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| Part of a series on Hindu philosophy | |
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| Schools | |
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| Samkhya · Yoga | |
| Nyaya · Vaisheshika | |
| Purva Mimamsa · Vedanta | |
| Schools of Vedanta | |
| Advaita · Vishishtadvaita | |
| Dvaita · Shuddhadvaita | |
| Dvaitadvaita · Achintya Bheda Abheda | |
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| Kapila · Patañjali | |
| Gotama · Kanada | |
| Jaimini · Vyasa | |
| Medieval figures | |
| Adi Shankara · Ramanuja | |
| Madhva · Madhusudana | |
| Tukaram · Namadeva | |
| Vedanta Desika · Jayatirtha | |
| Vallabha · Nimbarka | |
| Chaitanya | |
| Modern figures | |
| Ramakrishna · Ramana Maharshi | |
| Vivekananda · Narayana Guru | |
| A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada | |
| N.C. Yati · Coomaraswamy | |
| Aurobindo ·Sivananda | |
| Satyananda · Chinmayananda | |
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History of Buddhism | |
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Timeline of Buddhism | |
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Foundations | |
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Four Noble Truths | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Three marks of existence | |
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Major Figures | |
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Gautama Buddha | |
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Practices and Attainment | |
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Comparative Studies | |
Pramana (IAST Pramāņa) (sources of knowledge, Sanskrit) is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. Pramana forms one part of a tripuţi (trio) concerning Pramā (the correct knowledge of any object arrived at by thorough reasoning, Sanskrit), namely,
- Pramāta, the subject, the knower
- Pramāņa, the means of obtaining the knowledge
- Prameya, the object, the knowable
In Hinduism
Different systems of Hindu philosophy accept different categories of pramanas.
Advaita Vedanta
In Advaita Vedānta, the following pramanas are accepted:
- Pratyakşa — the knowledge gained by means of the senses
- Anumāna — the knowledge gained by means of inference
- Upamāna — the knowledge gained by means of analogy
- Arthāpatti — the knowledge gained by superimposing the known knowledge on an appearing knowledge that does not concur with the known knowledge
- Āgama — the knowledge gained by means of texts such as Vedas (also known as Āptavākya, Śabda pramana)
Sankhya
According to the Sankhya school, knowledge is possible through three pramanas:
- Pratyakşa — direct sense perception
- Anumāna — logical inference
- Śabda — Verbal testimony
Nyaya
The Nyaya school accepts four means of obtaining knowledge (pramana), viz., Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word.
- Perception, called Pratyakşha, occupies the foremost position in the Nyaya epistemology. Perception is defined by sense-object contact and is unerring. Perception can be of two types:
- Ordinary (Laukika or Sādhārana), of six types, viz., visual-by eyes, olfactory-by nose, auditory-by ears, tactile-by skin, gustatory-by tongue and mental-by mind.
- Extra-ordinary (Alaukika or Asādhārana), of three types, viz., Samanyalakshana (perceiving generality from a particular object), Jñānalakşana (when one sense organ can also perceive qualities not attributable to it, as when seeing a chili, one knows that it would be bitter or hot), and Yogaja (when certain human beings, from the power of Yoga, can perceive past, present and future and have supernatural abilities, either complete or some). Also, there are two modes or steps in perception, viz., Nirvikalpa, when one just perceives an object without being able to know its features, and Savikalpa, when one is able to clearly know an object. All laukika and alaukika pratyakshas are savikalpa. There is yet another stage called Pratyabhijñā, when one is able to re-recognise something on the basis of memory.
- Inference, called Anumāna, is one of the most important contributions of Nyaya. It can be of two types - inference for oneself (Svarthanumana, where one does not need any formal procedure, and at the most the last three of their 5 steps), and inference for others (Parathanumana, which requires a systematic methodology of 5 steps). Inference can also be classified into 3 types: Purvavat (infering an unperceived effect from a perceived cause), Sheshavat (infering an unperceived cause from a perceived effect) and Samanyatodrishta (when inference is not based on causation but on uniformity of co-existence). A detailed analysis of error is also given, explaining when anumana could be false.
- Comparison, which is the rough transplation of Upamāna. It is the knowledge of the relationship between a word and the object denoted by the word. It is produced by the knowledge of resemblance or similarity, given some pre-description of the new object beforehand.
- Word, or Śabda are also accepted as a pramana. It can be of two types, Vaidika (Vedic), which are the words of the four sacred Vedas, and are described as the Word of God, having been composed by God, and Laukika, or words and writings of trustworthy human beings.
Vaisheshika
Epistemologically, the Vaisheshika school accepts perception (pratyaksha) and inference (anumāna) as valid sources of knowledge.
In Buddhism
Buddhism, along with hard science and classical Western philosophy, rejects many of the premises of Hindu Pramana, especially the use of religious texts (Agama) as a source of valid knowledge alone.
In Buddhism, the two most important scholars of pramana are Dignaga and Dharmakirti.
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