Difference between revisions of "Sustainable development" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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[[Image:Sustainable development.svg|right|350px|thumb|Sustainable development sits at the confluence of three factors: social, economic, and environmental.]]
  
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'''Sustainable development''' is defined as balancing the fulfillment of human needs with the protection of the [[natural environment]] so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in the indefinite future. The term was used by the [[Brundtland Commission]] which coined what has become the most often-quoted definition of sustainable development as development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."<ref>United Nations. 1987. [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm "Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development."] General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987. Retrieved: 2007-04-12</ref>
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'''Sustainable development''' is defined as balancing the fulfillment of human needs with the protection of the [[natural environment]] so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in the indefinite future. It signals a global recognition of the close linkage between environmental health and human development, and the need to alter policies to minimize human impact on the planet.
  
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The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into four constituent parts: environmental [[sustainability]], economic sustainability, social sustainability and political sustainability.
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First coined in 1980 when the [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature]] published the ''World Conservation Strategy,'' the term came into general usage following publication of the 1987 report of the [[Brundtland Commission]], which had been convened by the [[United Nations]] four years earlier. The commission’s oft-quoted definition casts sustainable development as economic and social growth that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (United Nations).  
  
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==Scope and definitions==
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Behind the term sustainable development is the key concept of integrating social, economic, and environmental policy. Thus, it incorporates both development (a traditional economic and political goal) and sustainability (an ecological goal). Several United Nations texts, most recently the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document, refer to the "interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars" of sustainable development as economic development, social development, and environmental protection.
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The '''Brundtland Commission''', formally the '''World Commission on Environment and Development''' (WCED), known by the name of its Chair [[Gro Harlem Brundtland]], was convened  by the [[United Nations]] in 1983. The commission was created to address growing concern "about the accelerating deterioration of the [[Natural environment|human environment]] and [[natural resources]] and the consequences of that deterioration for [[Economic development|economic]] and [[social development]]." In establishing the commission, the UN General Assembly recognized that environmental problems were global in nature and determined that it was in the common interest of all nations to establish policies for [[sustainable development]].<ref>United Nations. 1987. [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm "Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development."] General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987. Retrieved: 2007-04-10</ref>
 
  
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Sustainable development does not focus solely on environmental issues.  More broadly, sustainable development policies encompass three general policy areas: economic, environmental and social. In support of this, several United Nations texts, most recently the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document, refer to the "interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars" of sustainable development as economic development, social development, and environmental protection.
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However, sustainable development is not a precisely defined term, as a wide array of views has fallen under its umbrella. Moreover, critics of the term note that it continues to participate in an [[anthropocentric]] (human-centered) viewpoint, which continues to see the natural environment as being in the service of human needs. They also point to its inherently capitalistic perspective: the assumption that consumption is the most important contribution to human welfare.  
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[[Image:Sustainable development.svg|right|350px|thumb|Scheme of sustainable development: at the confluence of three preoccupations.]]
 
  
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The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity ([[UNESCO]], 2001) elaborates further the concept by stating that "...cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature”; it becomes “one of the roots of development understood not simply in terms of economic growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual existence". In this vision, cultural diversity is the fourth policy area of sustainable development.  
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Despite the possible conceptual and practical limitations of the term, its significance and impact must also be emphasized. Sustainable development signals a shared belief that there are ultimate, biophysical limits to human growth. The Brundtland Commission definition is also of import because it established the global significance of sustainable development, which is not an issue limited to national borders, but one involving the entire human community.
  
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[[Green development]] is generally differentiated from Sustainable development in that Green development prioritizes what its proponents consider to be environmental sustainability over economic and cultural considerations. Proponents of Sustainable Development argue that it provides a context in which to improve overall sustainability where cutting edge Green development is unattainable. For example, a cutting edge treatment plant with extremely high maintenance costs may not be sustainable in regions of the world with less financial resources. An environmentally ideal plant that is shut down due to bankruptcy is obviously less sustainable than one that is maintainable by the indigenous community, even if it is somewhat less effective from an environmental standpoint.  
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==Origins of the term and available definitions==
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The Brundtland Commission, formally the '''World Commission on Environment and Development''' (WCED), is known by the name of its chair [[Gro Harlem Brundtland]]. The commission was created in 1983 to address growing concern "about the accelerating deterioration of the [[Natural environment|human environment]] and [[natural resources]] and the consequences of that deterioration for [[Economic development|economic]] and [[social development]]." In establishing the commission, the United Nations General Assembly recognized that environmental problems were global in nature and determined that it was in the common interest of all nations to establish policies for sustainable development (United Nations).  
  
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Some research activities start from this definition to argue that the environment is a combination of nature and culture. The Network of Excellence "Sustainable Development in a Diverse World" '''[http://www.susdiv.org/ SUS.DIV]''', sponsored by the [[European Union]], works in this direction. It integrates multidisciplinary capacities and interprets [[cultural diversity]] as a key element of a new strategy for sustainable development.  
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The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity ([[UNESCO]], 2001) elaborates the concept further by stating that "...cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature”; it becomes “one of the roots of development understood not simply in terms of economic growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual existence." In this vision, cultural diversity is the fourth policy area of sustainable development.  
  
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The [[United Nations]] Division for Sustainable Development lists the following areas as coming within the scope of Sustainable Development:<ref>United Nations Division for Sustainable Development. [http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/docs_sdissues.htm Documents: Sustainable Development Issues] Retrieved: 2007-05-12</ref>
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Some research activities start from this definition to argue that the environment is a combination of nature and culture. The Network of Excellence "Sustainable Development in a Diverse World," which is sponsored by the [[European Union]], works in this direction. It integrates multidisciplinary capacities and interprets cultural diversity as a key element of a new strategy for sustainable development.
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The [[United Nations]] Division for Sustainable Development lists the following areas as falling within the scope of sustainable development:
  
 
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During the last ten years, different organizations have tried to measure and monitor the proximity to what they consider sustainability by implementing what it has been called [[sustainability metric and indices]].
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==Criticism of the term and alternative conceptions==
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Some people now consider the term "sustainable development" as too closely linked with continued [[economic development|material development]], and prefer to use terms like "sustainability," "sustainable prosperity," or "sustainable genuine progress" as the umbrella terms.
  
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==Criticism of the term==
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Many [[environmentalists]] have criticized some interpretations of the term "sustainable development" as an [[oxymoron]], claiming that [[economic policies]] based on concepts of growth and continued depletion of resources cannot be sustainable, since that term implies that resources remain constant.  say more here
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Many [[environmentalists]] have criticized some interpertations of the term "sustainable development" as an [[oxymoron]], claiming that [[economic policies]] based on concepts of growth and continued depletion of resources cannot be sustainable, since that term implies resources remain constant.  Some people prefer the term "developing sustainability", as it does not imply that something needs to be created.
 
  
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==Environmental sustainability==
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contextualize - part of the source of tensions comes from this intersection of economic and ecological terms
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Environmental sustainability is defined as the ability of the environment to continue to function properly indefinitely. This involves meeting the present needs of humans without endangering the welfare of future generations.  The goal of environmental sustainability is to minimize environmental degradation, and to halt and reverse the processes they lead to.
 
  
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An "unsustainable situation" occurs when [[natural capital]] (the sum total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished. [[Sustainability]] requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. Theoretically, the long term result of environmental degradation would be local environments that are no longer able to sustain human populations to any degree.  Such degradation on a global scale could imply extinction for humanity.
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===Common principles===
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Despite differences, a number of common principles are embedded in most charters or action programs to achieve sustainable development, sustainability or sustainable prosperity. These include:
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<table border=1 align=center cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3">
 
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<th align=center>Consumption of renewable resources</th>
 
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<th align=center>State of environment</th>
 
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<th align=center>Sustainability</th>
 
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<td align=center>More than nature's ability to replenish</td>
 
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<td align=center>Environmental degradation</td>
 
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<td align=center>Not sustainable</td>
 
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</tr>
 
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<tr>
 
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<td align=center>Equal to nature's ability to replenish</td>
 
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<td align=center>Environmental equilibrium</td>
 
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<td align=center>Steady-state Sustainability</td>
 
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</tr>
 
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</tr>
 
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<td align=center>Less than nature's ability to replenish</td>
 
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<td align=center>Environmental renewal</td>
 
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<td align=center>Sustainable development</td>
 
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</tr>
 
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</table>
 
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[[Image:Earth flag PD.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Earth Day]] flag includes a [[NASA]] [[The Blue Marble|photo]].]]
 
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'''Sustainability''' is a characteristic of a process or state that can be maintained at a certain level indefinitely.
 
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Sustainabiltity focuses on providing the best outcomes for both the human and natural environments now, and into the indefinite future. In recent years an academic and public discourse has led to the use of the word sustainability in reference to how long human ecological systems can be expected to be usefully productive. The implied preference would be for systems to be productive indefinitely, or be 'sustainable." For instance, "[[sustainable agriculture]]" would require agricultural systems expected to last indefinitely, "[[sustainable development]]" would be development of economic systems that last indefinitely, and so on. A side discourse relates the term sustainability to longevity of natural ecosystems and reserves, but the greatest emphasis has been on human systems and anthropogenic problems, such as anthropogenic [[climate change]], or the obviously anthropogenic depletion of [[fossil fuel]] reserves. It is perhaps meaningful, and pragmatic, to speak of practices being "more sustainable" or "less sustainable." Thus energy saving compact florescent light bulbs can be considered more sustainable than incadescent ones, and so forth.
 
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Definitions of sustainability abound, and the popularity of the term has led to competing definitions, and much confusion. One of the most oft-cited definitions of sustainability is the one created by the [[Brundtland Commission]], led by the former Norwegian Prime Minister [[Gro Harlem Brundtland]]. The Commission defined [[sustainable development]] as development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."<ref>United Nations. 1987. [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm "Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development."] General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987.  Retrieved: 2007-04-12</ref>  Sustainability relates to the continuity of [[Economics|economic]], [[Society|social]], [[institution]]al and [[Natural environment|environmental]] aspects of human society, as well as the non-human environment.<ref>Bridge, C. [http://www.anuhd.org/publications/nfuh/Main_Ballroom/Dr_Catherine_Bridge.rtf. "Universal design impacts housing sustainability: Cost-benefit evidence."] The University of Sydney, Faculty of Health Sciences. Retrieved on: [[July 26]], [[2007]].</ref>  Sustainability is one of the four Core Concepts behind the [[2007 Universal Forum of Cultures]].
 
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Sustainability can be defined as: "Humanity’s investment in a system of living, projected to be viable on an ongoing basis that provides quality of life for all individuals of sentient species and conserves natural ecosystems.”
 
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==Definitions, metrics and indices==
 
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{{main|Sustainability metric and indices}}
 
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Sustainability can be defined both qualitatively in words, as an ethical/ecological proposition such as the Bruntland definition above, and quantitatively in terms of system life expectancy and the trajectory of certain factors or terms in the system. Quantitative analysis in sustainability thinking typically uses [[system dynamics]] modeling as systems are often non-linear and so-called [[feedback loops]] are key factors. So, for instance, important human ecological sub-systems that could be analyzed or modeled in this way might include the [[nitrogen cycle]] in [[sustainable agriculture]], or the depletion of [[oil reserves]].
 
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In order to distinguish quantitatively and qualitatively which human economic activities are destructive and which are benign or beneficial, various definitions/models of sustainability have been developed. The following list is not exhaustive but contains the major points of view:
 
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===International Institute for Sustainable Development Sample Policy Framework===
 
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In 1996 the [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] developed a Sample Policy Framework which proposed that a sustainability index "would give decision-makers tools to rate policies and programs against each other" (1996, p.9). Ravi Jain (2005) <ref>Jain, Ravi; Sustainability: metrics, specific indicators and preference index, Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy (Journal), May 2005, pg. 71-72 </ref> argued that, "The ability to analyze different alternatives or to assess progress towards sustainability will then depend on establishing measurable entities or metrics used for sustainability."
 
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===The Natural Step/System Conditions of Sustainability===
 
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Following the Brundtland Commission's report, one of the first initiatives to bring scientific principles to the assessment of sustainability was by Swedish cancer scientist [[Karl-Henrik Robèrt]].  Robèrt coordinated a consensus process to define and operationalize sustainability. At the core of the process lies a consensus on what Robèrt came to call [[The Natural Step|the natural step framework]]. The framework is based on a definition of sustainability, described as [[The Natural Step#System conditions of sustainability|the system conditions of sustainability]] (as derived from [[System theory]]). In the natural step framework, a sustainable society is one which does not systematically increase concentrations of ''substances extracted from the earth's crust,'' or ''substances produced by society''; that ''does not degrade the [[Natural environment|environment]]'' and in which people have the ''capacity to meet their needs worldwide.'' <ref>TNS Canada [http://www.naturalstep.ca/system-conditions.html System Conditions]. Retrieved on: 20078-07-15.</ref> 
 
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===Life Cycle Assessment and Ecological Footprint Analysis===
 
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[[Life Cycle Assessment]] is a "composite measure of sustainability." It analyses the environmental performance of products and services through all phases of their life cycle: extracting and processing raw materials; manufacturing, transportation and distribution; use, re-use, maintenance; recycling, and final disposal.<ref>]http://www.canadianarchitect.com/asf/perspectives_sustainibility/measures_of_sustainablity/measures_of_sustainablity_lca.htm Measures of sustainability]. Canadian Architect. Retrieved on: [[June 30]], [[2007]].</ref>
 
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[[Ecological footprint]] analysis is an estimate of the amount of land area a human population, given prevailing technology, would need if the current resource consumption and pollution by the population is matched by the sustainable (renewable) resource production and waste assimilation by such a land area. The algorithms of the ecological footprint model have, on the one hand, been used in combination with  the [[emergy]] methodology (S. Zhao, Z. Li and W. Li 2005), and a [[Sustainability metric and indices|sustainability index]] has been derived from the latter. They have also been combined with an index of [[quality of life]] (Marks et al, 2006), and the outcome christened the "(Un)Happy Planet Index" (HPI)shows indices for 178 nations.
 
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One of the striking conclusions to emerge from ecological footprint analyses is that it would be necessary to have 4 or 5 back up planets engage in nothing but agriculture for all those alive today to live a Western lifestyle.
 
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===Global Reporting Initiative===
 
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In 1997 the [[Global Reporting Initiative]] (GRI) was started as a multi-stakeholder process and independent institution whose mission has been "to develop and disseminate globally applicable Sustainability Reporting Guidelines".
 
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The GRI uses [[ecological footprint]] analysis and became independent in 2002.  It is an official collaborating centre of the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) and during the tenure of [[Kofi Annan]], it cooperated with the [[UN Secretary-General]]’s Global Compact.
 
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===Energy, Emergy and Sustainability Index (SI)===
 
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In 1997, [[systems ecology|systems ecologists]] M.T.Brown and S.Ulgiati published their formulation of a quantitative sustainability index (SI) as a ratio of the [[emergy]] (spelled with an "m", i.e. "[[embodied energy]]", not simply "energy") yield ratio (EYR) to the environmental loading ratio (ELR). Brown and Ulgiati also called the sustainability index the "Emergy Sustainability Index" (ESI), "an index that accounts for yield, renewability, and environmental load. It is the incremental emergy yield compared to the environmental load". <ref>Brown, M.T. and S. Ulgiati.1999. Emergy evaluation of natural capital and biosphere services. AMBIO. Vol.28 No.6, Sept. 1999.</ref>
 
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:::*<math> \textrm{Sustainability\ Index} = \frac{\textrm{Emergy\ Yield\ Ratio}}{\textrm{Environmental\ Loading\ Ratio}} = \frac{\textit{EYR}}{\textit{ELR}}</math>
 
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* '''NOTE:''' The numerator is called "e'''m'''ergy" and is spelled with an "'''m'''". It is an abbreviation of the term, "[[embodied energy]]". The numerator is NOT "energy yield ratio", which is a different concept. <ref>Ulgiati, S. and M.T. Brown. 1999.  Emergy accounting of human-dominated, large scale ecosystems. In Jorgensen and Kay (eds.) Thermodynamics and Ecology.  Elsevier.</ref>
 
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===Environmental Sustainability Index===
 
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In 2004, a joint initiative of the [[Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy]] (YCELP) and the [[Center for International Earth Science Information Network]] (CIESIN) of [[Columbia University]], in collaboration with the [[World Economic Forum]] and the [[Directorate-General Joint Research Centre (European Commission)]] also attempted to construct an [[Environmental Sustainability Index]] (ESI)<ref>[http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/es/esi/index.html Environmental Sustainability Index] (2005) Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy Yale University, New Haven and Yale University Center for International Earth Science Information Network Columbia University</ref>.
 
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This was formally released in [[Davos]], [[Switzerland]], at the annual meeting of the [[World Economic Forum]] (WEF) on 28 January 2005. The report on this index made a comparison of the WEF ESI to other sustainability indicators such as the [[Ecological footprint]] Index. However there was no mention of the emergy sustainability index.
 
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Nevertheless writers like Leone (2005) and Yi et al. have also recently suggested that the emergy sustainability index has significant utility. In particular, Leone notes that while the GRI measures behavior, it fails to calculate supply constraints which the emergy methodology aims to calculate.
 
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==Conceptual issues==
 
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=== Values, purpose and the focus on outcomes ===
 
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Values vary greatly in detail within and between cultures, as well as between academic disciplines (e.g., between economists and ecologists).  <ref>[[Clem Tisdell|Tisdell, C.]] 1988. Sustainable development: Differing perspectives of ecologists and economists, and relevance to LDCs. ''World Development'' 16(3): 373-384.</ref> The introduction of social values to sustainability goals implies a much more complex and contentious debate, and those focused on ecological impacts tend to strongly resist non-ecological interpretations.
 
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Some see at the heart of the concept of sustainability a fundamental, immutable value set that is best stated as 'parallel care and respect for the ecosystem and for the people within'. From this value set emerges the goal of sustainability: to achieve human and ecosystem [[well-being]] together. Seen in this way, the concept of sustainability is much more than environmental protection in another guise. It is a positive concept that has as much to do with achieving well-being for people and ecosystems as it has to do with reducing ecological stress or environmental impacts. 
 
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At its least, sustainability implies paying attention to [[comprehensive outcome]]s of events and actions insofar as they can be anticipated at present. This is known as [[full cost accounting]], or [[Environmental accounting]].  This kind of accounting assumes that all aspects of a system can be measured and audited ([[Environmental audits]]).
 
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Environmental accounting can be a limited biological interpretation as in [[ecological footprint]] analysis, or may include social factors as in the [[ICLEI]]—[[Triple Bottom Line]] standards for urban and community accounts. 
 
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At most, sustainability is intended as a means of [[Social engineering (political science)|configuring]] [[civilization]] and human activity so that [[society]], its members and its economies are able to meet their needs and express their greatest potential in the present, while preserving [[biodiversity]] and natural [[ecosystem]]s, and planning and acting for the ability to maintain these ideals in a very long term - typically at least seven generations. 
 
  
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None of these extended definitions, however, ever deny or downplay the importance of the ecological interpretation of sustainability as defined by the science of [[ecology]] itself.  All advocates of sustainability accept that ecological, not social, factors, are the most measurable and universal indicators of sustainability.
 
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Sustainability outcomes can be investigated at every level of organization, from the local neighborhood to the entire [[Earth|planet]].
 
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===Common principles===
 
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Some people now consider the term "sustainable development" as too closely linked with continued [[economic development|material development]], and prefer to use terms like "sustainability", "sustainable prosperity" and "sustainable genuine progress" as the umbrella terms.
 
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Despite differences, a number of common principles are embedded in most charters or action programmes to achieve sustainable development, sustainability or sustainable prosperity. These include (Hargroves & Smith 2005, see bibliography):
 
 
* Dealing transparently and systemically with risk, uncertainty and [[irreversibility]].
 
* Dealing transparently and systemically with risk, uncertainty and [[irreversibility]].
 
* Ensuring appropriate valuation, appreciation and [[Restoration ecology|restoration]] of nature.
 
* Ensuring appropriate valuation, appreciation and [[Restoration ecology|restoration]] of nature.
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* The need for good governance.
 
* The need for good governance.
  
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===Weak versus Strong Sustainability===
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something on natural cpaital: what is being revised/conceptually and practically with this model is a definition of nature not reduced to passive instrument, only figured in terms of usefulness for humans
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However, a distinction between different 'degrees' of sustainability should be made. The debate currently focuses on the sustainability between economy and the environment which can in other words be considered as between '[[natural capital]]' and 'manufactured/[[man-made capital]]'. This is also captured in the ''''weak' versus 'strong' sustainability''' discussions.
 
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Weak Sustainability is advocated by the [[Hartwick's Rule]], which states that so long as TOTAL [[capital]] stays constant, sustainable development can be achieved.  As long as the diminishing natural capital stocks are being substituted by gains in the man-made stock, total capital will stay constant and the current level of consumption can continue. The proponents believe that economic growth is beneficial as increased levels of [[income]] lead to increased levels of environmental protectionism. This is also known as the 'substitutability paradigm'.
 
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Conversely, Strong Sustainability, as supported by [[Herman Daly]], believe that natural capital and man-made capital are only complementary at best. In order for Sustainable Development to be achieved, natural capital has to be kept constant independently from man-made capital. This is known as the 'non-substitutability paradigm'.
 
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===Population growth and Consumption===
 
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One of the critical issues in sustainability is that of human [[overpopulation]] combined with current lifestyle patterns.  A number of studies have suggested that the current [[population of the Earth]], already over six billion, is too many people to support sustainably. at current material consumption levels, this challenge for sustainability is distributed unevenly. According to calculations of the ecological footprint, the ecological pressure of a US resident is 12 times that of a resident of India and 24 times that of a Somali resident.<ref>Global Footprint Network [http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=national_footprints "National Footprints"]. Download National Footprint Results in .xls format. Retrieved on: [[August 4]], [[2007]].</ref>
 
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With the world population continuing to grow, there is increasing pressure on arable land, water, energy, and biological resources to provide enough food while while supporting viable [[ecosystems]]. World Bank and United Nations studies, show that there are over 1 billion people who are malnourished. This is due to a combination of lack of food, low incomes, and poor food distribution. The world population is projected to grow from over 6 billion to as high as 10.6 billion within the next 50 years (UN Population Division, 2006). With expanding population, the food problem will worsen.<ref>Pimentel,D,  X. Huang, A. Cordova, and M. Pimentel (1996). [http://dieoff.org/page57.htm "Impact of Population Growth on Food Supplies and Environment"]. Paper presented at [[AAAS]] Annual Meeting, Baltimore, February 1996. ''Population and Development Review''. Retrieved on [[August 4]], [[2007]].</ref>
 
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Critics of efforts to reduce population rather than consumption fear that efforts to reduce population growth may lead to [[human rights]] violations such as [[involuntary sterilization]] and the [[infanticide|abandoning of infants to die]]. Some human-rights watchers report that this is already taking place in [[China]], as a result of its one child per family policy.
 
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Albeit, it appears inevitable{{Fact|date=August 2007}} that human population numbers will be constrained and brought into some form of equilibrium by the [[Malthusian catastrophe|Malthusian limit]] and in accordance with the [[Lotka-Volterra equation]].  In his book [[collapse (book)|Collapse]], author [[Jared Diamond]] presents several societies where population growth mixed with unsustainable consumption levels have led to collapses in population numbers.
 
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==Sustainability and business==
 
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The [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]], founded in 1995, has formulated the business case for sustainable development and argues that "sustainable development is good for [[business]] and business is good for sustainable development". This view is also maintained by proponents of the concept of [[industrial ecology]]. The theory of industrial ecology declares that [[industry]] should be viewed as a series of interlocking man-made ecosystems interfacing with the natural [[biosphere|global ecosystem]].
 
  
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According to some economists, it is possible for the concepts of sustainable development and competitiveness to merge if enacted wisely, so that there is not an inevitable trade-off<ref>Esty, D. C., Porter, M. E., Industrial Ecology and Competitiveness: Strategic Implications for the Firm, Journal of Industrial Ecology Winter 1998, Vol. 2, No. 1: 35-43.</ref>. This merger is being motivated by the following six facts (Hargroves & Smith 2005):
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===Weak versus strong sustainability===
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However, a distinction between different degrees of sustainability should be made. The debate currently focuses on the sustainability of the economy and the environment, which can in other words be considered as a relationship between [[natural capital]] (the sum total of nature's resources) and manufactured/[[man-made capital]].  
  
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#Throughout the economy there are widespread untapped potential resource productivity improvements to be made to be coupled with effective design.
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''Weak sustainability'' is advocated by the [[Hartwick's Rule]], which states that so long as total [[capital]] stays constant, sustainable development can be achieved.  I.e., as long as the diminishing natural capital stocks are being substituted by gains in the man-made stock, total capital will stay constant and the current level of consumption can continue. The proponents of weak sustainability believe that economic growth is beneficial, as increased levels of [[income]] lead to increased levels of environmental protectionism. This approach is also known as the ''substitutability paradigm''.
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#There has been a significant shift in understanding over the last three decades of what creates lasting competitiveness of a firm.
 
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#There is now a critical mass of enabling technologies in eco-innovations that make integrated approaches to sustainable development economically viable.
 
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#Since many of the costs of what economists call ‘environmental externalities’ are passed on to governments, in the long-term sustainable development strategies can provide multiple benefits to the tax payer.
 
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#There is a growing understanding of the multiple benefits of valuing social and natural capital, for both moral and economic reasons, and including them in measures of national well-being.
 
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#There is mounting evidence to show that a transition to a sustainable economy, if done wisely, may not harm economic growth significantly, in fact it could even help it. Recent research by ex-Wuppertal Institute member Joachim Spangenberg, working with neo-classical economists, shows that the transition, if focused on improving resource productivity, will lead to higher economic growth than business as usual, while at the same time reducing pressures on the environment and enhancing [[employment]].
 
  
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It is an unresolved question as to whether all of the attempts at definitions have anything to do with the compound constructs of sustainability investment advanced by [[network economics]] and systemic entrepreneurs.
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Conversely, supporters of ''strong sustainability'', such as [[Herman Daly]], believe that natural capital and man-made capital are only complementary at best. In order for sustainable development to be achieved, natural capital has to be kept constant independently from man-made capital. This model is known as the ''non-substitutability paradigm''.
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However, as late as fall 2006 the [[Stern Report]] estimated that 1% of GDP will now need to be invested to save 20% of GDP, because of failures to date by most [[global market]] sectors to integrate sustainability in the metrics they have governed with.
 
  
 
==Barriers to a sustainability culture==
 
==Barriers to a sustainability culture==
 
Acknowledging the barriers to sustainability, numerous publications from the [[Tellus Institute]] examine the factors necessary to achieve an environmentally sustainable future, something Tellus terms a ‘Great Transition’ (see Raskin et al, 2002; Rajan, 2006; Kreigman, 2006). Using [[scenario analysis]], Tellus shows that a new sustainability paradigm is possible if progressive elements of [[civil society]], government, business, and an engaged citizenry work together to create an alternative vision of [[globalization]] centered on the quality of life, human solidarity, environmental resilience, and shared information.
 
Acknowledging the barriers to sustainability, numerous publications from the [[Tellus Institute]] examine the factors necessary to achieve an environmentally sustainable future, something Tellus terms a ‘Great Transition’ (see Raskin et al, 2002; Rajan, 2006; Kreigman, 2006). Using [[scenario analysis]], Tellus shows that a new sustainability paradigm is possible if progressive elements of [[civil society]], government, business, and an engaged citizenry work together to create an alternative vision of [[globalization]] centered on the quality of life, human solidarity, environmental resilience, and shared information.
−
 
−
===The phenomenon of change resistance===
 
−
The above concepts focus primarily on the proper practices required to live sustainably. However, there is also the need to consider why there is such strong resistance to adopting sustainable practices.
 
−
 
−
Unruh (2000, 2002) has argued that numerous barriers to sustainability arise because today's technological systems and governing institutions were designed and built for permanence and reliability, not change. In the case of fossil fuel-based systems this is termed "carbon lock-in" and inhibits many change efforts.
 
−
 
−
[http://www.thwink.org/sustain/general/ChangeResistance.htm Thwink.org]  argues that if enough members of the [[environmental movement]] adopted a problem solving process that fit the problem, the movement would make the astonishing discovery that the crux of the problem is not what it thought it was. It is not the proper practices or ''technical side'' of the problem after all. Any number of these practices would be adequate. Instead the real issue is why is it so difficult to persuade social agents (such as people, corporations, and nations) to adopt the proper practices needed to live sustainably? Thus the heart of the matter is the  change resistance or ''social side'' of the problem.
 
−
 
−
===Barriers to ecological sustainability===
 
−
Despite the now overwhelming evidence that the human species is set on a population adjustment course of immense proportions, and despite long-standing and widespread public awareness of the seriousness of the consequence (e.g., Nelson, 1986; Yankelovitch, et al., 1983; [[Collapse (book)|Diamond, Jared (2005)]] ), it seems impossible to alter the course of our destiny. 
 
−
 
−
This is generally attributed to “change resistance” (see, e.g., [http://www.thwink.org/sustain/general/ChangeResistance.htm Thwink.org]), viewed as involving change in individual values, whether at personal, corporate, or collective levels (see e.g., [[Stafford Beer]]). Unfortunately, it has been frequently demonstrated, e.g., in the studies cited, that people’s values are, in general, in the right place. The problem is to enact them. This has led to the preparation of numerous “wish lists”—such as that compiled by Shah, H., & Marks, N. (2004)—drawing together many recommendations for government action.
 
−
 
−
Government and individual failure to act on the available information is widely attributed to personal [[greed]] (deemed to be inherent in [[human nature]]) especially on the part of international capitalists. But even [[Karl Marx]] did not suggest this, instead highlighting sociological processes which have been in operation for thousands of years. If fault is to be found with Marx's work it can be argued that it lies elsewhere. Because he believed that the collapse of [[capitalism]] was imminent, he never discussed how to run society in an innovative way in the long term public interest.
 
−
 
−
Two things seem to follow from this brief discussion.
 
−
#It is vital to follow  up the study of the [[sociocybernetics|sociocybernetic]], or [[systems]] (see also [[systems theory]]), processes which, it seems, primarily control what happens in society.
 
−
#We should use the social-science-based insights already available to evolve forms of [[Public management]] that will act on information in an innovative way in the long term public interest.
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 +
*Baker, S. date. Sustainable Development.
 
*United Nations. 1987. [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm "Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development."] General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987.  Retrieved: 2007-04-12
 
*United Nations. 1987. [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm "Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development."] General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987.  Retrieved: 2007-04-12
−
*Baker, S. Sustainable Development.
+
*United Nations Division for Sustainable Development. [http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/docs_sdissues.htm Documents: Sustainable Development Issues] Retrieved: 2007-05-12</ref>
−
*{{note|Leone2005}}{{cite journal
 
−
| author= Leone, M.
 
−
| title= The Quest for an Environmental Metric: Gazing at weather systems, a ground-breaking scientist spawned an ecological accounting standard that Wall Street might one day embrace
 
−
| journal= CFO Publishing
 
−
| year=2005 | volume= | issue= | pages=
 
−
| url = http://www.cfo.com/printable/article.cfm/5300667?f=options
 
−
}}
 
−
*{{note|Maine2003}}{{cite journal
 
−
| author= Maine, T.
 
−
| title= Towards a Metric of Sustainability
 
−
| journal= CSIRO Publishing
 
−
| year=2003 | volume= | issue= | pages=
 
−
| url=http://www.isosconference.org.au/papers/Maine.pdf
 
−
}}
 
−
*{{note|Brown1997}}{{cite journal
 
−
| author= Brown, M.T. and Ulgiati, S.
 
−
| title= Emergy-based indices and ratios to evaluate sustainability: monitoring economies and technology toward environmentally sound innovation
 
−
| journal= Ecological Engineering
 
−
| year=1997 | volume= 9 | issue= | pages= 51-69
 
−
| url = http://www.urbanecology.washington.edu/student_info/classes/spring2003/MBrown-Emergy-sustainability1997.pdf
 
−
}}
 
−
*{{note|Brown1999}}{{cite journal
 
−
| author= Brown, M.T. and Ulgiati, S.
 
−
| title= Emergy Evaluation of the Biosphere and Natural Capital
 
−
| journal= Ambio
 
−
| year=1999 | volume= 28 | issue= 6 | pages=
 
−
| url=http://www.cfr.washington.edu/research.urbaneco/student_info/classes/spring2003/MBrown-emergy-biosphere-natural-capital.pdf
 
−
}}
 
−
*{{note|Zhao2005}}{{cite journal
 
−
| author= Zhao, S.; Li, Z.; Li, W.
 
−
| title= A modified method of ecological footprint calculation and its application
 
−
| journal= Ecological Modelling
 
−
| year=2005 | volume= 185 | issue= 1 | pages= 65-75
 
−
| url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBS-4F6F697-1&_coverDate=06%2F10%2F2005&_alid=366544285&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=5934&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=58ece879d00f4d841e14e49e9911200c
 
−
| id = {{doi|10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2004.11.016}}
 
−
}}
 
−
*{{note|Ukidwe2004}}{{cite journal
 
−
| author= Yi, Heui-seok; Hau, Jorge L. ; Ukidwe, Nandan U. and Bakshi, Bhavik R.
 
−
| title= Hierarchical Thermodynamic Metrics for Evaluating the Environmental Sustainability of Industrial Processes
 
−
| journal= Environmental Progress
 
−
| year=2004 | volume= 23 | issue= 4 | pages= 65-75
 
−
| url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/109856013/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 <!-- http://www.che.eng.ohio-state.edu/~ukidwe/ukidwe_envprog.pdf —>
 
−
| id = {{doi|10.1002/ep.10049}}
 
−
}}
 
−
*{{note|Jain2005}}{{cite journal
 
−
| author= Jain, R.
 
−
| title= Sustainability: metrics, specific indicators and preference index
 
−
| journal= Clean Techn Environ Policy
 
−
| year=2005 | volume= 7 | issue= | pages= 71-72
 
−
| url = http://www.springerlink.com/media/h4d4779uuq0yynfhktb6/contributions/t/2/2/5/t225524055312t88.pdf
 
−
}}
 
−
 
 
−
==Notes and references==
 
−
<div class="references-small">
 
−
<references />
 
−
</div>
 
  
 
==External links and resources==
 
==External links and resources==

Revision as of 16:44, 14 October 2007

Sustainable development sits at the confluence of three factors: social, economic, and environmental.

Sustainable development is defined as balancing the fulfillment of human needs with the protection of the natural environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in the indefinite future. It signals a global recognition of the close linkage between environmental health and human development, and the need to alter policies to minimize human impact on the planet.

First coined in 1980 when the International Union for the Conservation of Nature published the World Conservation Strategy, the term came into general usage following publication of the 1987 report of the Brundtland Commission, which had been convened by the United Nations four years earlier. The commission’s oft-quoted definition casts sustainable development as economic and social growth that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (United Nations).

Behind the term sustainable development is the key concept of integrating social, economic, and environmental policy. Thus, it incorporates both development (a traditional economic and political goal) and sustainability (an ecological goal). Several United Nations texts, most recently the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document, refer to the "interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars" of sustainable development as economic development, social development, and environmental protection.

However, sustainable development is not a precisely defined term, as a wide array of views has fallen under its umbrella. Moreover, critics of the term note that it continues to participate in an anthropocentric (human-centered) viewpoint, which continues to see the natural environment as being in the service of human needs. They also point to its inherently capitalistic perspective: the assumption that consumption is the most important contribution to human welfare.

Despite the possible conceptual and practical limitations of the term, its significance and impact must also be emphasized. Sustainable development signals a shared belief that there are ultimate, biophysical limits to human growth. The Brundtland Commission definition is also of import because it established the global significance of sustainable development, which is not an issue limited to national borders, but one involving the entire human community.

Origins of the term and available definitions

The Brundtland Commission, formally the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), is known by the name of its chair Gro Harlem Brundtland. The commission was created in 1983 to address growing concern "about the accelerating deterioration of the human environment and natural resources and the consequences of that deterioration for economic and social development." In establishing the commission, the United Nations General Assembly recognized that environmental problems were global in nature and determined that it was in the common interest of all nations to establish policies for sustainable development (United Nations).

The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (UNESCO, 2001) elaborates the concept further by stating that "...cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature”; it becomes “one of the roots of development understood not simply in terms of economic growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual existence." In this vision, cultural diversity is the fourth policy area of sustainable development.

Some research activities start from this definition to argue that the environment is a combination of nature and culture. The Network of Excellence "Sustainable Development in a Diverse World," which is sponsored by the European Union, works in this direction. It integrates multidisciplinary capacities and interprets cultural diversity as a key element of a new strategy for sustainable development.

The United Nations Division for Sustainable Development lists the following areas as falling within the scope of sustainable development:

  • Education and Awareness
  • Energy
  • Finance
  • Forests
  • Fresh Water
  • Health
  • Human Settlements
  • Indicators
  • Industry
  • Information for Decision Making and Participation
  • Integrated Decision Making
  • International Law
  • International Cooperation for Enabling Environment
  • Institutional Arrangements
  • Land management
  • Major Groups
  • Mountains
  • National Sustainable Development Strategies
  • Oceans and Seas
  • Poverty
  • Sanitation

Criticism of the term and alternative conceptions

Some people now consider the term "sustainable development" as too closely linked with continued material development, and prefer to use terms like "sustainability," "sustainable prosperity," or "sustainable genuine progress" as the umbrella terms.

Many environmentalists have criticized some interpretations of the term "sustainable development" as an oxymoron, claiming that economic policies based on concepts of growth and continued depletion of resources cannot be sustainable, since that term implies that resources remain constant. say more here

contextualize - part of the source of tensions comes from this intersection of economic and ecological terms

Common principles

Despite differences, a number of common principles are embedded in most charters or action programs to achieve sustainable development, sustainability or sustainable prosperity. These include:

  • Dealing transparently and systemically with risk, uncertainty and irreversibility.
  • Ensuring appropriate valuation, appreciation and restoration of nature.
  • Integration of environmental, social, human and economic goals in policies and activities.
  • Equal opportunity and community participation/Sustainable community.
  • Conservation of biodiversity and ecological integrity.
  • Ensuring inter-generational equity.
  • Recognizing the global integration of localities.
  • A commitment to best practice.
  • No net loss of human capital or natural capital.
  • The principle of continuous improvement.
  • The need for good governance.

something on natural cpaital: what is being revised/conceptually and practically with this model is a definition of nature not reduced to passive instrument, only figured in terms of usefulness for humans

Weak versus strong sustainability

However, a distinction between different degrees of sustainability should be made. The debate currently focuses on the sustainability of the economy and the environment, which can in other words be considered as a relationship between natural capital (the sum total of nature's resources) and manufactured/man-made capital.

Weak sustainability is advocated by the Hartwick's Rule, which states that so long as total capital stays constant, sustainable development can be achieved. I.e., as long as the diminishing natural capital stocks are being substituted by gains in the man-made stock, total capital will stay constant and the current level of consumption can continue. The proponents of weak sustainability believe that economic growth is beneficial, as increased levels of income lead to increased levels of environmental protectionism. This approach is also known as the substitutability paradigm.

Conversely, supporters of strong sustainability, such as Herman Daly, believe that natural capital and man-made capital are only complementary at best. In order for sustainable development to be achieved, natural capital has to be kept constant independently from man-made capital. This model is known as the non-substitutability paradigm.

Barriers to a sustainability culture

Acknowledging the barriers to sustainability, numerous publications from the Tellus Institute examine the factors necessary to achieve an environmentally sustainable future, something Tellus terms a ‘Great Transition’ (see Raskin et al, 2002; Rajan, 2006; Kreigman, 2006). Using scenario analysis, Tellus shows that a new sustainability paradigm is possible if progressive elements of civil society, government, business, and an engaged citizenry work together to create an alternative vision of globalization centered on the quality of life, human solidarity, environmental resilience, and shared information.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

External links and resources

Template:Energy related development

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