, which Chile rejects, yet offers instead unrestricted but not sovereign maritime access through the territory for the export of Bolivian natural gas and other commodities. Today the territories lost by Bolvia and Peru gives the Chilean state nearly 40% of its income as the state owned company [[CODELCO]] exploit the world's biggest copper reserves.
 
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During the [[Bolivian Gas War]] the dispute rose again, as most of the Bolivians, including the now president [[Evo Morales]], opposed to the future export of Bolivian gas trough Chilean territory as the Government and the forgein companies wanted. In 2004 at the anniversary of the 1904 treaty fueled the Bolivian claims, and the words gas-for-sea became the slogan of people who opposed exportation.    The dispute became evident wen Chilean president [[Ricardo Lagos]] faced the Bolivian president [[Carlos Mesa]] in the [[OEA]], as Mesa spoke about the topic in front of all the presidents of [[the Americas]]. 
 
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With the rise of two socialist [[Michelle Bachelet]] in Chile as the first woman to be presint in her country, and Evo Morales as the first president of indian origin in Bolivia relations have improved in recent years.
 
  
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{{Deserts}}
  
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{{credit|Atacama_Desert|115650721}}
  
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==Notes ==
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[[Category:Geography]]
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{{reflist}}
 
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==Sources and Further Reading==
 
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* Braudel, Fernand, ''The perspective of the world'', New York, Harper & Row, 1984, ISBN 0060153172
 
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* Sagaris, Lake, ''Bone and dream : into the world's driest desert'', Toronto, A.A. Knopf Canada, 2000, ISBN 0676972233 
 
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* Aarons, John; Vita-Finzi, Claudio, ''The useless land; a winter in the Atacama Desert'', London, R. Hale, 1960, OCLC 2649656
 
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==External links==
 
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*  Vesilind, Priit J., [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0308/feature3/ Parts of Chile's Atacama Desert haven't seen a drop of rain since recordkeeping began. Somehow, more than a million people squeeze life from this parched land], ''National Geographic'', Accessed March 19, 2007
 
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* [http://science.slashdot.org/science/05/03/19/1943236.shtml?tid=216&tid=191&tid=14 Autonomous Robot Finds Life in Atacama Desert], ''Slash Dot'', Accessed March 19, 2007
 
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* Amos, Jonathan, December 8, 2005[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4437153.stm Chile desert's super-dry history], ''British Broadcasting Corporation'', Accessed March 19, 2007 
 
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* Hudepohl, Gerhard, [http://www.atacamaphoto.com/atacama/atacama-3.htm Atacama Desert Photographs], ''Atacama Photo'', Accessed March 19, 2007
 
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{{Deserts}}
 
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[[Category:South America]]
 
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Latest revision as of 18:40, 19 August 2023


Atacama Desert

The Atacama Desert of Chile covers the northern third of the country stretching more than 600 miles (1,000km), and straddles the southern border of Peru. Bound on the west by barren hills and mountains on the Pacific coast, it extends east into the Andes Mountains. At an average elevation of about 13,000 feet (4 kilometers) it is not only the highest desert in the world, but also one of the coldest, with temperatures averaging between 0°C-25°C.

The center of the Atacama, a place climatologists refer to as "absolute desert," is known as the driest place on Earth. For as long as people have been recording rainfall, none has ever been measured in this area. There are some sections of the desert with an annual average rainfall of 0.6 mm to 2.1 mm, allowing for only sparse vegetation. Though limited, the existence of plant and animal life in such a harsh environment testifies to adaptability and determination to survive.

Despite extremes and desolation there is stunning beauty. With the Andes as a backdrop the desert contains five snow topped volcanoes, which are the highest volcanoes in the world and the highest elevations in South America.

Geography

Scene from Valle de la Luna (Moon Valley) near San Pedro de Atacama.

Sparsely populated and virtually rainless, the Atacama Desert forms a narrow strip on the coast of Chile, between 600—700 miles long. The average width, from the Pacific Ocean on the west, to the Andes Mountains on the east, is less than 60 miles (100 km). The north end of the desert lies at Chile's border with Peru, while the south stretches to the bend of the Loa River and the mountains separating the Salado-Copiapó drainage basins.

The average rainfall in the desert ranges from 0.6 mm (in Arica) to 2.1 (in Iquique). However, there are some areas which have never recorded rainfall. Dr. Tibor Dunai, who spoke before the American Geophysical Union, told the BBC in a news article: "We found loose sediment surfaces that would be washed away by any desert rainfall and these are older than 20 million years," he said. This is much older than other hyper-arid regions, such as the Dry Valleys of Antarctica (10-11 million years) and the Namib Desert in Africa (5 million years). "The origin of the aridity in the Atacama dates back to the opening of ocean pathways—the opening between South America and Antarctica, and between Australia and the Antarctic.[1]

What are known as "fog-zone plant communities" have developed due to the entrapment of clouds by mountains or steep coastal slopes. These communities lie near the coast and in lower portions of numerous gorges between sea level and 1,100 m. Short-lived perennial and woody scrub vegetation grow there.

Other areas receive marine fog, providing sufficient moisture for hypolithic algae, lichens, and even some cacti. In these areas, even decomposition does not occur. Dead vegetation may be thousands of years old. A recent innovation has made it possible to catch water from the air. With the use of mesh nets, water is trapped and trickled off via piping into storage tanks.

In the southern desert, fog-zone vegetation supports approximately 230 species of vascular plants. Included are the dominant species of Euphorbia lactiflua and Eulychnia iquiquensis. Other shrubby species in the zone include Echinopsis coquimbana, Oxalis gigantea, Lycium stenophyllum, Proustia cuneifolia, Croton chilensis, Balbisia penduncularis, and Tillandsia geissei. Bromeliads are also present along the coastal flats in this southern part, and include Deuterocohni chrysantha and Puya boliviensis.

Astrobiologists are studying the Atacama to discover clues which may unlock secrets of life on other planets and the possibility of survival there. They are also studying the growth of plants in extreme places in order to develop plants that could be grown off—world.

Biodiversity

The plant and animal life in the Atacama survive under perhaps the earth's most demanding conditions. There is a high incidence of endemic flora. Local populations have relied on some of the species for medicinal purposes for generations.

Approximately 550 species of vascular plants have been discovered in the Atacama, the most diverse being the families of Asteraceae, Nolanaceae, Cataceae, Boraginaceae, and Apiaceae. Three cacti are endemic to the northern part of the Atacama Desert; they are Eulychnia iquiquensis, Neoporteria sensu, and Copiapoa. There are also numerous endemic shrubs.

Animal life is very rare in this desert, though there are a few insects and lizards to be found. Mice and fox are also present, but in small number.

The fog-zone plant communities, or lomas, provide a friendlier environment. Birds such as the Peruvian song-sparrow, Pacific blue-black grassquit, and hummingbirds live there, for at least a portion of the year. Six restricted species can be found in the north region: Thick-billed miner, white-throated earthcreeper, cactus canastero, Chilean woodstar, slender-billed finch, and the tamarugo conebill, the latter three of which are considered threatened species.


Resources

The Atacama was one of Chile's chief sources of wealth until World War I. Prior to that time, that nation had a monopoly on the nitrate trade worldwide. Three million tons were extracted in some years. The taxes alone on these exports amounted to 50 percent of the government's revenues. Since that time, sulfur has been mined, as well as copper, which is the region's chief source of revenue, providing over 30 percent of the world's copper supply. The Atacama border dispute between Chile and Bolivia began in the 1800s over these resources.

The coastal cities of Iquique, Caldera, Antofagasta, Taltal, Tocopilla, Mejillones, and Pisagua have ports, while railroads cut through the mountain barriers to the interior.

The environment offers little support to agriculture, but some farming is done near the river oases. Lemons are grown on the shores of the salt marshes, while potatos and alfalfa are grown near the Loa River.

Abandoned mines

Currently, the Atacama Desert is littered with approximately 170 abandoned nitrate (or "saltpeter") mining towns, almost all of which were shut down decades after the invention of synthetic nitrate in Germany at the turn of the twentieth century. Some of these abandoned towns include Chacabuco, Humberstone, Santa Laura, Pedro de Valdivia, Puelma, Maria Elena and Oficina Anita. Chacabuco is a special case, since it was later converted into a concentration camp during Pinochet's regime. To this day it is surrounded by 98 lost landmines and is guarded by one man, who lives there alone.

Concerns

Of archaeological importance are the lomas formations. These beautiful and rare sites draw both tourists as well as scientists wishing to study the area. Environmentalists are concerned that the public has not been educated sufficiently enough to understand the delicate balance that is needed in this environment.

Roads and mining operations have caused some damage. Overgrazing of domestic livestock has occurred in the north, as has commercial gathering of rare plants, including cacti and bulbs. The area of Quebrada El León has been overused, but with an opportunity for recuperation, could become a valuable nature reserve, providing for further study and pleasure.

The desert has three protected areas;

  • Pan de Azúcar National Park was established in 1986 and covers 438 km². It has been recommended that this area be expanded to allow for further protection.
  • Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve is one of the key areas for the conservation of the threatened tamarugo conebill.
  • La Chimba National Reserve was most recently established.

Most threats to this ecoregion are closely associated increased urbanization, pollution, road construction, livestock grazing, fuelwood gathering, commercial plant collecting, and erosion.

History

Atacama road.

Human habitation

Archaeological evidence indicates that the San Pedro area was the center of a Paleolithic civilization that built rock fortresses on the steep mountains encircling the valley. The Atacameños, an extinct Native culture different from that of the Aymaras to the north and the Diaguitas to the south, were the original inhabitants of the Atacama.

The Atacama is sparsely populated today, with less than one million inhabitants in its 40,600 square miles (105,200 square kilometers). The populations are centered in the coastal cities, fishing villages, oasis communities and scattered mining camps. In the altiplano, the descendants of the region's pre-Columbian natives (mostly Aymara and Atacama Indians) herd llamas and alpacas and grow crops with water from snowmelt streams.

International disputes

Border disputes filled much of the nineteenth century, between the nations of Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. This was due to the abundance of mineral resources, particularly sodium nitrate. The mining industry was controlled by Chile and Great Britain, though the area itself was owned by Bolivia and Peru.

The disputes eventually erupted into the War of the Pacific, which raged from 1879 to 1883. The Treaty of Ancón of 1883, gave Chile permanent ownership of areas previously controlled by Peru and Bolivia. Bolivia lost its entire Pacific coastline, becoming a landlocked nation.

Notes

  1. ↑ Jonathan Amos, Chile desert's super-dry history. Retrieved April 29, 2007

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Aarons, John and Claudio Vita-Finzi. The Useless Land: A Winter in the Atacama Desert. London: R. Hale, 1960.
  • Armstrong, Sean. Atacama desert, World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved June 25, 2007.
  • Braudel, Fernand. The Perspective of the World. New York: Harper & Row, 1984. ISBN 0060153172
  • Dillon, M.O., and A.E. Hoffmann-J. "Lomas Formations of the Atacama Desert Northern Chile." Centres of Plant Diversity: A guide and Strategy for their Conservation. World Wildlife Fund. Oxford: IUCN, 1997.
  • Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Atacama Desert, Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  • Lustig, L. K. "Appraisal of research on geomorphology and surface hydrology of desert environments." Deserts of the World: An Appraisal of Research into Their Physical and Biological Environments. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1970.
  • Roig, V. Atacama Desert. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
  • Sagaris, Lake. Bone and Dream: Into the World's Driest Desert. Toronto: A.A. Knopf Canada, 2000. ISBN 0676972233

External links

All links retrieved August 19, 2023.



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