Labor union
A Labor Union, or trade union, has been defined as an association of fair wage-earners uniting for the purpose of maintaining and improving the conditions of their employment.
Over the last three hundred years, labor unions have developed into a number of forms influenced by various political and economic regimes. Immediate objectives and activities of trade unions often vary according to industry. Despite any differences, the fundamental ideals upheld by traditional labor unions include the provision of member benefits, the right to collectively bargain, and the right to take industrial action.
Early trade unions, like Friendly Societies, provided a range of benefits to accommodate its members in times of unemployment, ill health and old age. Unions were also responsible for covering the funeral expenses of fallen members. To date, these functions have been assumed by the state, though the provision of legal advice and representation for union members is still provided. Upholding the rights of collective bargaining, trade unions maintain the rights of its members to negotiate with their employers regarding wages and working conditions. Union members are also protected when taking industrial action, such as striking or lockouts, to achieve particular goals.
Trade unions often promote political legislation favorable to the interests of their members or workers as a whole. Members may sponsor campaigns, undertake political lobbying or financially support certain parties of individual candidates for public office.
History
In the eighteenth century, much of Western society witnessed the world’s first industrial revolution and the abandonment of an agrarian culture with craft based production. The young industrial environment provided much of the momentum for the establishment and advancement of the labor union.
The start of the industrial revolution sparked a rising fear in the craftsman associations of the time, who feared encroachment on their established jobs, wage changes and workforce restructuring. The rapid expansion of the industrial society quickly drew large numbers of women, children, rural workers, and immigrants into the work force to labor for meager wages in appalling conditions. These working environments would later prove to be an important arena for change.
Early History
Trade unions have sometimes been seen as successors to the guilds of Medieval Europe, though the relationship between the two is disputed. Medieval guilds existed to enhance their members’ livelihoods through controlling the instructional capital of artisanship and the progression of their members from apprentice to craftsman, journeyman, and eventually to master and grandmaster of their craft. Guilds also facilitated mobility by providing accommodation for their members traveling in search of work. Though guilds exhibited some aspects of the modern trade union, they also exhibited aspects of professional associations and modern corporations.
Unlike modern labor unions, guilds were highly selective and offered membership to only those artisans practicing a specific trade. Today, unions seek to incorporate a broad array of laborers to increase membership numbers and union leverage as a whole.
Since the 1894 publication of Sidney and Beatrice Webb’s History of Trade Unionism, trade unions have been defined as a collection of employees working to negotiate pay rates, working conditions and member benefits. More recent theories, however, put forth the belief that trade unions are part of a broader movement to benefit society, and are listed among the likes of freemasons, friendly societies and various fraternal organizations.
Later History
In the 18th century, most countries deemed labor unions illegal and constructed severe penalties, including execution, for the attempt to organize such affiliations. Despite these measures, labor unions would succeed in forming and would acquire political powers resulting in the passage of the body of labor which legalized organizing efforts. Despite the awarding of legal stature, trade unions continued to face generations of opposition.
The right to join a trade union is contained within the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in article 23, subsection 4. This clause states that “Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests” (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948). This article also prohibits the forcing of a person to join or form such a union body. The forcing of an individual to enter into a union, whether by a government or a business, is generally considered a human rights abuse. Similar allegations can be leveled against an employer if found to be discriminating against employees based on union membership. An attempt by an employer or outside agency to prevent its employees from attaining union membership is known as union busting.
Throughout 19th century mainland Europe, socialist parties and anarchists played a prominent role in the formation and progression of trade unions. In Britain, New Model Unions would dominate the union movement. Here, trade unionism would remain stronger than the political labor movement until the early years of the twentieth century which marked the formation and growth of England’s Labor Party.
The Modern Labor Union
Structure and Politics
Unions may engage in three types of unification efforts: craft unionism, general unionism, and industrial unionism. Craft unionism is defined by the organization of a particular section of skilled workers. An organization of a cross-section of workers from various trades is known as general unionism. Attempting to organize all workers within a particular industry is defined as industrial unionism. Labor unions are often divided into branches, or locals, and are united through national federations. These federations are affiliated with internationals organizations, such as the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions.
In many countries, a union may acquire the status of a legal entity and obtain a mandate to negotiate with employers for the workers it represents. In such cases, unions are awarded certain legal entitlements that allow them the right to collectively bargain with employers regarding member wages, working hours and other conditions of employment. The inability of both parties to reach an agreement may lead to industrial action, a right granted to all recognized unions.
In other circumstances, unions may be denied the right to represent workers, or the right may be infringed. This lack of status may result if unions are failed to be officially recognized, or if the political or criminal prosecution of union activists and members is undertaken.
Unions may also engage in broader political or social struggles. Social unionism defines the many unions that use their organizational strength to advocate for social policies and legislation considered favorable for their members. In some countries, unions maintain close alliances with political parties. Labor unions are also delineated by a service model and an organizing model. The service model maintains worker rights, provides member services, and resolves union disputes. The organizing model typically involves full-time organizers, who foster confidence, build networks and promote leaders throughout the workforce. Labor organizers may also launch confrontational campaigns involving large numbers of union members and affiliates. Most labor unions are a blend of these two philosophies, and the definitions of the models themselves are often debated.
Research, such as that conducted by the Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Research and Training (ACIRRT) purports to show that unionized workers enjoy better conditions and wages than those who are not unionized.
Union leadership is usually achieved through democratic elections.
Union Operations
Companies that employ workers with a union generally operate on one of several models called shops. Within the United States, unions can operate under a closed shop or a union shop. Under a closed shop, a union will employ only those already union members and employers must recruit directly from a union pool of applicants. A union shop employs non-unions workers as well, but establishes a time limit within new hires must become union members.
An agency shop requires non-union workers to pay a fee to the union for its services in negotiating their contracts. This is sometimes referred to as the Rand formula. In certain situations regarding U.S. government employees, fair share laws make it easy to require these sorts of payments.
An open shop is a union operation that does not discriminate based on union membership. Where a union is active, an open shop will allow for workers to benefit from, but not contribute to, the labor union. In the United States, "Right to Work" laws mandate the operation of an open shop on the state level.
During the 1980’s, under Margaret Thatcher, the United Kingdom was introduced to a series of laws directing the government to restrict all closed and union shops. All agreements requiring a worker to join a union have since been deemed illegal. In 1947, the Taft-Hartley Act outlawed the operation of the closed shop union in the United States, but permits the existence of the union shop.
Labor Union Diversity
As labor laws remain diverse in different countries, so do the functions of unions. According to German labor unions, only the operation of an open shop policy is legal and all discrimination based on union membership is forbidden. German unions also play a large role in the managerial decisions and co-determination of global unions by participating in corporate boards. These conditions affect the function and service of the German labor union.
Political Diversity
Union relations with political parties will also vary. In many countries, labor unions may be closely linked to, or may even share leadership with, a political party intended to represent the interests of the working class. Often times, these parties include left-wing politicians or socialists.
In the United States, labor unions have historically aligned with the Democratic Party, though their allegiance to the party is by no means steadfast. On a number of occasions, the International Brotherhood of Teamsters has opted to support Republican candidates. In 1980, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization, or PATCO, endorsed presidential candidate Ronald Reagan, only to be later disassembled by Regan’s installation of permanent replacement workers when the organization waged a strike. To avoid the alienation of its Catholic constituency, the AFL-CIO supports a pro-life Republican position and remains vocal in its opposition to abortion.
In the United Kingdom, the relationship between the labor movement and the labor party has disintegrated over the party’s support of privatization plans, a position at odds with the movement’s perception of worker interest.
Employment Laws
Varying structures of employment laws can also affect a union’s business operations. In many western European countries, wages and benefits are largely set by a governmental body. The United States takes a more laissez-faire approach, setting a minimum standard but allowing most workers' wages and benefits to be decided through collective bargaining and market forces. The Republic of Korea has historically regulated collective bargaining by requiring employers to participate in bargaining practices. However, collective bargaining is only legally recognized if the sessions are held before the lunar new year. Under totalitarian regimes, such as Nazi-Germany and the Soviet Union, labor unions have typically been controlled by de facto government agencies, devoted to the smooth and efficient operation of enterprises.
International Operations
Labor unions also engage in international operations. Such organizations include the World Confederation of Labor and the World Federation of Trade Unions. The world’s largest international organization, the Brussels-based International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, encompasses an estimated 231 affiliated organizations throughout more than 150 countries and territories, and has a combined membership of 158 million.
National and regional trade unions organizing in specific industry sectors or occupational groups have also formed global union federations, such as Union Network International and the International Federation of Journalists.
National and regional trade unions organizing in specific industry sectors or occupational groups also formed global union federations, such as the Union Network International and the International Federation of Journalists. Various labor union operations of South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States are briefly detailed below.
South Africa
The history of South African trade unions dates back to the 1880’s. At this time, unions were viewed as a reflection of national racial disunity, as the earliest unions were established for only white workers. Through the turbulent years of apartheid, trade unions played an important part in developing political and economic resistance, and were a driving force in the establishment of a South African democratic government.
To date, trade unions continue to represent an important force in South Africa, encompassing a quarter of the general work force represented by 3.1 million members. The Congress of South African Trade Unions, or COSATU, is the largest of the three major trade unions with a membership of 1.8 million. COSATU is part of the Tripartite alliance with the ruling African National Congress, or ANC, and the South African Communist Party, or SACP.
The United Kingdom
British labor unions were often subject to severe repression until the mid nineteenth century, but continued to exist throughout the city of London. During this period, workplace militancy often erupted, as in the 1820 rising in Scotland where 60,000 workers attempted a general strike. In 1834 a significant attempt to set up a national labor union came in the form of Robert Owen's Grand National Consolidated Trades Union which attracted a range of socialists and revolutionaries. Facing pressures, the organization would later collapse.
In the 1840s, trade unionism was overshadowed by political activities of British parliament, though the establishment of less radical trade unions would take hold in the 1850s. In 1860, the London Trades Council was founded, followed by the establishment of a Royal Commission on Trade Unions in 1867 and the Trades Union Congress in 1868. Three years later, legal status would be awarded to British trade unions under the 1871 Trade Union Act.
During this period, the strongest trade unions were comprised of skilled workers and included the Amalgamated Society of Engineers. Trade unionism among unskilled workers would make little progress until the emergence of the New Unions in the late 1880s. Unions played a prominent role in the creation of the Labor Representation Committee which would effectively form the basis for Britain’s modern Labour Party.
Trade union membership would increase throughout years of industrial unrest and the World War I, resulting in a widespread recognition of unions an increase in management operations.
The United States
To date, labor unions in the United States function as a legally recognized representative of workers in varying industries. Recent years, however, have seen an increase in participation among the service sector and the public sector of U.S. labor unions. Activity by labor unions in the United States is often centered around collective bargaining rights, employee benefits, and working conditions. Unions have also focused on the representation of their members in violations of contract provisions by employee management. American unions have also remained an important political factor through the mobilization of their memberships and affiliations with like-minded activist organizations. Main political agendas include immigrant rights, trade policies, health care, and living wage campaigns.
Historically, US labor unions have been infiltrated by members of organized crime, such as the Mafia. As early as the 1920s, organized crime had been active in some Teamster locals and in the New York City garment industry. Teamster Jimmy Hoffa and other union leaders made strategic alliances with organized crime that benefited both the Mafia and its associates. In turn, union leaders would receive kickbacks and other forms of financial assistance.
Recent changes to the US labor movement has have included the departure of five major unions led by the Service Employees International Union from the AFL-CIO and into the Change to Win Federation. The face of the US labor movement is also changing. The twentieth century has shown women to make up the majority of new workers, and union growth has been significantly higher among workers of color and immigrant workers than among white male workers.
Other Countries
Some Nordic countries including Belgium, Sweden and Finland have strong, centralized labor unions, where each industry represented has a specific union and together comprises a national union confederation. There are at least two national union confederations, one for an academically educated branch and second branch of lower education. The largest Swedish union confederation is Landsorganisationen, or LO, and has approximately two million members totaling more than a fifth of Sweden's population. Finland's equivalent, the Central Organization of Finnish Trade Unions, or SAK, has about one million members out of a total country population of 5.2 million.
France is thought to have one of the lowest union densities within Europe, encompassing an estimated 10% of workers. Several unions can be represented inside large companies or administrations with one from each of the main national confederation of unions. Union membership tends to be concentrated in specific areas, including the public sector.
Australia’s labor movement has a long history of craft, trade and industrial unionism. As of 2005, however, union numbers have declined due in part to the actions of Australian politicians and the effects of liberal governments which introduced the 1996 Workplace Relations Act.
Impact of Unions
Union movements worldwide have considerably improved working conditions for migrant workers. In the United States, united farm workers led successful boycotts and strikes against grower employers, including wine-grape growers. Labor unions have also been particularly important for vulnerable populations and individuals most likely to suffer from labor-market discrimination. On average, women in Britain earn 20% less than men for the same work. Women who are union members, however, earn 24% more than those who are not.
The labor movement is credited with bringing an end to practices of child labor, improving worker safety, and increasing employee wages. These organizations are also believed to have raised the social standards of living by reducing the number of hours in a work week and establishing public education for children. Worldwide, labor unions pride themselves with the protection and advancement of the working middle class.
Labor unions have been shown to suffer throughout times of national economic instability, with increases in unemployment, lower wages, and deteriorated living conditions. Unions have also faced international hardships at the hands of globalization and industrial progression. Scarcities of good-paying manufacturing jobs and the minimization of assembly lines have lessened the abilities of labor unions to significantly impact the labor market, leaving members more concerned about job security than higher wages. To date, unions often seek a greater cooperation in labor-management to regain the power to allocate jobs within the labor market.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Clarke, T. & Clements, L. 1978 Trade Unions under Capitalism Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. ISBN 0391007289
- Legal Encyclopedia. 2006. Labor Union. Encyclopedia of American Law. The Gale Group, Inc.
External links
- European Industrial Relations Observatory
- Trade Union Ancestors UK
- British Union Movement
- Preston & South Ribble Trades Union Council
- US Labor Rights
- Union Economics
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