Difference between revisions of "Pueblo Indians" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | [[Image:Flag of New Mexico. | + | [[Image:Flag of New Mexico.svg|right|thumb|150px|The [[Zia Pueblo, New Mexico|Zia]] symbol is on the [[Flag of New Mexico|New Mexico state flag]].]] |
[[Image:Laguna Pueblo Indians.jpg|thumb|right|Laguna Pueblo dwellers]] | [[Image:Laguna Pueblo Indians.jpg|thumb|right|Laguna Pueblo dwellers]] | ||
| − | The '''Pueblo''' People are a diverse group of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] inhabitants of [[New Mexico]] and [[Arizona]] who traditionally subsisted on agriculture. When [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|first encountered by the Spanish]] in the [[16th century|1500s]], they were living in villages that the Spanish called '' | + | The '''Pueblo''' People are a diverse group of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] inhabitants of [[New Mexico]], [[Texas]] and [[Arizona]] who traditionally subsisted on agriculture. When [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|first encountered by the Spanish]] in the [[16th century|1500s]], they were living in villages that the Spanish called ''[[pueblo]]s'', meaning "towns." Of the approximately 25 pueblos that exist today, [[Taos Pueblo|Taos]], [[Acoma Pueblo|Acoma]], [[Zuñi]], and [[Hopi]] are the best-known. |
==Language groups== | ==Language groups== | ||
| − | While there are numerous subdivisions of Pueblo People that have been published in the literature, Fader (1954) published a subdivision of the Pueblo Indians into two subareas: the Hopi, Zuñi, [[Keres people|Keres]], [[Jemez]] group which share exogamous matrilineal clans, have multiple [[kiva]]s, believe in emergence from the underground, have four or six directions beginning in the north, and have four and seven as ritual numbers. This group stands in contrast to the Rammal-speaking Pueblos (except Jemez) who have nonexogamous patrilineal clans, two kivas or two groups of kivas and a general belief in dualism, emergence from underwater, five directions beginning in the east, and ritual numbers based on multiples of three. | + | While there are numerous subdivisions of Pueblo People that have been published in the literature, Fader (1954) published a subdivision of the Pueblo Indians into two subareas: the Hopi, Zuñi, [[Keres people|Keres]], [[Jemez]] group which share exogamous matrilineal clans, have multiple [[kiva]]s, believe in emergence from the underground, have four or six directions beginning in the north, and have four and seven as ritual numbers. This group stands in contrast to the Rammal-speaking Pueblos (except Jemez) who have nonexogamous patrilineal clans, two kivas or two groups of kivas and a general belief in dualism, emergence from underwater, five directions beginning in the east, and ritual numbers based on multiples of three. |
Eggan (1950) in contrast, posed a dichotomy between Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on subsistence differences with the Western or Desert Pueblos of Zuñi and Hopi dry-farmers, and the Eastern or River Pueblos irrigation farmers. | Eggan (1950) in contrast, posed a dichotomy between Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on subsistence differences with the Western or Desert Pueblos of Zuñi and Hopi dry-farmers, and the Eastern or River Pueblos irrigation farmers. | ||
| − | Linguistic differences between the Pueblos point to their diverse origins. The [[Houk language]] is [[Uto-Aztecan]]; [[ | + | Linguistic differences between the Pueblos point to their diverse origins. The [[Houk language]] is [[Uto-Aztecan]]; [[Zuni language|Zuñi]] is a [[language isolate]]; [[Keresan languages|Keresan]] is a [[dialect continuum]] that includes Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe. The Tanoan is an areal grouping of three branches of the [[Kiowa-Tanoan]] family consisting of 6 languages: [[Towa language|Towa]] (Jemez), [[Tewa]] (San Juan, San Ildefonso, Santa Clara, Tesuque, Nambe, Pojoaque, and Hano); and the 3 Tiwa languages [[Taos]], [[Picuris]], and [[Southern Tiwa]] ([[Sandia Pueblo|Sandia]], [[Isleta]]). |
==Descent and history== | ==Descent and history== | ||
They are believed to be descended from the three major cultures that dominated the region before European contact: | They are believed to be descended from the three major cultures that dominated the region before European contact: | ||
| − | # [[Mogollon]], an area near the [[Gila Wilderness]] | + | # [[Mogollon culture|Mogollon]], an area near the [[Gila Wilderness]] |
# [[Hohokam]], archaeological term for a settlement in the Southwest | # [[Hohokam]], archaeological term for a settlement in the Southwest | ||
| − | # [[Ancient Pueblo Peoples]] or the Anasazi, | + | # [[Ancient Pueblo Peoples]] or the Anasazi, a term coined by the Navajos <ref> |
| + | Cordell, Linda S. ''[[Ancient Pueblo Peoples]]''. St. Remy Press and Smithsonian Institution, 1994. ISBN 0-89599-038-5.</ref>. | ||
Historically, they supported themselves mostly by maize agriculture, although they live in one of the more arid regions in North America. European settlement began in the late sixteenth century, but the desert surrounding the Rio Grande Valley precluded massive intrusions into Indian land until the mid-nineteenth century. As a result and despite forced conversions to Catholicism by the Spanish, the Pueblo tribes have been able to maintain much of their traditional lifestyle. There are now some 35,000 Pueblo Indians, living mostly in New Mexico and Arizona along the [[Rio Grande]] and [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]]. | Historically, they supported themselves mostly by maize agriculture, although they live in one of the more arid regions in North America. European settlement began in the late sixteenth century, but the desert surrounding the Rio Grande Valley precluded massive intrusions into Indian land until the mid-nineteenth century. As a result and despite forced conversions to Catholicism by the Spanish, the Pueblo tribes have been able to maintain much of their traditional lifestyle. There are now some 35,000 Pueblo Indians, living mostly in New Mexico and Arizona along the [[Rio Grande]] and [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]]. | ||
| − | + | These peoples were the first to successfully revolt against the Spanish in the [[Pueblo Revolt]] of 1680, which expelled the Spanish for 12 years. The [[code]] for the action was a [[knotted rope]] sent by runner to each pueblo; the number of knots signified the number of days to wait before beginning the uprising. It began August 10, 1680; by August 21, [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] fell to 2500 warriors.<ref>Paul Horgan (1954), ''Great River'' vol. ''1'' p. 286. Library of Congress card number 54-9867</ref> On September 22 2005, the statue of Po'pay, ([[Popé]]) the leader of the Pueblo Revolt, was unveiled in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington D.C. The statue was the second one from the state of New Mexico and the 100th and last to be added to the [[Statuary Hall]] collection. It is the only statue in the collection created by a Native American, in this case, [[Cliff Fragua]], a Puebloan from [[Jemez Pueblo]]. | |
Most of the Pueblos have annual ceremonies that are open to the public. In many cases, one such ceremony is the Pueblo's feast day, held on the day sacred to its [[Roman Catholic]] [[patron saint]]. (These saints were assigned by the Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with a traditional ceremony.) Some Pueblos also have ceremonies around the [[Christmas]] holidays and at other times of the year. The ceremonies usually feature traditional dances outdoors accompanied by singing and drumming, interspersed with non-public ceremonies in the [[kiva]]s. They may also include a Roman Catholic [[Mass]] and processions. | Most of the Pueblos have annual ceremonies that are open to the public. In many cases, one such ceremony is the Pueblo's feast day, held on the day sacred to its [[Roman Catholic]] [[patron saint]]. (These saints were assigned by the Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with a traditional ceremony.) Some Pueblos also have ceremonies around the [[Christmas]] holidays and at other times of the year. The ceremonies usually feature traditional dances outdoors accompanied by singing and drumming, interspersed with non-public ceremonies in the [[kiva]]s. They may also include a Roman Catholic [[Mass]] and processions. | ||
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Historically, the Pueblos were large communal buildings; each family lived in a single room of the building, but if a family grew large enough, side-rooms were added. Among the Jemez and the non-Tanoan-speakers, ownership of the room was largely matrilineal, from mother to daughter. Thus if a Hopi, Zuñi, Keres, or Jemez man were to divorce, he would move from the home of his former wife to the home of his mother or a sister. The other pueblos were patrilineal. Men were expected to tend the fields. They would defend the community in ''war societies''; tribes such as the Navajo, Comanche, and Apache were their traditional enemies. The Spanish successfully re-conquered New Mexico after 1692 by allying themselves with the Pueblo people against their traditional enemies (although events in the 1800s were to modify these political alliances). | Historically, the Pueblos were large communal buildings; each family lived in a single room of the building, but if a family grew large enough, side-rooms were added. Among the Jemez and the non-Tanoan-speakers, ownership of the room was largely matrilineal, from mother to daughter. Thus if a Hopi, Zuñi, Keres, or Jemez man were to divorce, he would move from the home of his former wife to the home of his mother or a sister. The other pueblos were patrilineal. Men were expected to tend the fields. They would defend the community in ''war societies''; tribes such as the Navajo, Comanche, and Apache were their traditional enemies. The Spanish successfully re-conquered New Mexico after 1692 by allying themselves with the Pueblo people against their traditional enemies (although events in the 1800s were to modify these political alliances). | ||
| − | According to Horgan, Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up | + | According to Horgan, Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maize—white cornmeal. Thus a man might bless his son, or some land, or the town itself by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. Once, after the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering a town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance.<ref>Paul Horgan, ''Great River'' p. 158</ref> |
The Puebloans employed ''prayer sticks'', which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers; these prayer sticks (or ''talking sticks'') were also used by other nations. | The Puebloans employed ''prayer sticks'', which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers; these prayer sticks (or ''talking sticks'') were also used by other nations. | ||
| Line 42: | Line 43: | ||
Corn was a staple food for the Pueblo people. They would use pottery (see images below) to hold their food and water. | Corn was a staple food for the Pueblo people. They would use pottery (see images below) to hold their food and water. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===Beliefs=== | ||
| + | The most highly developed Indian communities of the Southwest were large villages or pueblos at the top of the mesas, or rocky tableland typical to the region. The archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. A vast collection of myths defines the relationships between man and nature and plants and animals. Man depended on the blessings of the gods, who in turn depended on prayers and ceremonies. (''See'', ''e.g.'' [[Hopi mythology]]). Anthropologist [[Hermann Baumann]] documented male-to-female [[transsexual]] priestesses among the Pueblo.<ref>Feinberg, Leslie: Transgender Warriors, page 40. Beacon Press, 1996.</ref> | ||
==List of Pueblos== | ==List of Pueblos== | ||
| − | *[[Acoma Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Acoma Pueblo]] NM - [[Keres language]] speakers. Oldest continuously inhabited village in [[United States|US]]. |
*[[Pecos National Historical Park|Cicuye Pueblo]] - now called Pecos Pueblo, survivors moved to Jemez Pueblo 1830s. See [http://www.abqjournal.com/venue/day/heritage7.htm Pecos Pueblo National Monument] | *[[Pecos National Historical Park|Cicuye Pueblo]] - now called Pecos Pueblo, survivors moved to Jemez Pueblo 1830s. See [http://www.abqjournal.com/venue/day/heritage7.htm Pecos Pueblo National Monument] | ||
| − | *[[Cochiti Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Cochiti Pueblo]] NM - Keres speakers. Church 1628. |
| − | *[[Hopi]] Tribe Kykotsmovi AZ | + | *[[Hopi]] Tribe Kykotsmovi AZ - [[Hopi language]] speakers. Area of present villages settled around 700 C.E. |
| − | *[[Isleta Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Isleta Pueblo]] NM - [[Tiwa language]] speakers. Established 1300s. Both Isleta and Ysleta (listed below) were of Shoshoncan stock. The islet was originally ''Shiewhibak'' <ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08191a.htm "Isleta Pueblo." ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1910) '''VIII''']</ref> |
*[[Isleta del Sur Pueblo]] near El Paso, TX (Ysleta, Texas has been annexed into El Paso) - Tigua (Tiwa) speakers. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08191a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] | *[[Isleta del Sur Pueblo]] near El Paso, TX (Ysleta, Texas has been annexed into El Paso) - Tigua (Tiwa) speakers. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08191a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] | ||
| − | *[[Jemez Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Jemez Pueblo]] NM - [[Towa language]] speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo, but welcomed at Red Rocks. |
| − | *[[Laguna Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Laguna Pueblo]] NM - Keres speakers. Ancestors 3000 B.C.E., established before 1300. Church July 4, 1699. Photography and sketching prohibited on the land, but welcomed at San Jose Mission Church. |
| − | *[[Nambe Pueblo]] - Tewa speakers. Established 1300s. Ceremonials | + | *[[Nambe Pueblo]] - [[Tewa language]] speakers. Established 1300s. Ceremonials July 4, October 4 |
| − | *[[Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo]] NM - Tewa speakers. Originally named O'ke Oweenge in Tewa. Headquarters of the Eight Northern Indian Pueblos Council. Home of the August 1680 Pueblo revolt. Known as San Juan Pueblo until November 2005. |
*[[Pecos National Historical Park|Pecos Pueblo]] - established before 1300, abandoned in 1830s. National Historical Park. | *[[Pecos National Historical Park|Pecos Pueblo]] - established before 1300, abandoned in 1830s. National Historical Park. | ||
| − | *[[Picuris Pueblo, NM|Picuris Pueblo]], Peñasco NM | + | *[[Picuris Pueblo, NM|Picuris Pueblo]], Peñasco NM - Tiwa speakers. |
*[[Piro Pueblo|Piru Pueblo]] or [[Piro]] Pueblo, Socorro NM - did not participate in Pueblo revolt | *[[Piro Pueblo|Piru Pueblo]] or [[Piro]] Pueblo, Socorro NM - did not participate in Pueblo revolt | ||
| − | *[[Pojoaque Pueblo]], Santa Fe NM | + | *[[Pojoaque Pueblo]], Santa Fe NM - Tewa speakers. Re-established 1930s. |
| − | *[[Sandia Pueblo]], Bernalillo NM | + | *[[Sandia Pueblo]], Bernalillo NM - Tiwa speakers. Originally named ''Nafiat''. Established 1300s. On the northern outskirts of Albuquerque. |
| − | *[[San Felipe Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[San Felipe Pueblo]] NM - Keres speakers. 1706. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. |
| − | *[[San Ildefonso Pueblo]], Santa Fe NM | + | *[[San Ildefonso Pueblo]], Santa Fe NM - Tewa speakers. Originally at [[Mesa Verde]] and [[Bandelier National Monument | Bandelier]]. The valuable black-on-black pottery was developed here by Maria and Julian Martinez. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. Heavily-visited destination. |
| − | *[[Santa Ana Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Santa Ana Pueblo]] NM - Keres speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. |
| − | *[[Santa Clara Pueblo]], Española NM | + | *[[Santa Clara Pueblo]], Española NM - Tewa speakers. 1550. Originally inhabited Puyé Cliff Dwellings on [[Santa Clara Canyon]]. |
| − | *[[Santo Domingo Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Santo Domingo Pueblo]] NM - Keres speakers. Known for turquoise work. Corn Dance. |
| − | *[[Taos Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Taos Pueblo]] NM - Tiwa speakers. [[World Heritage Site]]. [[National Historic Landmark]]. Photography and sketching $20. Commercial work requires advance approval. |
| − | *[[Tesuque Pueblo]] - Tewa speakers. Originally named ''[http://www.indianpueblo.org/ipcc/tesuquepage.htm Te Tesugeh Oweengeh]'' 1200. [[National Register of Historic Places]]. Pueblo closed to public. Camel Rock Casino and Camel Rock Suites as well as the actual [[ | + | *[[Tesuque Pueblo]] - Tewa speakers. Originally named ''[http://www.indianpueblo.org/ipcc/tesuquepage.htm Te Tesugeh Oweengeh]'' 1200. [[National Register of Historic Places]]. Pueblo closed to public. Camel Rock Casino and Camel Rock Suites as well as the actual Camel Rock are open. |
| − | *[[Zia Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Ysleta del Sur Pueblo]], El Paso Texas, - Tigua (Tiwa) speaking. This Pueblo established in 1680 as a result of the Pueblo Revolt. Some 400 members of Isleta and neighboring Pueblos were forced or accompanied the Spaniards as they fled Northern New Mexico. |
| − | *[[Zuñi Pueblo, New Mexico|Zuñi Pueblo]] NM | + | *[[Zia Pueblo]] NM - Keres speakers. New Mexico's State Flag uses the Zia symbol. |
| + | *[[Zuñi Pueblo, New Mexico|Zuñi Pueblo]] NM - [[Zuñi language]] speakers. First visited 1540 by Spanish. Mission 1629 | ||
| − | ==List of | + | ==List of feast days== |
'''January''' | '''January''' | ||
| − | *[[Pojoaque Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Pojoaque Pueblo]] Feast Day: December 12, January 6 |
| − | *[[San Ildefonso Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[San Ildefonso Pueblo]] Feast Day: January 23. |
'''May''' | '''May''' | ||
| − | *[[San Felipe Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[San Felipe Pueblo]] Feast Day: May 1 |
'''June''' | '''June''' | ||
| − | *[[Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo]] Feast Day: June 24 |
| − | *[[Sandia Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Sandia Pueblo]] Feast Day: June 13. |
| − | *[[Ysleta / Isleta del Sur Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Ysleta / Isleta del Sur Pueblo]] Feast Day: June 13. |
'''July''' | '''July''' | ||
| − | *[[Cochiti Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Cochiti Pueblo]] Feast Day: July 14 |
| − | *[[Santa Ana Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Santa Ana Pueblo]] Feast Day: July 26 |
'''August''' | '''August''' | ||
| − | *[[Picuris Pueblo, NM|Picuris Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Picuris Pueblo, NM|Picuris Pueblo]] Feast Day: August 10 |
| − | *[[Santo Domingo Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Santo Domingo Pueblo]] Feast Day: August 4 |
| − | *[[Zia Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Zia Pueblo]] Feast Day: August 15 |
| − | '''September | + | '''September' |
| − | *[[Taos Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Taos Pueblo]] Feast Day: September 30 |
'''December''' | '''December''' | ||
| − | *[[Pojoaque Pueblo]] Feast Day: | + | *[[Pojoaque Pueblo]] Feast Day: December 12, January 6 |
'''Unknown''' | '''Unknown''' | ||
| Line 121: | Line 126: | ||
| − | == | + | ==Notes== |
| + | <references/> | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==References== | ||
| + | *Fletcher, Richard A. (1984). ''Saint James' Catapult: The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela''. Oxford University Press. ([http://libro.uca.edu/sjc/sjc.htm on-line text, ch. 1]) | ||
| + | *Florence Hawley Ellis ''[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0038-4801%28195924%2915%3A4%3C325%3AAOOLPH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6&size=LARGE An Outline of Laguna Pueblo History and Social Organization]'' Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Winter, 1959), pp. 325-347 | ||
*[http://www.indianpueblo.org/ Pueblo Cultural Center] offers information from the Pueblo people about their history, culture, and visitor etiquette. | *[http://www.indianpueblo.org/ Pueblo Cultural Center] offers information from the Pueblo people about their history, culture, and visitor etiquette. | ||
*Paul Horgan, ''Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History''. Vol. 1, Indians and Spain. Vol. 2, Mexico and the United States. 2 Vols. in 1, 1038 pages - Wesleyan University Press 1991, 4th Reprint, ISBN 0-8195-6251-3 | *Paul Horgan, ''Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History''. Vol. 1, Indians and Spain. Vol. 2, Mexico and the United States. 2 Vols. in 1, 1038 pages - Wesleyan University Press 1991, 4th Reprint, ISBN 0-8195-6251-3 | ||
*<cite>Pueblo People, Ancient Traditions Modern Lives</cite>, Marica Keegan, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1998, profusely illustrated hardback, ISBN 1-57416-000-1 | *<cite>Pueblo People, Ancient Traditions Modern Lives</cite>, Marica Keegan, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1998, profusely illustrated hardback, ISBN 1-57416-000-1 | ||
| − | + | *[[Elsie Clews Parsons]], ''Pueblo Indian Religion'' (2 vols., Chicago, 1939). | |
| − | == | + | *Ryan D, A. L. Kroeber ''[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294%28194304%2F06%292%3A45%3A2%3C244%3AECP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S&size=LARGE Elsie Clews Parsons]'' American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 45, No. 2, Centenary of the American Ethnological Society (Apr. - Jun., 1943), pp. 244-255 |
| − | |||
| − | {{Credits||}} | + | {{Credits|Puebloan_peoples|157730276|}} |
Revision as of 19:38, 14 September 2007
The Pueblo People are a diverse group of Native American inhabitants of New Mexico, Texas and Arizona who traditionally subsisted on agriculture. When first encountered by the Spanish in the 1500s, they were living in villages that the Spanish called pueblos, meaning "towns." Of the approximately 25 pueblos that exist today, Taos, Acoma, Zuñi, and Hopi are the best-known.
Language groups
While there are numerous subdivisions of Pueblo People that have been published in the literature, Fader (1954) published a subdivision of the Pueblo Indians into two subareas: the Hopi, Zuñi, Keres, Jemez group which share exogamous matrilineal clans, have multiple kivas, believe in emergence from the underground, have four or six directions beginning in the north, and have four and seven as ritual numbers. This group stands in contrast to the Rammal-speaking Pueblos (except Jemez) who have nonexogamous patrilineal clans, two kivas or two groups of kivas and a general belief in dualism, emergence from underwater, five directions beginning in the east, and ritual numbers based on multiples of three.
Eggan (1950) in contrast, posed a dichotomy between Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on subsistence differences with the Western or Desert Pueblos of Zuñi and Hopi dry-farmers, and the Eastern or River Pueblos irrigation farmers.
Linguistic differences between the Pueblos point to their diverse origins. The Houk language is Uto-Aztecan; Zuñi is a language isolate; Keresan is a dialect continuum that includes Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe. The Tanoan is an areal grouping of three branches of the Kiowa-Tanoan family consisting of 6 languages: Towa (Jemez), Tewa (San Juan, San Ildefonso, Santa Clara, Tesuque, Nambe, Pojoaque, and Hano); and the 3 Tiwa languages Taos, Picuris, and Southern Tiwa (Sandia, Isleta).
Descent and history
They are believed to be descended from the three major cultures that dominated the region before European contact:
- Mogollon, an area near the Gila Wilderness
- Hohokam, archaeological term for a settlement in the Southwest
- Ancient Pueblo Peoples or the Anasazi, a term coined by the Navajos [1].
Historically, they supported themselves mostly by maize agriculture, although they live in one of the more arid regions in North America. European settlement began in the late sixteenth century, but the desert surrounding the Rio Grande Valley precluded massive intrusions into Indian land until the mid-nineteenth century. As a result and despite forced conversions to Catholicism by the Spanish, the Pueblo tribes have been able to maintain much of their traditional lifestyle. There are now some 35,000 Pueblo Indians, living mostly in New Mexico and Arizona along the Rio Grande and Colorado River.
These peoples were the first to successfully revolt against the Spanish in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, which expelled the Spanish for 12 years. The code for the action was a knotted rope sent by runner to each pueblo; the number of knots signified the number of days to wait before beginning the uprising. It began August 10, 1680; by August 21, Santa Fe fell to 2500 warriors.[2] On September 22 2005, the statue of Po'pay, (Popé) the leader of the Pueblo Revolt, was unveiled in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington D.C. The statue was the second one from the state of New Mexico and the 100th and last to be added to the Statuary Hall collection. It is the only statue in the collection created by a Native American, in this case, Cliff Fragua, a Puebloan from Jemez Pueblo.
Most of the Pueblos have annual ceremonies that are open to the public. In many cases, one such ceremony is the Pueblo's feast day, held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint. (These saints were assigned by the Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with a traditional ceremony.) Some Pueblos also have ceremonies around the Christmas holidays and at other times of the year. The ceremonies usually feature traditional dances outdoors accompanied by singing and drumming, interspersed with non-public ceremonies in the kivas. They may also include a Roman Catholic Mass and processions.
Formerly, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal in a Pueblo home, but because of the large number of visitors, such meals are now by personal invitation only.
Some feast days appear in the list below.
Culture
Historically, the Pueblos were large communal buildings; each family lived in a single room of the building, but if a family grew large enough, side-rooms were added. Among the Jemez and the non-Tanoan-speakers, ownership of the room was largely matrilineal, from mother to daughter. Thus if a Hopi, Zuñi, Keres, or Jemez man were to divorce, he would move from the home of his former wife to the home of his mother or a sister. The other pueblos were patrilineal. Men were expected to tend the fields. They would defend the community in war societies; tribes such as the Navajo, Comanche, and Apache were their traditional enemies. The Spanish successfully re-conquered New Mexico after 1692 by allying themselves with the Pueblo people against their traditional enemies (although events in the 1800s were to modify these political alliances).
According to Horgan, Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maize—white cornmeal. Thus a man might bless his son, or some land, or the town itself by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. Once, after the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering a town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance.[3]
The Puebloans employed prayer sticks, which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers; these prayer sticks (or talking sticks) were also used by other nations.
Cloth and weaving were known to the Puebloans before the conquest, but it is not known whether they knew of weaving before or after the Aztecs. But since clothing was expensive, they did not always dress completely, in the European tradition until after the conquest, and breechclouts were not uncommon.
Corn was a staple food for the Pueblo people. They would use pottery (see images below) to hold their food and water.
Beliefs
The most highly developed Indian communities of the Southwest were large villages or pueblos at the top of the mesas, or rocky tableland typical to the region. The archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. A vast collection of myths defines the relationships between man and nature and plants and animals. Man depended on the blessings of the gods, who in turn depended on prayers and ceremonies. (See, e.g. Hopi mythology). Anthropologist Hermann Baumann documented male-to-female transsexual priestesses among the Pueblo.[4]
List of Pueblos
- Acoma Pueblo NM - Keres language speakers. Oldest continuously inhabited village in US.
- Cicuye Pueblo - now called Pecos Pueblo, survivors moved to Jemez Pueblo 1830s. See Pecos Pueblo National Monument
- Cochiti Pueblo NM - Keres speakers. Church 1628.
- Hopi Tribe Kykotsmovi AZ - Hopi language speakers. Area of present villages settled around 700 C.E.
- Isleta Pueblo NM - Tiwa language speakers. Established 1300s. Both Isleta and Ysleta (listed below) were of Shoshoncan stock. The islet was originally Shiewhibak [5]
- Isleta del Sur Pueblo near El Paso, TX (Ysleta, Texas has been annexed into El Paso) - Tigua (Tiwa) speakers. Catholic Encyclopedia article
- Jemez Pueblo NM - Towa language speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo, but welcomed at Red Rocks.
- Laguna Pueblo NM - Keres speakers. Ancestors 3000 B.C.E., established before 1300. Church July 4, 1699. Photography and sketching prohibited on the land, but welcomed at San Jose Mission Church.
- Nambe Pueblo - Tewa language speakers. Established 1300s. Ceremonials July 4, October 4
- Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo NM - Tewa speakers. Originally named O'ke Oweenge in Tewa. Headquarters of the Eight Northern Indian Pueblos Council. Home of the August 1680 Pueblo revolt. Known as San Juan Pueblo until November 2005.
- Pecos Pueblo - established before 1300, abandoned in 1830s. National Historical Park.
- Picuris Pueblo, Peñasco NM - Tiwa speakers.
- Piru Pueblo or Piro Pueblo, Socorro NM - did not participate in Pueblo revolt
- Pojoaque Pueblo, Santa Fe NM - Tewa speakers. Re-established 1930s.
- Sandia Pueblo, Bernalillo NM - Tiwa speakers. Originally named Nafiat. Established 1300s. On the northern outskirts of Albuquerque.
- San Felipe Pueblo NM - Keres speakers. 1706. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo.
- San Ildefonso Pueblo, Santa Fe NM - Tewa speakers. Originally at Mesa Verde and Bandelier. The valuable black-on-black pottery was developed here by Maria and Julian Martinez. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. Heavily-visited destination.
- Santa Ana Pueblo NM - Keres speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo.
- Santa Clara Pueblo, Española NM - Tewa speakers. 1550. Originally inhabited Puyé Cliff Dwellings on Santa Clara Canyon.
- Santo Domingo Pueblo NM - Keres speakers. Known for turquoise work. Corn Dance.
- Taos Pueblo NM - Tiwa speakers. World Heritage Site. National Historic Landmark. Photography and sketching $20. Commercial work requires advance approval.
- Tesuque Pueblo - Tewa speakers. Originally named Te Tesugeh Oweengeh 1200. National Register of Historic Places. Pueblo closed to public. Camel Rock Casino and Camel Rock Suites as well as the actual Camel Rock are open.
- Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, El Paso Texas, - Tigua (Tiwa) speaking. This Pueblo established in 1680 as a result of the Pueblo Revolt. Some 400 members of Isleta and neighboring Pueblos were forced or accompanied the Spaniards as they fled Northern New Mexico.
- Zia Pueblo NM - Keres speakers. New Mexico's State Flag uses the Zia symbol.
- Zuñi Pueblo NM - Zuñi language speakers. First visited 1540 by Spanish. Mission 1629
List of feast days
January
- Pojoaque Pueblo Feast Day: December 12, January 6
- San Ildefonso Pueblo Feast Day: January 23.
May
- San Felipe Pueblo Feast Day: May 1
June
- Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo Feast Day: June 24
- Sandia Pueblo Feast Day: June 13.
- Ysleta / Isleta del Sur Pueblo Feast Day: June 13.
July
- Cochiti Pueblo Feast Day: July 14
- Santa Ana Pueblo Feast Day: July 26
August
- Picuris Pueblo Feast Day: August 10
- Santo Domingo Pueblo Feast Day: August 4
- Zia Pueblo Feast Day: August 15
September'
- Taos Pueblo Feast Day: September 30
December
- Pojoaque Pueblo Feast Day: December 12, January 6
Unknown
- Isleta Pueblo Feast Days: call.
Gallery of pottery by the Pueblo peoples
Pottery of the Pueblo people, Field Museum, Chicago
Zia Pueblo, pottery bowl, Field Museum
Tesuque Pueblo Pottery Jar, Field Museum
Acoma Pueblo, bowl. (background: Tesuque jar.) Field Museum
Acoma Pueblo, pottery jar, Field Museum
Tesuque Pueblo, Pottery Jar, Field Museum
San Ildefonso Pueblo, Black-on-Black Pottery Bowl. Field Museum
Bird effigy, pottery. Cicuye Pueblo, Field Museum
Deer effigy, pottery. Cicuye Pueblo, Field Museum
Pottery Jar, Acoma Pueblo, taken at Field Museum
Pottery Canteen, Acoma Pueblo, taken at Field Museum
Pottery Bowl, Jemez Pueblo, Field Museum, Chicago
Notes
- ↑ Cordell, Linda S. Ancient Pueblo Peoples. St. Remy Press and Smithsonian Institution, 1994. ISBN 0-89599-038-5.
- ↑ Paul Horgan (1954), Great River vol. 1 p. 286. Library of Congress card number 54-9867
- ↑ Paul Horgan, Great River p. 158
- ↑ Feinberg, Leslie: Transgender Warriors, page 40. Beacon Press, 1996.
- ↑ "Isleta Pueblo." Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) VIII
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Fletcher, Richard A. (1984). Saint James' Catapult: The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford University Press. (on-line text, ch. 1)
- Florence Hawley Ellis An Outline of Laguna Pueblo History and Social Organization Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Winter, 1959), pp. 325-347
- Pueblo Cultural Center offers information from the Pueblo people about their history, culture, and visitor etiquette.
- Paul Horgan, Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History. Vol. 1, Indians and Spain. Vol. 2, Mexico and the United States. 2 Vols. in 1, 1038 pages - Wesleyan University Press 1991, 4th Reprint, ISBN 0-8195-6251-3
- Pueblo People, Ancient Traditions Modern Lives, Marica Keegan, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1998, profusely illustrated hardback, ISBN 1-57416-000-1
- Elsie Clews Parsons, Pueblo Indian Religion (2 vols., Chicago, 1939).
- Ryan D, A. L. Kroeber Elsie Clews Parsons American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 45, No. 2, Centenary of the American Ethnological Society (Apr. - Jun., 1943), pp. 244-255
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