Li (rites)

Li (禮 pinyin: Lǐ)is a classical Chinese ideograph which finds its most extensive use in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy. Just like other ideographs of the Chinese lexicon, li encompasses not a definitive object but rather a somewhat abstract idea; as such, it is translated in a number of different ways. Most often, li is described using some form of the word ‘ritual’ (as in Burton Watson’s ‘rites’, and Henry Rosemont and Roger Ames’ ‘ritual propriety’), but it has also been translated as ‘customs’, ‘etiquette’, ‘morals’, and ‘rules of proper behavior’, among other terms.

Confucian Context

See also: Confucianism, Li Ji

As with many other classical Chinese concepts, li does not map neatly onto any particular Western notion. While it includes elements that would definitively be termed "religious rituals" (such as ancestor worship and the various elements of the Imperial Cult catalogued in the Book of Rites), it can also be used to refer to domains as variegated as ethical norms, social etiquette, and even (in the case of Mencius) internal moral impulses. The unifying thread between these seemingly disparate notions is that they are all related in practice — li, stated simply, refers to the standards of behavior that both constrain and guide human action. Given the overarching concern with social order and ethical conduct prevalent in classical Chinese religion and philosophy, it is easy to see how this notion became entirely central to the early Confucians. However (and despite this general consensus on the idea's import), each of the classical Confucian philosophers addressed the notion differently, which necessitates examining them each in turn.

Confucius

To begin, it is helpful to recall, as Angus Graham does, that Confucius had a particularly immediate relationship with li, in that he was professionally employed as an intinerant teacher of rites and ceremonies. As Graham suggests,

It may be a mistake to think of [Confucius] as finding his message first and attracting disciples afterwards. His thought and his sense of mission are of a kind which might develop naturally from the experience of an ordinary teacher of the Songs, Documents, ceremony and music of Chou, distinguished only in that his disciples learn from him, as from an inspiring schoolmaster, much more than is on the curriculum.

In his context as an educator (and later as a religious and moral philosopher), Confucius perceived the necessity of li (here defined broadly as (exemplary models of) contextually-appropriate behavior) in promoting ethics and social harmony. Regardless of the material being studied, li (in the sense of exemplary models internalized over time) would discipline one's learning and channel it into the context where it would be most (personally, socially, and (perhaps) transcendently) beneficial:

Yan Hui said, "Could I ask what becoming authoritative [ren] entails?” The Master replied, “Do not look at anything that violates the observance of ritual propriety [li]; do not listen to anything that violates the observance of ritual propriety; do not speak about anything that violates the observance of ritual propriety; do not do anything that that violates the observance of ritual propriety" (12:1).

Likewise, he states that "Exemplary persons (junzi) learn broadly of culture, discipline this learning through observing ritual propriety (li), and moreover, in so doing, can remain on course without straying from it" (6:27).

In both cases, individual learning (in thought and practice) is seen to depend on the selection and adoption of positive models of appropriate behaviors. Intriguingly, the Confucian schema goes on to suggest that, by internalizing this style of conduct, an individual would begin to impact those around themselves, seemingly through a process ethical osmosis:

The Master said, "Deference unmediated by observing ritual propriety (li) is lethargy; caution unmediated by observing ritual propriety is timidity; boldness unmediated by observing ritual propriety is rowdiness; candor unmediated by observing ritual propriety is rudeness. Where exemplary people (junzi) are earnestly committed to their parents, the people will aspire to authoritative conduct (ren); where they do not neglect their old friends, the people will not be indifferent to each other" (8:2).

This perspective is echoed by the (perhaps apocryphal) tale of Confucius' desire to live amongst the "uncivilized" people on the fringes of the Chinese polity:

The Master wanted to go and live amongst the nine clans of the Eastern Yi Barbarians. Someone said to him, "What would you do about their crudeness?"

The Master replied, "Were an exemplary person (junzi) to live among them, what crudeness could there be?" (9:14).

In all of these cases, the key to ethical conduct and a harmonious society is the

Disciplined following of the rules and methods of ritual propriety (li) will yield social relationships that are appropriate, harmonious, and righteous (yi). This propriety is simultaneously understood on the aesthetic, moral, social, and religious levels. o A well-ordered world results when people appropriately fulfill their various roles: § “Duke Jing of Qi asked Confucius about governing effectively. Confucius replied, ‘The ruler must rule, the minister minister, the father father, and the son son.’

              ‘Excellent!’ exclaimed the Duke. ‘Indeed, if the ruler does not rule, 
            the minister not minister, the father not father, and the son not son,                             
            even if there were grain, would I get to eat of it?’ (12:11)

§ The Master said, “If those in high station cherish the observance of ritual propriety (li), the common people will be easy to deal with.” (14:41). § Someone asked Confucius, “Why are you not employed in governing?” The Master replied, “The Book of Documents says: It is all in filial conduct! Just being filial to your parents and befriending your brothers is carrying out the work of government.

                                In doing this I am employed in governing. Why must I be “employed                
                             in governing”? (2:21)

· Note the role of the classical texts in Confucius’ rebuttal -

—sage—

In Confucianism, the sage is one who, in any given situation, can integrate every piece of information in his or her surroundings and know what is appropriate for that situation. Li is what the sage uses to find that which is appropriate; it is both the means which sets the example for others, and the end which maximizes understanding, pleasure, and the greater good. In this way, the words one uses to convey respect for another, the clothes one wears to celebrate an occasion, and even the preparation of a meal find a home within the framework of li.

Later Confucians

See also: Zhu Xi, Wang Yang-ming

Li in Other Religio-Philosophical Systems

See also: Mozi, Moism, Legalism, Han Feizi, Daoism, Dao De Jing, Zhuangzi

On the other hand, the Legalist movement espoused a much more rigid framework, valuing large-scale order over individual freedom.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• de Bary, William Theodore. Sources of Chinese Tradition: Volume 1. New York: Columbia University Press, 1960. ISBN 0-231-02255-7.
• Berthrong, John. Transformations of the Confucian Way. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8133-2804-7.
• Chan, Wing-tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963. 49-83.
• Graham, A.C. Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. La Salle, IL: Open Court, 1993. ISBN 0-8126-9087-7
• Mencius. With Introduction and Translation by Bryan W. van Norden. Included in Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. New York: Seven Bridges Press, 2001. 111-155. ISBN 1889119091
• Schwartz, Benjamin I. The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-674-96190-0.
• Watson, Burton. Basic Writings of Mo Tzu, Hsün Tzu, and Han Fei Tzu. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1967.
• Watson, Burton. Xunzi: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-231-12965-3.
• Yao, Xinzhong. An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-64430-5.

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